THE 

•  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS 

AND 

HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


A  MANUAL  OF  METHODS  WHICH  HAVE 
YIELDED  GREATEST  SUCCESS,  WITH  THE 
LISTS  OF  VARIETIES  BEST  ADAPTED  TO 
THE  DIFFERENT  DISTRICTS  OF  THE  STATS 


By       / 

EDWARD  J.  W1CKSON 

Professor  of  Horticulture  Emeritus  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of 
California;  Author  of  "California  Vegetables  in  Garden  and  Field,"  "California  Garden 
Flowers,  Shrubs,  Trees  and  Vines,"  One  Thousand  Questions  in  California  Agriculture 
Answered,"  and  "Second  Thousand  Questions  in  California  Agriculture  Answered"; 
Editor  of  Pacific  Rural  Press. 


The  branch  here  bends  beneath  the  weighty  pear, 
And  verdant  olives  flourish  round  the  year; 
The  balmy  Spirit  of  the  Western  gale 
Eternal  breathes  on  fruits  untaught  to  fail; 
Each  dropping  pear  a  following  pear  supplies. 
On  apples,  apples;  figs  on  figs  arise. 
The  same  mild  season  gives  the  blooms  to  blow, 
The  buds  to  harden,  and  the  fruits  to  grow. 

—Pope's  Horn.  Odys.  Bk.  VII. 


NINTH  EDITION— Fully  Revised 


SAN  FRANCISCO 

PACIFIC  RURAL  PfcESS 

NINETEEN  HUNDRED  AND  TWENTY-ONE 


Copyright,  1921, 

By  E.  J.  Wickson  and  Pacific  Rural  Press. 
Published,  October,  1921. 


ABBOTT-BRADY  PRINTING  CORPORATION 
SAN  FRANCISCO 


PREFACE 

The  Eighth  Edition  of  this  treatise  outstripped  its  im- 
mediate predecessors  in  meeting  a  public  demand  which 
covered  the  available  supply  much  sooner  than  antici- 
pated. Because  of  the  desirability  of  keeping  the  work 
abreast  of  the  progress  of  a  constantly  changing  and 
developing  industry,  the  publishers  have  assumed  the 
burden  of  resetting  the  type  for  each  edition,  resisting 
the  temptation  of  greater  profit  which  would  attend  re- 
printing from  plates  with  minimum  revision.  There- 
fore this  edition  is  wholly  set  anew — the  ninth  op- 
portunity for  free  revision  which  the  writer  has  enjoyed 
during  the  publication  of  the  work,  which  has  reached  a 
total  of  twenty-five  thousand  copies  since  the  appearance 
of  the  first  edition  in  1889. 

Of  the  quality  of  the  book,  it  does  not  become  the  writer 
to  speak,  but  he  may  express  his  satisfaction  at  its  popu- 
larity. Its  circulation  may  be  cited  as  a  testimonial  of  its 
suitability  for  service  in  the  building  up  of  the  fruit  in- 
dustries, and  the  demand  for  it  may  be  regarded  as  rather 
unique,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  book  deals  exclu- 
sively with  the  fruit  growing  of  a  single  State  which  is 
only  one,  although  it  be  the  greatest,  of  the  agricultural 
interests  of  that  State.  The  demand  for  the  book  is  an 
exponent  of  the  continued  activity  in  California  fruit 
planting,  and  its  sale  abroad  indicates  the  fact  that  the 
outside  world  is  watching  California's  fruit  development, 
and  desires  to  know  the  methods  by  which  a  product 
which  brought  to  growers  a  return  of  $236,955,000  in 
1920 — a  figure,  of  course,  much  below  its  commercial 
valuation. 

The  writer  repeats  the  request  which  he  has  made  in 
earlier  editions  that  all  readers  whose  observation  and 
work  teach  them  any  better  way  than  he  has  described  in 
this  book  shall  share  with  him  the  advantages  of  such 
greater  wisdom. 

EDWARD  J.  WICKSON. 

University  of  California, 

Berkeley,  September,  1921. 


4G9831 


CONTENTS 

PART  ONE:    GENERAL 

Chapter 

I    The  Climate  of  California  and  Its  Modifications. 
II    Why  the  California  Climate  Favors  the  Growth  of  Fruit. 

III  The  Fruit  Soils  of  California. 

IV  The  Wild. Fruits  of  California. 
V    The  California  Mission  Fruits. 

VI    California's  Leadership  in  American  Fruit  Industries. 


PART  TWO!      CULTURE 

VII  Clearing  the  Land  for  Fruit. 

VIII  The  Nursery. 

IX  Budding  and  Grafting. 

X  Preparation  for   Planting. 

XI  Planting  of  Trees. 

XII  Pruning  Trees  and  Thinning  Fruit. 

XIII  Cultivation. 

XIV  Fertilizers  for  Trees  and  Vines. 
XV  Irrigation  of  Fruit  Trees  and  Vines. 


PART  THREE:    ORCHARD  FRUITS 

XVI  Commercial  Fruit  Varieties. 

XVII  The  Apple. 

XVIII  The  Apricot. 

XIX  The  Cherry. 

XX  The  Peach. 

XXI  The  Nectarine. 

XXII  The  Pear. 

XXIII  Plums  and  Prunes. 

XXIV  The  Quince. 


PART  FOUR :     THE  GRAPE 
Chapter 

XXV  The  Grape  Industry. 

XXVI  Propagating  and  Planting  Vines. 

XXVII  Pruning  and  Care  of  the  Vine. 

XXVIII  Grape  Varieties  in  California. 


PART  FIVE  I      SEMI-TROPICAL  FRUITS 

XXIX  The  Avocado. 

XXX  The  Date. 

XXXI  The  Fig. 

XXXII  The  Olive. 

XXXIII  The  Orange. 

XXXIV  The  Pomelo  or  Grape  Fruit. 
XXXV  The  Lemon. 

XXXVI    Minor  Semi-Tropical  Fruits. 

PART  SIX:      SMALL  FRUITS 

XXXVII    Berries  and  Currants. 


PART  SEVEN  I      NUTS 

XXXVIII    The  Almond. 
XXXIX    The  Walnut 
XL    Minor  Nuts. 


PART  EIGHT  '.      FRUIT  PRESERVATION 

XLI    Fruit  Canning,  Crystallizing  and  Drying. 

PART  NINE  I      FRUIT  PROTECTION 

XLII  Injurious  Insects. 

s>  XLIII  Diseases  of  Trees  and  Vines. 

XLIV  Suppression  of  Injurious  Animals  and  Birds. 

XLV  Protection  from  Wind  and  Frost. 

PART  TEN  :      MISCELLANEOUS 

XLVI    Utilization  of  Fruit  Wastes. 
Topical  Index. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS 


PART  ONE:     GENERAL 


CHAPTER   I 

THE  CLIMATE  OF  CALIFORNIA  AND  ITS  LOCAL 
MODIFICATIONS 

In  climatic  conditions  affecting1  horticulture  we  have  in  Cali- 
fornia almost  an  epitome  of  all  other  parts  of  the  United  States, 
with  added  climatic  characters  which  no  other  part  possesses.  We 
have  high  mountain  valleys  with  wintry  temperature-conditions, 
where  only  hardy  northern  fruits  can  be  grown ;  we  have  hot  valleys 
where  the  date  palm  confidently  lifts  its  head  to  the  fiery  sunshine, 
while  its  feet  are  deeply  planted  in  moist  substrata  beneath  the 
sandy  surface ;  but  we  can  not  claim  tropical  conditions,  because  our 
dry  air  denies  us  many  strictly  tropical  growths,  although  we  have 
frostless  sites  for  them.  Intermediate  between  the  cold  and  snow 
of  the  mountains  and  the  heat  and  sand  of  the  desert,  we  have  every 
describable  modification  and  gradation,  and,  naturally,  it  is  between 
these  extremes  that  our  richest  inheritance  of  horticultural  adapta- 
tion lies. 

When  the  breadth  and  scope  of  our  horticultural  adaptations 
are  realized,  it  becomes  apparent  that  an  enumeration  of  the  fruits 
we  can  grow  successfully  would  be,  in  fact,  a  catalogue  of  the 
known  fruits  of  the  world,  except  those  which  are  strictly  tropical. 
Wherever  there  is  a  northern  or  southern  departure  from  the 
equator  sufficient  to  bring  energy  to  mankind,  or  where  the  same 
is  accomplished  by  elevation  upon  tropical  mountainside  or  plateau, 
there  also  are  fruits  which  find  a  welcoming  home  in  California, 
and  are  improved  by  the  intelligent  cultivation  and  selection  which 
here  prevail.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  abundantly  demon- 
strated, during  recent  years,  by  official  awards  at  great  exhibitions 


:  ItJ  •!'.'**'  i '  '       *  CALIFpRNI A  FRUITS :    HOW '  TO  GROW  THEM 

and  by  the  sharp  criteria  of  the  markets  as  well,  that  the  fruits  of 
wintry  regions  are  quite  as  much  benefited  by  transfer  to  proper 
locations  in  California  as  are  the  people  who  come  to  grow  them. 
From  north  and  south  alike,  then,  California  makes  grand  acquisi- 
tions and  includes  within  her  area  the  adaptations  of  the  whole 
country,  with  some  which  no  other  State  possesses. 

But  while  this  horticultural  scope  is  claimed  for  the  State  as  a 
whole,  it  is  necessary  to  add  that  local  adaptations  within  the  State 
must  be  very  narrowly  drawn.  Our  greatest  failures  have  followed 
ill  choice  of  location  for  the  purpose  intended.  Whenever  certain 
California  fruits  have  been  ill  spoken  of,  they  have  been  produced 
in  the  wrong  places,  or  by  ill-advised  methods.  It  is  possible,  then, 
to  produce  both  poor  and  perfect  fruit  of  a  given  kind.  It  may  be 
said  this  can  be  done  anywhere  by  the  extremes  of  culture  and  neg- 
lect, but  to  this  proposition  it  must  be  added  that  in  California 
equally  excellent  methods  and  care  may  produce  perfection  in  one 
place  and  the  opposite  in  another.  One  who  seeks  to  know  Cali- 
fornia well  must  undertake  to  master  both  its  horticultural  greatness 
and  littleness ;  and  so  closely  are  these  associated,  and  so  narrow  the 
belts  of  special  adaptations,  that  there  are  many  counties  which  have 
a  range  of  products  nearly  as  great  as  the  State  itself. 

It  is  hard  for  the  stranger  to  realize  this.  It  is  difficult  for  him 
to  believe  that  the  terms  "northern"  and  "southern"  have  almost 
no  horticultural  significance  in  California ;  that  northern  fruits  reach 
perfection,  under  proper  conditions,  at  the  south,  and  vice  versa; 
that  some  regions  of  greatest  rainfall  have  to  irrigate  most  fre- 
quently ;  that  some  of  greatest  heat  have  sharpest  valley  frosts ;  that 
some  fruits  can  be  successfully  grown  through  a  north  and  south 
distance  of  300  miles,  but  can  not  be  successfully  carried  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  of  either  less  or  greater  elevation ;  that  on  the  same  parallel 
of  latitude  within  a  hundred  miles  of  distance,  from  coast  to  moun- 
tainside, one  can  continuously  gather  marketable  Bartlett  pears 
for  three  months — not  to  mention  the  second  crop,  from  belated 
blossoms,  which  is  often  of  account  on  the  same  trees  in  the  same 
season. 

Through  the  multitude  of  local  observations,  which  seem  per- 
plexing and  almost  contradictory,  it  is  possible  to  clearly  discern 
certain  general  conditions,  of  both  nature  and  culture,  which  may 
be  briefly  advanced  as  characteristically  and  distinctively  Cali- 
fornian. 

The  climate  of  the  Pacific  Coast  is  described  by  the  meteorologist 
as  "insular  or  moderate,"  as  contrasted  with  the  "continental  or 
excessive"  climate  of  the  regions  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The 
west  coast  of  Europe  is  also  insular  in  its  climate.  The  northern 
limit  of  an  annual  mean  temperature  of  50,  degrees  Fahr.  is  50  de- 
grees and  47  degrees  of  north  latitude  on  western  coasts  of  Europe 
and  America  respectively.  But  though  there  is  this  similarity  in 
mean  annual  temperature,  there  is  a  decided  advantage  pertaining  to 
our  climate  over  that  of  west  Europe  in  that  our  range  of  temper- 
ature is  less ;  that  is,  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  nearer  together, 
and  changes  are  therefore  much  less  excessive.  This  characteristic 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE 


11 


of  our  local  climates  is  due  in  the  main  to  two  great  agencies,  one 
active,  bringing  heat,  the  other  passive,  shielding  us  from  arctic 
influences. 

First :  Our  proximity  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Professor  Alexander 
G.  McAdie,  for  twenty  years  in  charge  of  the  San  Francisco  office  of 
the  Unted  States  Weather  Bureau,  and  now  Professor  of  Meteor- 
ology at  Harvard  University,  says  of  the  mildness  of  the  California 
climate :  "The  Pacific  Ocean  is  a  great  natural  conservator  of  heat, 
the  mean  annual  temperature  of  which  near  the  California  Coast 
ranges  from  50  degrees  to  60  degrees  F.  The  strength  of  the  west- 
erly winds  which  prevail  on  the  California  Coast  for  more  than  half 
the  days  of  the  year  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  whole  drift  of  the 
atmosphere  is  prevailingly  from  the  west  to  east.  The  climate  of 
west  coasts  is  consequently  less  severe  than  the  climate  of  east 
coasts."* 

Second :  Another  agency  contributing  to  the  mild  climate  of  the 
Pacific  Coast  consists  in  the  mountain  barriers  upon  our  northern 
and  eastern  boundaries.  It  was  Guyot  who  first  called  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascade  Mountains  reach 
the  coast  of  Alaska  and  bend  like  a  great  arm  around  its  western 
and  southern  shore,  thus  shutting  off  or  deflecting  the  polar  winds 
that  otherwise  would  flow  down  over  the  Pacific  Coast  States,  while 
California  has  her  own  additional  protection  from  the  north  in  the 
mountain  arch  which  has  its  keystone  in  Mount  Shasta. 


CHIEF  TOPOGRAPHICAL  AND  CLIMATIC  DIVISIONS  OF 

CALIFORNIA 

California  is  usually  divided  into  three  main  areas  and  climates, 
each  distinct  in  typical  conditions  and  yet  separated  by  regions, 
more  or  less  wide,  in  which  these  conditions  merge  and  influence 
each  other.  Dr.  Robertson  says  :f 

Isothermal  lines  which  normally  run  east  and  west  are,  as  they  near  the 
Pacific,  deflected  north  and  south,  and  define  three  distinct  climatic  belts. 
These  may  be  named  coast,  valley  and  mountain;  and  while  they  resemble 
each  other  in  having  two  seasons,  they  are  dissimilar  in  other  respects. 
These  differences  depend  upon  the  topography  of  the  country,  and  are  of 
degree  rather  than  of  kind;  altitude,  distance  from  the  ocean,  and  situation 
with  reference  to  mountain  chains,  giving  to  each  region  its  characteristic 
climate. 

How  similar  are  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  these  belts  may 
be  learned  from  the  data  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  in- 
cludes points  separated  by  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  State,  the 
difference  in  latitude  of  the  extreme  north  and  south  points  being 
seven  or  eight  degrees.  Thus,  through  a  north  or  south  distance 
great  as  that  which  separates  the  States  of  Georgia  and  New  York, 
similar  climatic  conditions  prevail  in  California.  In  the  following 

*"The  Rainfall  of  California,"  University  of  California  Publications  in  Geography,  1914. 
tReport  of   State  Agricultural  Society,   1886,  page  322. 


12  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

table  the  averages  are  deduced  from  observations  by  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  observers  for  a  long  series  of  years : 

Seasonable  and  extreme  temperatures  and  average  rainfall  in  various  Cali- 
fornia regions  from  the  records  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  from 
beginning    of   observations    to    the   close   of    1920. 


So; 


£ 

.1  3 

s  £ 

C  3 

3 

c 

3 

P 

STATIONS                  COUNTY 

G 
I 

^ 

D  qj 
t>0  £L 
CS   g 

w  rt 

£& 

c 

§oa 

4 

8 

si 

«i 
ll 

*Sj  v 

^  i> 

C  c$ 

M 

<J 

•< 

<j 

< 

K 

3 

< 

COAST— 

Eureka  Humboldt  

64 

47 

50 

56 

54 

51 

85 

20 

46.0 

San  Francisco  .San  Francisco.. 

...  155 

51 

55 

59 

59 

55 

101 

29 

22.3 

San   Jose  Santa  Clara  

...    95 

50 

57 

67 

60 

58 

108 

18 

16.8 

King    City.  ...  Monterey  

..  333 

49 

57 

66 

60 

58 

116 

14 

11.4 

Santa   Barbara  Santa   Barbara.. 

..   130 

55 

58 

65 

63 

60 

108 

29 

18.1 

Los  Angeles..  Los  Angeles.... 

....  293 

55 

60 

70 

65 

62 

109 

28 

15.6 

San   Diego....  San    Diego  

...    87 

55 

59 

68 

63 

61 

101 

32 

10.0 

VALLEY— 

Redding  Shasta  

.   552 

47 

60 

80 

64 

63 

112 

18 

38.7 

Sacramento.  .  .  Sacramento  

..      71 

47 

59 

72 

62 

60 

110 

19 

20.1 

Merced  Merced  

.  .  .  173 

49 

61 

79 

65 

63 

116 

16 

10.8 

Fresno  Fresno  

.  .  .  293 

47 

60 

79 

64 

63 

115 

20 

9.7 

..    334 

46 

59 

78 

62 

61 

114 

13 

10.4 

FOOTHILL  AND  MESA— 

Auburn  Placer  

.  .  1360 

47 

57 

75 

64 

61 

110 

12 

33.9 

Redlands  San  Bernardino. 

.  .  1352 

52 

61 

77 

65 

63 

114 

25 

14.9 

LOCATIONS  FOR  THE  GROWTH  OF  DIFFERENT 

FRUITS 

It  is  intended  to  describe  as  definitely  as  possible  the  locations 
suitable  for  the  growth  of  different  fruits  in  the  special  chapters 
given  to  those  fruits,  but  there  are  a  few  general  conditions  which 
should  be  outlined. 

In  discussing  the  choice  of  location  for  an  orchard  it  is  not 
intended  to  speak  geographically.  As  has  already  been  intimated, 
latitude,  which  is  a  prime  factor  in  geography,  is  of  exceedingly- 
small  account  as  an  indication  of  horticultural  adaptations  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  fact  becomes  strikingly  apparent  when  it  is  known  that 
the  apple  and  the  orange,  fruit  kings  whose  kingdoms  lie  at  opposite 
borders  of  the  temperate  zone,  so  far  distant  that  one  may  be  called 
semi-frigid  and  the  other  semi-tropical,  have  in  California  utter  dis- 
regard for  the  parallels  of  latitude,  which  set  metes  and  bounds  upon 
them  in  other  lands,  and  flourish  side  by  side,  in  suitable  localities, 
from  San  Diego  to  Shasta.  Impressive  as  this  truth  may  be,  it  is 
not  so  startling  as  another  fact,  viz.,  that  fruits,  in  suitable  interior 
situations,  ripen  earlier  at  the  north  than  in  coast  valleys  at  the 
south.  Perhaps  the  first  practical  demonstration  of  this  fact  was 
by  G.  G.  Briggs  who  went  from  Marysville  to  Ventura  in  1861 
thinking  to  get  earlier  fruits  for  San  Francisco  market,  as  it  was 


CALIFORNIA  COAST  CLIMATES  13 

so  much  farther  south,  and  misseJ  his  calculation  because  they 
ripened  later  there  than  on  his  old  place  in  the  Sacramento  valley. 

"That  almost  any  extreme  of  weather,"  says  Professor  McAdie 
in  his  publication  just  cited,  "can  be  found  within  the  limits  of  Cali- 
fornia is  readily  comprehensible  when  it  is  considered  that  the  state 
is  800  miles  in  length,  contains  a  hundred  million  acres,  and  varies 
from  deserts  as  much  280  feet  below  the  sea  to  Shasta  14,380  feet,  or 
the  High  Sierra,  where  66  peaks  exceed  10,000  feet  in  height,  while 
40  exceed  13,000  feet,  and  Mount  Whitney  rises  to  14,502  feet." 

It  is  apparent,  then,  in  view  of  such  diverity,  that  the  selection  of 
locations  for  orchards  must  be  made  with  a  knowledge  of  special 
conditions  governing  the  distribution  of  equal  temperatures  and 
other  natural  agencies  contributing  to  the  development  of  fruit. 
This  distribution,  as  has  been  intimated,  is  not  by  parallels  of  lati- 
tude, great  circles  which  appear  as  straight  lines  on  a  map,  but  by 
curves,  which  proceed  in  various  directions,  governed  chiefly  by 
topography.  These  are  curves  of  temperature,  of  rainfall,  of  eleva- 
tion, of  soil  formation  and  deposit.  Geography  must  be  interpreted 
by  topography  and  climatography. 

Let  these  ruling  conditions  be  reviewed,  then,  briefly :  First,  as 
to  general  areas;  second,  with  reference  to  special  situations  and 
locations. 

COAST  CLIMATE 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  coast  are  equable  temperature, 
increasing  southward;  summers  cool  and  winters  warm,  as  com- 
pared with  the  interior;  abundant  rainfall,  decreasing  considerably 
southward ;  a  somewhat  humid  atmosphere,  as  compared  with  the 
interior ;  frequent  fogs  or  overcast  skies ;  prevailing  westerly  winds. 

The  extension  of  coast  influence  toward  the  interior  is  governed 
by  local  topography.  Coast  valleys  open  to  ocean  winds  are  cooler 
and  moister  and  demand  hardier  fruits  than  valleys  sheltered  by 
intervening  ranges.  Gaps  and  passes  in  the  ranges  are  subject  to 
winds  of  considerable  force  and  low  temperature,  and  are  not  gener- 
ally favorable  for  fruit;  on  the  other  hand,  situations  sheltered  on 
the  north  and  west  favor  growth  of  fruits  even  though  quite  near 
the  coast.  Sometimes  a  distance  of  a  few  miles,  sometimes  a  wind- 
break or  natural  forest,  or  of  planted  trees,  so  modifies  coast  in- 
fluences that  fruits  do  well.  Elevation  on  the  sides  of  coast  valleys 
secures  similar  results.  For  example,  the  floor  of  the  Pajaro  Valley 
is  well  suited  for  apples,  late  pears,  cherries,  plums,  prunes,  and 
berries  (except  gooseberries),  while  on  adjacent  hillsides  peaches 
do  well. 

In  Southern  California,  coast  winds  are  warmer  than  in  the  upper 
half  of  the  State,  but  coast  influences  intrude  farther,  as  a  rule, 
because  the  hills  near  the  coast  in  Southern  California  are  low ;  the 
high  ranges,  answering  to  the  Coast  Range  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
State,  trending  far  into  the  interior.  On  the  coast  side  of  these 
r&nges  fruits  ripen  later  than  in  sheltered  interior  points  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  State,  but  eastward  of  the  mountains,  where  soil 


14  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

and  moisture  favor,  or  irrigation  is  practised,  extra  early  locations 
have  been  found  and  are  now  being  rapidly  developed — in  the  Im- 
perial and  adjacent  valleys,  for  instance. 

Some  of  the  horticultural  effects  of  the  conditions  prevailing  on 
the  coast  may  be  described  as  follows : 

Late  Ripening  of  Fruits. — The  late  ripening  of  fruits  west  of  the 
mountains  in  Southern  California  has  just  been  mentioned.  Intru- 
sion of  coast  influences  has  the  same  effect  in  more  marked  degree 
at  the  north  because  the  ocean  winds  are  colder.  Directly  on  the 
coast,  at  Pescadero,  San  Mateo  County,  for  example,  fruits  ripen 
about  a  month  later  than  in  Santa  Clara  Valley,  which  is  just  across 
the  Coast  Range.  Napa  Valley,  though  about  forty  miles  inland 
and  sheltered  by  ranges  of  hills,  still  is  sufficiently  affected  by  the 
coast  influences  to  mature  fruits  considerably  later  than  Vaca 
Valley,  ten  or  fifteen  miles  further  east,  beyond  a  higher  range, 
which  completely  bars  out  these  influences.  Similar  local  effects 
are  found  in  Southern  California.  For  instance,  in  Ventura  County, 
in  a  canyon  sixteen  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  at  an  elevation  of  six- 
teen hundred  feet,  fruits  ripen  three  weeks  earlier  than  on  the  coast 
or  in  the  valleys  opening  thereon. 

Failure  of  Certain  Fruits. — Though  killing  frosts  are  few  directly 
on  the  coast,  the  deficiency  in  summer  heat  and  sunshine  renders 
some  fruits  unsatisfactory.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  upper 
coast  region.  Grapes  and  figs  ripen  imperfectly,  while  but  a  short 
distance  back  from  the  coast,  in  situations  sheltered  by  ridges 
parallel  to  the  coast,  they  do  well.  Elevation  sometimes  produces 
corresponding  effects. 

Pest  and  Diseases. — Certain  blights  are  more  prevalent  under 
coast  conditions.  The  scab  blight  of  the  apple,  the  curl-leaf  of  the 
peach,  and  some  other  blights,  are  prevalent  on  the  coast  and  in 
coast  valleys,  on  the  river  bottoms  in  the  interior,  and  on  the  moun- 
tains, and  less  serious,  or  wholly  absent,  in  the  hot  interior  valleys. 
Some  insects  prefer  the  coast  but  thrive  also  in  the  interior,  as  hot 
dry  wind  is  excluded  by  dense  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  included 
air  becomes  moister  above  irrigated  soil.  A  notable  instance  is  the 
black  scale,  which,  with  the  black  smut  which  attends  it,  has  long" 
been  a  grievous  pest  of  growers  of  olives  and  citrus  fruits,  and  has 
recently  became  prevalent  on  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  some  regions. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  face  of  ocean  winds  the  codlin  moth  seems 
to  have  less  chance  to  fill  pears  and  apples  with  her  destructive 
offspring  than  she  ejoys  in  interior  valleys  and  mountain  regions. 
Directly  under  coast  influences,  moss  and  lichens  gather  quickly 
and  should  be  removed.  Spraying  with  alkaline  washes  not  only 
kills  insects  but  cleans  the  bark  from  parasitic  vegetable  growth. 
Although  fruit  trees  on  the  coast  are  not  so  subject  to  sunburn  as 
in  the  interior,  there  is  especial  value  in  low  heading  to  withstand 
winds;  there  should  also  be  plenty  of  room  given  the  trees,  that 
sunshine  may  have  free  access  to  warm  the  ground  all  around  the 
tree,  which  may  be  undesirable  in  the  interior. 


INTERIOR  CLIMATES  OF  CALIFORNIA  }5 

VALLEY  CLIMATE 

The  characteristics  of  the  interior  valley  climate  are  higher 
summer  and  lower  winter  temperatures  than  on  the  coast,  the  range 
of  temperature  being  nearly  the  same  both  north  and  south ;  rain- 
fall abundant  in  the  north  and  decreasing  rapidly  southward,  so  that 
as  a  rule  the  interior  valleys  in  the  south  half  of  the  State  require 
irrigation ;  very  dry  air  and  almost  constant  sunshine,  freedom  from 
fogs  and  from  dew  in  summertime ;  winds  occasionally  strong,  hot, 
and  desiccating  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter. 

Local  Modifications. — The  term  "valley  climate"  is  broad,  and 
includes  everything  away  from  the  coast  to  a  certain  elevation  on 
the  slope  of  the  mountains.  Certain  small  valleys  protected  from 
cold  northerly  winds  and  from  fog-bearing  westerly  winds  and  open 
to  the  spring  sunshine,  have  a  forcing  climate  which  produces  the 
earliest  maturing  fruit  of  the  season ;  earlier  not  only  than  the  coast 
and  the  mountain,  as  has  been  stated,  but  also  somewhat  earlier  than 
adjacent  locations  in  the  broad,  open  valley.  Slight  elevation,  even 
on  the  sides  of  small  valleys,  frequently  secures  freedom  from  winter 
frosts  and  ministers  to  early  ripening.  Elevation  above  sea-level  on 
the  rims  of  great  valleys  also  secures  similar  results  and  gives  rise 
to  thermal  belts  in  which  semi-tropical  fruits  are  successfully  grow- 
ing even  as  far  north  as  Shasta  County.  On  the  floors  of  great 
valleys  moderating  influences  are  secured  on  the  lee  side  of  wide 
rivers  and  by  planting  on  the  river  bank  or  on  slightly  elevated 
swells  rather  than  on  the  level,  open  plain.  The  river  bottom  lands 
of  the  great  valleys,  though  subject  to  severe  frosts,  are  freer  from 
the  effects  of  desiccating  winds  than  the  open  plains ;  they  are,  how- 
ever, more  favorable  to  the  spread  of  certain  blights  than  the  plains. 

Some  of  the  horticultural  effects  of  valley  conditions  are  as  fol- 
lows :  Early  ripening  and  perfection  of  summer  and  autumn  fruits, 
owing  to  continual  sunshine  and  dry  air ;  forced  maturity  of  certain 
fruits,  as  apples  for  instance,  which  destroys  character  and  keeping 
quality ;  injury  from  sunburn  and  hot  winds  in  summer,  which  seri- 
ously affect  both  fruit  and  foliage  of  some  varieties ;  occasional 
injury  to  tender  fruits  (semi-tropicals)  and  to  young  trees  of  hardy 
fruits,  which  have  been  kept  growing  late  in  the  season,  from  low 
temperature,  which  sometimes  is  reached  suddenly  on  the  floor  of 
the  valleys ;  freedom  from  some  blights  and  insects  which  are  pre- 
valent on  the  coast,  but  not  from  others.  Many  of  these  minor 
troubles  are,  however,  counterbalanced  by  the  earliness,  size,  beauty, 
and  quality  of  certain  fruits,  and  by  the  most  rapid  and  successful 
open-air  drying  of  fruits,  owing  to  high  autumn  temperature,  the 
freedom  from  summer  fog,  dew  and  generally  from  rain  during  the 
drying  season. 

FOOTHILL  CLIMATE 

Foothill  climate  is  usulaly  considered  as  a  modification  of  valley 
climate.  It  has  been  shown  that  up  to  about  two  thousand  five 
hundred  feet,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  seasonal 


}6  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

temperatures  are  quite  like  those  of  the  valley,  but  the  fainfall  in- 
creases about  one  inch  for  each  hundred  feet  of  elevation.  There 
are,  however,  in  the  foothills,  places  where  early  spring  heat  and 
freedom  from  frost  give  very  early  ripening  fruits,  and  other  places 
at  the  same  elevation  where  winter  temperature  drops  below  the 
valley  minimum,  and  where  late  frosts  also  prevail.  This  is  gov- 
erned by  local  topography.  In  many  of  the  small  valleys  among  the 
foothills,  both  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast  ranges,  frosts  are 
more  severe  than  on  the  hills  adjacent  or  in  the  broader  valleys  to 
which  they  are  tributary.  These  small  "protected  valleys"  are 
apparently  warm  and  cozy  for  early  blooming  deciduous  and  citrus 
fruits,  but  they  are  really  very  dangerous.  They  frequently  have 
such  narrow  and  obstructed  openings  that  cold  air  is  dammed  up 
over  their  lower  lands  and  frosts  are  more  severe  and  later  than  in 
valleys  which  have  ample  and  free  outlets  and  seem  less  protected. 
Of  course  the  disposition  of  cold  air  to  settle  in  low  places  and 
to  flow  down  canyons  and  creek-beds  while  the  warm  air  rises  and 
bathes  the  adjacent  hillsides,  has  much  to  do  with  the  frost  in  the 
hollow  and  the  freedom  from  it  on  the  hills.  The  constant  motion 
of  the  air  on  the  slopes  is  also  a  preventive  of  frost,  providing  the 
general  temperature  is  not  too  low.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  in 
deeper  valleys,  protected  against  the  western  wind,  flakes  of  snow 
and  a  wintry  chill,  with  dormant  vegetation,  while  one  thousand  feet 
higher  up  the  foliage  is  fast  developing. 

MOUNTAIN  CLIMATE 

Above  an  elevation  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  to  three  thou- 
sand feet,  conditions  gradually  intrude  which  resemble  those  of 
wintry  climates.  The  tender  fruits,  the  apricot,  peach,  etc.,  become 
liable  to  winter  injury  and  give  irregular  returns,  or  as  greater 
elevation  is  attained,  become  wholly  untrustworthy.  Early  bloom- 
ing of  these  fruits  during  warm  spells  which  are  followed  by  severe 
frosts,  renders  the  trees  unfruitful.  At  four  thousand  to  four  thou- 
sand five  hundred  feet  the  hardy  apple  and  pear  flourish,  ripening 
late,  and  winter  varieties  possessing  excellent  keeping  qualities. 
Here,  however,  winter  killing  of  trees  begins  and  locations  even  for 
hardy  fruits  have  to  be  chosen  with  circumspection. 

There  are  elevated  tracts  of  large  extent  among  the  Sierras  where 
the  common  wild  plum,  choke-cherry,  gooseberry,  and  California 
chestnut  are  produced  abundantly.  April  frosts  have  killed  the  fruit 
of  those  same  plums,  transplanted  to  lower  ground,  while  those  left 
in  their  natural  situation  were  quite  unharmed.  It  has  been  ob- 
served that  these  plum  trees  with  other  fruits  and  nuts  in  their 
original  positions,  invariably  occupy  the  broad  tops  of  the  great 
ridges  instead  of  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  ravines  or  narrow,  pent-up 
valleys.  Follow  nature  in  the  choice  of  orchard  sites  (with  due 
regard  to  a  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  either  natural  or  artificial) 
and  little  hazard  attends  the  culture  of  the  hardier  fruits  among 
the  highlands  of  the  State.  The  beauty  and  quality  of  these  moun- 
tain fruits  are  proverbial. 


AUTUMN  COLORS  NOT  DUE  TO  FROST  \J 

A  RULE  OF  GENERAL  APPLICATION 

What  has  thus  been  suggested  of  the  great  variation  of  temper- 
ature conditions  within  narrow  limits  should  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  not  only  must  the  kind  of  fruit  to  plant  be  determined  by  local 
observation  and  experience,  but  often  varieties  of  these  fruits  must 
be  chosen  with  reference  to  adaptation  to  local  environment.  For 
this  reason  it  is  impossible  to  compile  tables  of  varieties  suited  for 
wide  areas — and  yet  it  is  true  that  some  varieties  have  shown  them- 
selves hardy  and  satisfactory  under  all  conditions.  These  facts  will 
be  shown  by  the  discussion  which  will  be  given  to  each  of  the  dif- 
ferent fruits. 


REST  AND  ACTIVITY  OF  FRUIT  TREES 

Indication  has  already  been  made  of  regions  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  early  and  of  late  fruits.  There  is,  of  course,  difference 
in  time  of  rest  and  of  returning  activity  in  blooming.  On  the 
mountains  under  wintry  conditions  the  trees  leaf  out  and  bloom 
late,  following  more  or  less  the  habit  of  Eastern  trees.  In  the  foot- 
hills, the  valleys,  and  the  coast,  there  is  less  difference  in  time  of 
rest  and  of  leaf  and  bloom.  Even  in  regions  where  there  may  be  a 
month's  difference  in  ripening  of  fruit,  as,  for  example,  in  the  Vaca- 
ville  district,  fifty  miles  inland,  and  in  Berkeley,  two  miles  from  the 
bay  shore,  trees  bloom  almost  at  the  same  date.  The  difference  in 
ripening  is  due  to  the  higher  temperature  and  fuller  sunshine  of  the 
interior  situation,  which  have  a  forcing  effect,  while  the  lower  tem- 
perature and  dull  skies  of  the  summer  on  the  coast  retard  maturity. 

The  rest  of  the  tree,  in  all  save  the  mountain  district,  is  not 
dependent  upon  the  touch  of  frost.  It  comes  rather  from  thirst 
than  from  cold.  The  immense  weight  of  fruit,  the  vigorous  growth 
of  wood,  and  the  exhaustion  of  moisture  from  the  soil  by  the  draught 
of  the  roots  to  compass  this  growth,  are  the  chief  causes  which  bring 
the  sere  and  yellow  leaf  in  California.  It  is  not  frost,  for  the  petunias 
may  be  blooming  and  the  tomato  vines  still  green  in  the  fields.  But 
the  time  has  come  for  a  rest.  The  trees  sleep ;  but  merely  as  a  nap 
at  midday;  the  early  rains  wake  them  soon.  The  roots  are  active 
first,  then  the  buds  swell,  and  the  blossoms  burst  forth — sometimes 
as  early  as  January — the  almond  tree  first  heralding  the  advent  of 
California's  springtime. 

Sometimes  this  season  of  rest  is  too  short  for  the  good  of  the  tree 
or  vine.  The  early  rains,  when  followed  by  a  spring-like  temper- 
ature, as  sometimes  happens,  induce  activity  in  the  top  as  well  as 
the  root,  and  the  tree  is  not  in  condition  to  withstand  cold  weather, 
which  may  follow.  It  is  probable  that  such  stimulated  activity, 
suddenly  checked,  is  responsible  for  more  ills  to  tree  and  vine  than 
are  usually  attributed  to  it.  Both  to  insure  hardiness  and  fruitful- 
ness  it  is  important  that  a  tree  shall  have  summer  moisture  enough 
to  finish  its  late  summer  and  early  autumn  growth-processes.  Refer- 
ence to  this  important  matter  is  made  in  the  chapter  on  irrigation. 


CHAPTER    II 

WHY  THE  CALIFORNIA  CLIMATE  FAVORS  THE 
GROWTH  OF  FRUIT 

It  is  pointed  out  by  the  earliest  students  of  meteorology,  as 
related  to  horticulture,  that  perfect  development  of  fruits  depends 
upon  certain  atmospheric  conditions,  which  are  included  in  the  term 
climate  :  First,  temperature ;  second,  light ;  third,  humidity  or  at- 
mospheric moisture, — considered  wholly  apart  from  soil  moisture. 
It  was  also  shown  that  temperature  and  humidity  should  be  equable, 
or  as  free  as  possible  from  excessive  extremes  or  rapid  changes. 

Obviously,  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  California  climate  are : 
First,  freedom  from  extremes  of  low  temperature ;  second,  an  abun- 
dance of  sunshine ;  and  third,  atmosphere  with  a  low  percentage  of 
humidity.  It  will  be  interesting  to  introduce  enough  statistics  to 
demonstrate  these  claims,  and  to  cite  reasons  why  these  conditions 
are  of  special  value  to  the  fruit  grower.* 

THE  OFFICE  OF  HEAT  IN  FRUIT  PRODUCTION 

Temperature  conditions  may  preclude  the  success  of  a  fruit  tree 
either  by  destroying  it  outright,  by  dwarfing  it,  or  by  preventing  it 
from  setting  or  ripening  its  fruit.  Extremes  of  temperature  accom- 
plish the  death  of  plants,  and  insufficient  or  excessive  mean  temper- 
atures may  prevent  fruition  without  killing  the  plant.  The  first 
quality  of  the  California  climate  to  arrest  the  attention  of  fruit 
growers  in  the  states  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  the  freedom 
from  the  effects  of  the  extremely  low  winter  temperature,  to  which 
is  due  the  deplorable  failure,  in  the  eastern  and  western  states,  of 
many  of  the  fruit  varieties  from  the  west  of  Europe,  and  to  escape 
which  such  zealous  efforts  are  now  being  so  successfully  put  forth  to 
secure  hardy  varieites  of  native  and  foreign  origin. 

How  slight  is  the  injury  from  low  temperatures  in  all  parts  of 
the  State  where  fruit  is  largely  grown  may  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing compilation  of  extreme  low  temperatures  at  different  points 
approximately  at  the  same  latitude  on  the  coast,  in  the  interior 
valleys,  and  on  the  foot-hills. 

Lowest  Temperature  at  Several  California  Points 

Coast  and  Coast      Deg.  above  Deg.  above  Deg.  above 

Valleys—  zero.  Interior  Valleys—        zero.       Foothills —  zero. 

Eureka   20  Redding 18  

Ukiah   12  Red  Bluff 18  Oroville  15 

Cloverdale 17  Oroville   15  Nevada  City 4 

Napa  18  Marysville 19  Colfax    8 

San  Francisco   28  Sacramento 19  Auburn    12 

San  Jose   18  Merced  16  Jackson    10 

Gilroy 20  Fresno    20  

*Other  horticultural  aspects  of  California  climates  are  presented  in  the  author's  other 
books,  viz.:  "California  Vegetables"  and  "California  Garden  Flowers." 


GOOD  FRUIT  REQUIRES  ENOUGH  HEAT  J9 

Lowest  Temperatures  at  Several  California  Points — Continued. 

San  Miguel  11      Tulare  City 18      Porterville    22 

Los  Angeles 28      Colton    19      Redlands   25 

San  Diego 32      Imperial 20      Riverside   21 

These  records  will  show  any  one  familiar  with  winter  killing  of 
the  leading  orchard  fruits  that  such  disasters  are  not  to  be  feared 
in  the  chief  fruit  regions  of  California.  Local  temperature  is  largely 
controlled  by  local  conditions,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  and 
in  the  districts  named  in  the  table  there  are  special  locations  where 
the  lowest  temperature  may  have  been  a  few  degrees  higher  or  lower 
than  figures  given. 

NECESSITY  OF  ADEQUATE  SUMMER  HEAT 

Passing  beyond  the  freedom  from  winter  killing  it  may  be  re- 
marked that  the  influences  of  certain  degrees  of  heat  upon  the 
growth  of  the  plant  and  the  perfection  of  its  fruit,  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  close  observation.  Boussingault  conducted  careful 
experiments,  and  showed  that  a  temperature  above  a  certain  mini- 
mum of  heat  is  found  necessary  for  germination,  another  for 
chemical  modification,  and  a  third  for  flowering,  a  fourth  for  the 
ripening  of  seeds,  a  fifth  for  the  elaboration  of  the  saccharine  juices, 
and  a  sixth  for  the  development  of  aroma  or  bouquet. 

Originally  the  mean  annual  temperature  was  alone  observed,  and 
the  polar  limits  of  plants,  it  was  presumed,  could  be  thereby  deter- 
mined. More  recently  it  was  taught  that  the  mean  temperature  of 
seasons  is  of  more  importance  than  that  of  the  year,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  to  the  relative  distribution  of  heat  over  the  seasons 
rather  than  to  the  absolute  amount  received  during  the  year,  we  are 
to  attribute  the  fitness  or  unfitness  of  a  region  for  the  growth  of 
certain  kinds  of  vegetation. 

It  is  held  in  Europe  that  the  mean  heat  of  the  cycle  of  vegetation 
of  the  vine  must  be  at  least  59  degrees  Fahr.,  and  that  of  the  summer 
from  65  degrees  to  66  degrees  Fahr.  It  is  stated  to  be  impossible, 
for  instance,  to  cultivate  the  vine  upon  the  temperate  tablelands  of 
South  America,  where  they  enjoy  a  mean  temperature  of  62.6  de- 
grees to  66.2  degrees  Fahr.,  because  these  climates  are  characterized 
by  a  constancy  of  temperature,  never  rising  to  the  higher  heats 
necessary  to  the  process  of  sugar  forming ;  and  the  vine  grows  and 
flourishes,  but  the  grapes  never  become  thoroughly  ripe.  Boussin- 
gault shows  that,  in  addition  to  a  summer  and  autumn  sufficiently 
hot,  it  is  indispensable  that  at  a  given  period — that  which  follows 
the  appearance  of  seeds — there  should  be  a  month  the  mean  temper- 
ature of  which  does  not  fall  below  66.2  degrees  Fahr.  As  will  appear 
presently,  this  temperature  test  should  not  be  taken  alone,  but  it 
will  serve  as  a  standard  to  show  one  feature  of  the  horticultural 
adaptation  of  the  California  climate.  Boussingault  claims  the  need 
of  66.2  degrees  Fahr.  for  a  single  month.  To  be  sure  to  include  this, 
the  accompanying  table  gives  the  average  summer  temperature  at 
the  leading  fruit-growing  centers  named. 


20  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Average  Summer  Temperature  at  Various  California  Points 


Coast  and  Coast 
Valleys—                De*.  F. 

Upper  Lake            M 

Interior  Valleys  —  Dejf.  F. 

Redding                    80 

Foothills- 
Auburn 

Eleva- 
tion. 

1  363 

Deg. 
F. 

75 

76 
85 
82 
68 
77 
74 
74 

Napa 

.65 

Oroville 

79 

Colfax 

2241 

T-fiverrn  ore 

69 

Marysville 

78 

Georgetown 

2700 

San  To^e 

67 

Sacramento 

72 

Caliente 

1  290 

Hollister 

66 

Merced 

79 

Fall   Brook 

700 

Santa  Barbara  . 
Los   Angeles    .  . 
San   Diego 

..65 
..70 
68 

Fresno    
Tulare    

79 
78 

Redlands    

1  352 

San  Bernardino 
San  Jacinto  .  .  .  . 

...1,054 
.     1  550 

Riverside   .  .  . 

73 

These  points  are  selected  because  the  European  varieties  of  the 
grape  reach  perfection  in  their  vicinity.  The  excess  of  heat  above 
that  required,  as  is  found  in  all  the  interior  points  mentioned  in  the 
table,  results  in  a  very  high  sugar  percentage  in  the  grapes,  and 
contributes  to  the  ripening  of  a  second  and  third  crop,  as  will  be 
noted  presently.  The  superior  length  of  the  growing  season  in 
California,  of  course,  is  an  important  agency  toward  the  same  end. 


DIRECT  SUNLIGHT  ALSO  A  REQUISITE 

Count  de  Gasparin  was  first  to  point  out  that  not  alone  sufficient 
heat,  but  abundance  of  continuous  sunshine,  is  a  requisite  of  perfec- 
tion in  fruit  growing  and  ripening,  and  on  his  authority  may  be 
based  a  claim  of  exceptional  value  to  the  fruit  grower  in  the  months 
of  cloudless  skies  which  are  characteristic  of  the  California  summer. 

"The  solar  rays,"  says  Gasparin,  "do  not  only  produce  heat, 
but  bring  us  light,  and  the  effects  of  the  heat  and  light  rays  differ 
in  a  very  pronounced  manner.  Without  light  there  is  no  fructifica- 
tion ;  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  want  of  light  should  be  complete 
that  there  should  be  a  failure  of  fruits.  In  fact,  diffused  light  alone 
doesn  ot  suffice  for  the  greater  number  of  plants ;  cultivated  plants 
will  not  ripen  their  seed  without  the  direct  rays  of  sun,  and  the 
longer  they  are  deprived  of  it  the  smaller  the  quantity  which  they 
will  mature."* 

Again  referring  to  the  grape,  for  in  connection  with  the  growth 
of  this  fruit  the  most  careful  researches  have  been  made,  Humboldt 
wrote:  "If  to  give  a  potable  wine  the  vine  shuns  the  islands  and 
nearly  all  seacoasts,  even  those  of  the  West,  the  cause  is  not  only  in 
the  moderate  heat  of  summer  upon  the  seashore,  but  it  exists  more 
in  the  difference  which  there  is  between  direct  and  diffused  light; 
between  a  clear  sky,  and  one  veiled  with  clouds. "f 

The  advantage  of  California  over  Eastern  and  Southern  fruit 
regions  in  the  abundance  of  clear  sunshine  is  shown  in  the  table 
below.  Cloudiness  is  rated  from  0  to  10,  three  observations  daily, 
and  the  figures  in  the  table  are  the  averages  from  these  daily  ob- 
servations, for  a  series  of  years,  compiled  from  the  records  of  the 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

•Cours  d' Agriculture,  t.   II,  p.  96. 
tCosmos.  t.  I,  p.  349. 


CLEAR  SUNSHINE  PERFECTS  FRUITS  21 

Normal  Cloudiness  at  California  and  Eastern  Points 

Avsr.  for 
California —  Mar.     April    May     June      July      Aug.     Sept.      Oct.      Nov.  9  mo. 


Red  Bluff 

44 

42 

36 

1  9 

1  0 

07 

13 

24 

34 

?5 

Sacramento 

39 

35 

27 

1  5 

05 

04 

1  l 

20 

28 

70 

San  Francisco  

48 

4.3 

4.2 

3.8 

4.3 

4.3 

3.5 

3.3 

3.8 

40 

Fresno    

43 

2.9 

2.7 

1  5 

0.7 

09 

14 

22 

2.8 

?,? 

San  Diego      

48 

4.4 

53 

48 

43 

39 

37 

38 

33 

4  3 

Eastern  — 
Rochester,  N.  Y  
New  York,  N.  Y  
Philadelphia,  Pa  
Baltimore,  Md.  ...... 

6.6 

5.5 
5.6 
S4 

5.4 
5.3 
5.4 
5.1 

5.2 
5.2 
5.1 
5  1 

4.9 
4.9 
5.0 
49 

4.6 
5.0 
5.0 
4.8 

4.6 
4.9 
4.9 
49 

4.9 

4.7 
4.8 
47 

6.0 
4.9 
4.7 
46 

7.6 
5.2 
5.2 
49 

5.5 
5.1 
5.1 
49 

Cleveland   Ohio  

64 

5.3 

^49 

46 

43 

43 

49 

57 

73 

5  3 

Grand  Haven,  Mich.. 
Jacksonville,  Fla  
New  Orleans,  La.  .  .  . 

6.2 

4.2 
4.8 

5.4 
4.1 
4.8 

4.8 
4.1 
4.3 

4.6 
5.1 
4.7 

3.8 
4.8 
4.9 

4.0 
4.9 
4.7 

4.4 
5.0 
4.3 

5.6 
4.2 
3.5 

7.5 
4.5 
4.5 

5.1 
4.5 
4.5 

It  is  noticeable  that  at  the  California  coast  points  the  average 
cloudiness  is  almost  twice  that  of  the  interior  valleys,  while  in  the 
East  the  interior  fruit  regions  of  Western  New  York,  Ohio,  and 
Michigan,  have  a  greater  average  cloudiness  than  the  Hudson 
River,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware  regions  near  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board. The  average  cloudiness  in  the  Eastern  fruit  regions  is  rather 
more  than  twive  as  grat  as  in  the  regions  of  California  where  most 
fruit  is  grown. 

This  excess  of  advantage,  as  it  may  be  trmed,  in  connection 
with  the  high  and  protracted  heat  already  mentioned,  takes  practi- 
cal form  in  the  successful  ripening  of  a  second  and  simetimes  a 
third  crop  of  these  grapes  in  a  season,  from  later  bloom  on  younger 
cane  growth.  This  behavior  is  of  more  value  as  a  demonstration  of 
climatic  conditions  than  otherwise,  for  it  is  generally  better  to  pro- 
duce the  main  crop  alone  than  to  undertake  later  ones. 

Another  indication  of  excess  of  advantage  in  the  interior  valley 
is  found  in  the  development  of  high  sugar  contents,  which  is  of 
direct  value  in  raisin  production.  The  same  tendency,  though  per- 
haps of  less  commercial  value,  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  some  grapes 
which  yield  a  good  claret  wine  nearer  the  coast  develop  too  much 
alcohol  when  grown  in  the  interior. 


RELATION  OF  ATMO&HERIC  HUMIDITY  TO  THE 
GROWTH  OF  TREES 

There  is  another  important  condition  of  the  climate  of  California 
which  is.  intimately  related  to  those  which  have  been  considered, 
and  which  is  to  be  credited  with  no  small  influence  in  the  perfection 
of  our  fruits,  and  that  is  the  low  percentage  of  humidity  which  our 
atmosphere  contains.  In  California  the  percentage  of  humidity  is 
high  in  the  winter  and  low  in  the  summer ;  in  the  East  the  condi- 
tion is  just  reversed.  For  this  reason  summer  heat  is  far  more  op- 
pressive in  the  East  than  in  California,  and  for  the  same  reason  cer- 
tain serious  fungoid  diseases,  which  prevail  at  the  East,  though 
found  here  in  less  injurious  degree  directly  on  the  coast,  may  be 


22  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

wholly  unknown  in  the  interior  where  the  air  is  drier.  The  dry  air 
also  favors  the  access  and  action  of  light  and  heat,  for  Tyndall  says 
that  a  sheet  of  vapor  acts  as  a  screen  to  the  earth,  being  in  a  great 
measure  impervious  to  heat. 

It  is  not  necessary,  then,  that  there  should  be  clouds  to  lessen  the 
chemical  effects  of  sun  heat  in  fruit  ripening.  Not  only  do  clouds 
intercept  sunshine,  but  water  vapor  in  the  air — when  to  the  eye  the 
sun  is  bright  as  ever — can  absorb  a  large  quantity  of  the  effective 
sun  rays,  and  so  retard  fruit  ripening.  Hence  an  apparently  sunny 
country  which  has  much  invisible  vapor  in  the  air,  may  prove  de- 
fective in  fruit-ripening  qualities. 

It  is  true  that  air  free  from  humidity  allows  rapid  escape  of  heat 
by  radiation  as  well  as  free  access  of  it,  and  in  the  dry  air  frost  is 
more  severe,  but  at  the  time  of  the  greatest  fruit  growth,  from  June 
to  October,  radiation  down  to  a  frost  point  is  prevented  by  other 
natural  agencies.  In  the  early  spring  and  late  autumn  the  humidity 
percentage  rises  again  and  checks  radiation  just  at  the  time  of  the 
year  when  it  is  most  desirable  to  have  it  checked. 

The  accompanying  table,  compiled  from  the  records  of  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau,  shows  the  prevailing  relative  humidity  in 
the  East  and  South  and  in  California. 

Normal  Relative  Humidity  at  Eastern  and  California  Points 

Avg.  for 

Eastern  Stations —             April  May  June  July  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  8  mo. 

Jacksonville   Fla 72.3  73.0  77.6  78.6  80.9  82.9  79.8  82.2  78.4 

Philadelphia    Pa 63.4  68.9  69.2  68.6  71.2  75.2  70.7  73.6  70.1 

Rochester,  N.  Y 67.8  68.6  69.1  67.3  70.7  75.2  75.6  76.2  71.3 

Grand  Haven,  Mich 70.9  71.4  73.7  69.0  73.1  75.0  75.7  79.1  73.5 

St    Louis,  Mo 63.7  67.8  68.8  66.3  67.3  70.2  65.9  71.1  67.6 

New  Orleans,  La 76.0  74.2  78.1  78.3  78.8  77.3  74.0  79.4  77.0 

Galveston,  Tex 84.6  78.0  79.3  77.4  78.1  77.2  75.6  80.4  78.8 

Lo?AngelesStatK        !....  73.1  75.2  73.0  75.4  76.2  72.9  74.3  66.6  73.7 

Fresno     59.3  52.7  42.4  34.7  34.7  43.6  55.1  64.1  48.3 

Sacramento   67.6  67.6  66.1  59.8  59.8  59.0  62.4  66.8  63.6 

Red  Bluff 61.9  56.8  43.7  35.6  35.3  43.6  51.6  60.7  48.6 

The  three  great  advantages  of  the  California  climate — abundant 
heat,  continuous  sunshine,  and  dry  air — taken  in  connection  with 
the  fitness  of  the  soil  and  the  great  length  of  the  growing  season,  in- 
sure the  characteristic  excellence  of  California  fruit,  and  the  early 
maturity,  great  growth,  and  abundant  fruitage  of  our  trees  and 
vines.  Heat,  sunshine,  dry  air,  and  a  rainless  summer  also  minister 
directly  to  the  curing  of  fruits  in  the  open  air. 

A  RECAPITULATION    OF    CALIFORNIA'S    CLIMATIC 

ENDOWMENT 

Through  the  multitude  of  local  observations,  which  seem  per- 
plexing and  almost  contradictory,  it  is  possible  to  clearly  discern 
certain  general  conditions  of  both  nature  and  culture,  which  may  be 
briefly  advanced  as  characteristically  and  distinctively  Californian. 


HOW  THE  PEACH  GROWS   IN  CALIFORNIA 


23 


Of  these,  perhaps  the  most  striking  is  the  length  of  the  growing 
season. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  peach  in  a  good  peach  region.  The  bloom 
may  appear  in  February,  followed  by  the  grand  foliage  expanding 
to  a  leaf-size,  marvelous  to  one  unused  to  such  peach  leaves.  The 
shoots  of  new  growth  rush  out  with  vigor  promised  by  such  leaf; 
and  yet  the  fruit  below  expands  as  though  it  would  burst  its  skin 
in  rapid  enlargement — and  still  it  grows.  The  new  shoot,  apparently 
weary  of  its  several  feet  of  extension,  stops  for  a  rest,  and  then,  re- 
viving, starts  out  in  its  laterals — while  still  below  the  peach  is  grow- 
ing. The  laterals  push  out  a  foot  or  more — all  carrying  large,  fresh 
leaves.  While  these  are  in  full  vigor,  the  fruit  ripens,  after  having  a 
full  year's  joint  work  of  root  and  foliage,  if  it  is  a  lat  evariety.  Is  it 
any  wonder  it  weighs  a  pound  ?  But  still  the  tree  is  active.  It  forms 
its  terminal  buds,  and  then  all  along  the  new  main  shoots  and  their 
laterals  are  formed  the  leaf  and  blossom  buds  for  the  following  year. 
Still  the  foliage  holds  green  and  active,  if  the  moisture  below  be 
adequate,  and  the  leaves  seem  loath  to  fall  in  the  ninth  month  from 
time  of  blooming.  Is  it  any  wonder  California  peaches  are  large 
and  the  trees  require  pruning  and  thinning  to  enable  them  to  carry 
the  weight  produced  in  such  a  season  of  growth?  And  what  has 
been  said  of  the  peach  is  true  of  other  trees,  according  to  their  nature 
and  habits.  The  trees  themselves  are  more  eloquent  of  California's 
conditions  for  growth  than  descriptions  or  statistical  tables  can  be 
made. 

But  the  quality  of  the  light  and  heat,  if  the  term  is  admissible, 
is  a  factor  as  well  as  their  duration.  The  air,  relatively  free,  not 
alone  from  clouds,  but  from  the  insensible  aqueous  vapor  which 
weakens  sunshine  in  its  effort  to  serve  vegetation  in  a  humid  climate, 
has  a  clearness  and  brilliance  from  its  aridity  which  makes  each  day 
of  the  long,  growing  season  more  than  a  day  in  other  climates,  and 
thus  adds  to  the  calendar  length  of  the  growing  season.  The  surplus 
light  and  heat  also  act  directly  in  the  chemistry  which  proceeds  in 
the  tissues  of  the  plant,  and  we  have  not  only  size,  but  quality,  color, 
aroma — everything  which  makes  the  perfect  fruit  precious  and  beau- 
tiful beyond  words. 

It  is  true  that  for  long-distance  shipments  of  fresh  fruits  it  is  not 
possible  to  allow  this  process  to  go  too  far,  for  its  later  efforts  are 
higher  sweetness,  accompanied  by  such  juiciness  that  the  fruit  can 
not  endure  transportation.  But  go  to  the  tree  to  apply  the  only 
test  which  can  fairly  be  put  to  a  juicy  fruit,  and  the  demonstration 
of  the  service  of  clear,  unobstructed  sunshine  through  an  adequate 
period  is  complete.  But  if  this  can  not  be  done,  place  the  judgment 
upon  the  mature  peach  carefully  sun-dried  and  intelligently  cooked, 
or  upon  the  ripe  peach  skillfully  canned,  and  the  distinctive  adapta- 
tions of  California  for  fruit  production  will  display  themselves. 

But  there  are  other  agencies  involved  in  the  perfection  of  fruit 
than  intensity  and  duration  of  light  and  heat.  Without  adequate 
moisture  in  the  soil,  the  air  which  we  have  credited  with  such  benign 
power  in  carrying  heat  and  light  for  perfection  of  fruit  would  trans- 
mit the  same  as  agencies  for  the  destruction  of  the  tree  which  bears 


24  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

it.  If  this  moisture  comes  from  rainfall,  it  descends  at  the  time  of 
the  year  when  the  tree  is  least  active,  consequently  is  least  retarded 
by  a  clouded  sky  and  moisture-laden  air,  and  least  affected  by  atmos- 
pheric disturbances.  Strong  storm  winds  find  the  tree  with  reefed 
sails,  and  able  to  endure  pressure  which  would  tear  it  to  pieces  if 
they  came  upon  its  grand  spread  of  foliage  on  branches  heavy  with 
fruit.  It  is  a  priceless  horticultural  endowment  that  no  tornado  can 
pierce  our  protecting  mountain-barriers,  and  that  it  is  exceedingly 
rare  that  our  local  winds  disturb  the  confident  swaying  of  the 
branches  and  leaf  movement  beyond  the  activity  which  ministers  to 
the  sap  flow.  And  if  the  adequate  moisture  is  not  from  rainstorms, 
but  by  irrigation,  the  same  facts  remain,  for  the  water  reaches  the 
tree  without  interrupting  its  aerial  activity.  Temperature  is  main- 
tained, light  is  unobstructed,  and  the  tree  is  refreshed  with  moisture 
without  the  chill  and  cloud-shade  which  favor  fungoid  parasites.  Of 
all  the  ways  by  which  moisture  could  come  to  soils  supporting  fruit 
tree  or  vine,  the  natural  by  its  time,  and  the  artificial  by  its  method, 
endow  California  with  the  best. 

The  characteristics  of  the  California  climate  which  have  been 
especially  pointed  out  in  this  sketch  are  not  propitious  to  fruit 
culture  when  they  exist  to  excessive  degree,  as  in  some  interior  or 
continental  climates.  Local  conditions  of  altitude,  distance  from  the 
sea,  and  exposure  to  the  sweep  of  arctic  winds,  induce  sudden  and 
great  weather  changes  which  are  serious  in  their  effects.  Excess- 
ively low  percentage  of  atmospheric  humidity,  in  connection  with 
desiccating  wind,  often  produce  greater  evaporation  from  the  leaves 
than  the  roots  can  supply.  Excessively  dry  air  admits  a  parching 
sun  heat  at  one  time,  and  at  another  facilitates  radiation  of  heat, 
until  the  rapid  decline  in  temperature  makes  killing  frosts  frequent. 
It  is  evident  that  California  has  these  agencies  constantly  held  in 
check  by  her  insular  situation  and  protecting  environment,  and  owes 
her  wonderful  adaptation  to  growth  of  tree  and  perfection  of  fruit 
not  more  to  the  possession  of  certain  conditions  than  to  the  fact  of 
their  existence  in  moderation. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  FRUIT  SOILS  OF  CALIFORNIA 

The  favoring  characteristics  of  the  California  climates,  which 
have  been  described,  find  their  fitting  complement  in  the  adaptation 
of  the  California  soils  to  the  perfect  development  of  fruit-bearing 
tree  and  vine.  In  their  wonderful  variety  and  consequent  great 
range  of  special  adaptations  within  narrow  limits  of  area  our  soils 
also  resemble  our  climates.  As  a  man  may  sometimes  find  within 
the  boundaries  of  an  ordinary-sized  farm  such  a  difference  of  at- 
mospheric conditions  that  the  same  fruit  will  thrive  in  one  spot  and 
not  in  another,  so  he  may  find  differences  in  soil  which  will  tend  to 
produce  the  same  results.  For  this  reason  the  precise  spot  in  which 
to  plant  any  given  fruit  must  be  chosen  with  regard  to  both  soil  and 
exposure.  In  the  chapters  devoted  to  the  several  fruits,  there  will 
be  an  attempt  made  to  describe  the  soil  requirements  of  each,  so  that 
the  inexperienced  planter  may  not  err  seriously  in  choosing  the  loca- 
tion for  each  kind  of  fruit  he  desires  to  grow.  While  this  is  true,  it 
will  also  appear  in  these  special  chapters  that  the  choice  of  roots 
upon  which  to  bud  or  graft  gives  the  planter  a  certain  latitude  and 
independence.  This  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  planting  of  home 
orchards,  or  orchards  for  local  markets,  in  regions  where  the  soil  is 
not  what  is  usually  preferred  for  fruit  production.  With  proper 
choice  of  stocks  and  wisdom  and  diligence  in  cultivation,  one  need 
hardly  despair  of  growing  good  fruit  on  soil  which  will  support  any 
laudable  plant  growth. 

DISTINCTIVE  CHARACTERS  OF  CALIFORNIA  SOILS 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  recent  achievements 
in  soil  investigation  consists  in  demonstrating  distinctive  differences 
between  soils  formed  under  arid  and  under  humid  climate  condi- 
tions. In  the  development  of  this  subject  certain  distinctive  char- 
acters of  California  soils  clearly  appear,  and  they  are  of  direct 
relation  to  the  thrift,  productiveness,  treatment,  and  longevity  of 
fruit  trees.  These  characters  are:  (a)  lightness  and  consequent 
permeability  and  ease  of  cultivation;  (b)  depth,  admitting  excep- 
tional root  extension  and  penetration;  and  (c)  richness,  containing 
some  kinds  of  plant  food  in  considerably  greater  amounts  than  are 
found  in  the  soils  of  humid  regions.  These  characteristics,  as  demon- 
strated by  Prof.  Hilgard,*  may  be  outlined  in  this  way  with  special 
reference  to  their  relations  to  fruit  growing. 

Lightness. — California  soils  predominately  exhibit  the  sandy, 
silty  or  pulverulent  nature  of  all  soils  formed  under  arid  conditions,' 
save  in  case  of  pre-existing  clay  formations  of  former  geological 

*Prof.  E.  W.  Hilgard's  studies  of  California  soils  are  summarized  in  his  book  on  "Soils," 
published  by  The  Macmillan  Co..  N.  Y. 


26  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

epochs,  as  well  as  slack-water  deposits  of  the  present  epoch,  all  of 
which  are  substantially  independent  of  climate.  While  "sand"  in 
the  humid  regions  means  virtually  quartz  grains  only,  in  the  arid 
country  it  means  very  largely  grains  and  powder  of  the  other  soil- 
forming  minerals  as  well.  While,  therefore,  in  the  humid  region 
sandy  land  as  a  rule  means  poor  land,  in  the  arid,  on  the  contrary, 
sandy  lands  are  at  least  as  desirable  as  heavier  ones,  both  on  the 
score  of  high  productiveness,  durability,  and  ease  of  cultivation, 
together  with  ready  resistance  to  drouth. 

Depth. — Another  point  of  great  importance  is  that  the  difference 
between  soil  and  suboil,  which  is  so  striking  and  important  in 
regions  of  abundant  rainfall,  is  largely  obliterated  in  arid  climates. 
Very  commonly  hardly  a  perceptible  change  of  tint  or  texture  is 
found  for  depths  of  several  feet;  and  what  is  more  important, 
material  from  such  depths,  when  thrown  on  the  surface,  oftentimes 
subserves  the  agricultural  uses  of  a  soil  nearly  or  quite  as  well  as 
the  original  surface  soil.  The  unconcern  with  which  irrigators  pro- 
ceed to  level  or  otherwise  grade  their  land,  even  though  this  may 
involve  covering  up  large  areas  of  surface  soil  with  subsoil  from 
several  feet  depth ;  the  rapidity  with  which  the  red  loam  of  the 
placer  mines  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  foothills  is  re-covered  with  the 
natural  forest  growth  of  the  region,  etc.,  are  examples  familiar  to 
the  residents  but  surprising  to  newcomers,  who  are  accusomed  to 
dread  the  upturning  of  the  subsoil  as  likely  to  deprive  them  of  re- 
munerative crops  for  several  years,  until  the  "raw"  subsoil  has  had 
time  to  be  "vitalized"  by  the  fallowing  effect  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  to  acquire  the  needful  amounts  of  organic  matter  or  vegetable 
mold.  Thus  the  surface  soil,  which  in  the  humid  regions  supplies 
the  bulk  of  the  nourishment,  becomes  here  of  minor  importance, 
serving  chiefly  as  a  mulch  to  prevent  waste  of  moisture ;  while  the 
active  process  of  nutrition  occurs  in  the  deeper  portion  of  the  soil 
stratum,  whose  composition,  as  well  as  condition  of  disintegration 
and  aeration,  is  substantially  the  same  as  above.  The  second  foot  is 
rarely  found  to  differ  materially  from  the  first,  even  as  to  content  of 
organic  matter ;  for  the  latter,  being  almost  exclusively  derived  from 
the  decay  of  roots,  the  leaves  and  herbage  on  the  surface  being 
mostly  oxidized  away  under  the  intense  heat  and  abundant  aeration 
of  summer,  it  not  uncommonly  happens  in  very  porous  soils  that  the 
first  six  inches  of  surface  soil  are  poorer  in  organic  matter  than  the 
second  foot. 

Practical  Results  of  Lightness  and  Depth. — The  "lightness"  and 
perviousness  of  the  prevailing  soils  of  the  arid  region  permit  of  the 
penetration  of  roots  to  depths  which  in  the  humid  region  are  inac- 
cessible to  them  on  account  of  the  dense  subsoils,  which  prevent  the 
needful  access  of  air.  This  deep  penetration  enables  even  annual 
plants  to  avail  themselves  directly  of  the  stores  of  moisture  in  the 
substracta,  at  depths  which  in  the  humid  region  are  scarcely  reached 
save  by  the  tap-roots  of  some  prennials  and  trees ;  while  the  latter 
themselves  reach  depth  never  approached  by  them  in  the  region  of 
summer  rains.  Professor  Hilgard  found  the  ends  of  the  roots  of 


RULING  CHARACTERS  OF  CALIFORNIA  SOILS 


27 


grape-vines  at  a  depth  of  twenty-three  feet,  in  a  gravelly  clay-loam ; 
from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  are  ordinary  depths  reached  by  the  root 
system  of  fruit  trees.  Even  the  roots  of  cereals  have  been  found 
to  penetrate  to  a  depth  of  twelve  feet  in  California  sandy  alluvial 
soils  and  to  fourteen  feet  in  loams.  Such  depth  of  rooting,  when 
conservative  of  moisture  is  secured  by  proper  surface  cultivation, 
enables  deciduous  fruit  trees  to  grow  thriftily  and  bear  fine  fruit 
through  six  months  of  drouth  while  as  many  weeks  of  drouth  may 
bring  distress  and  loss  of  fruit  to  surface-rooting  trees  on  the  shallow 
soils  of  the  humid  region.  Recent  investigations  at  the  California 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  have  also  disclosed  that  the  good 
physical  and  chemical  conditions  of  the  deeper  layers  of  our  soils 
have  also  made  possble  the  penetration  from  the  surface  layers,  of 
various  forms  of  micro-organisms  upon  which  we  are  dependent  not 
only  for  a  solution  of  the  insoluble  plant  food,  but  for  the  addition 
of  nitrogen  to  the  soil  from  the  atmosphere. 

Richness. — The  foregoing  conditions  are  rendered  the  more  sig- 
nificant and  effective  through  the  third  characteristic  of  soils  formed 
in  arid  climates.  The  average  aggregate  amounts  of  plant-food  in- 
gredients are  markedly  greater  in  the  arid  than  in  the  humid  soils, 
wherever  their  derivation  is  at  all  generalized.  Among  the  agricul- 
turally important  ingredients  contained  in  larger  average  amounts 
in  the  arid  soils  than  in  the  humid,  lime  stands  foremost;  its  per- 
centage in  soils  not  derived  from  calcareous  formations  being  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  times  greater  in  the  arid  than  in  the  humid  soils. 
Magnesia  follows  lime  in  this  respect,  but  the  average  difference  is 
only  about  half  as  great.  The  average  content  of  potash  in  the  arid 
soils  exceeds  that  in  the  humid  in  about  the  proportion  of  one  to 
three  or  four.  But  no  such  constant  difference  exists  in  respect  to 
phosphoric  acid.  As  regards  organic  matter,  and  the  nitrogen  of 
which  it  is  the  carrier  and  reservoir,  its  amount  is  usually  consider- 
ably less  than  in  the  humid  soils ;  but  the  total  nitrogen  percentage 
does  not  differ  widely,  because  the  organic  matter  of  arid  soils  con- 
tains, on  the  average,  from  three  to  five  times  as  much  nitrogen  as  is 
in  humid  soils,  and,  therefore,  the  supply  of  soil  nitrogen  is  very 
nearly  the  same  in  both  regions,  while  from  several  causes,  the  nitro- 
gen of  arid  soils  is  more  available  to  plants. 

Practical  Lessons  from  the  Constitution  of  Our  Soils. — The  ex- 
traordinary depth  of  our  soils,  which  reveals  a  favorable  physical, 
chemical,  and  biological  nature,  teaches  the  importance  and  essential 
nature  of:  (1)  deep  tillage;  (2)  deep  incorporation  of  manures  and 
fertilizers;  (3)  deep  irrigation.  It  is  clear  that  if  we  can  make  con- 
ditions just  as  congenial  for  the  roots  of  plants  in  the  lower  layers 
of  the  soil  as  in  the  upper,  there  is  but  one  course  left  open  to  us, 
namely :  taking  advantage  of  the  opportunities  afforded  us  by 
nature,  if  we  would  maintain  the  fertility  of  our  soils.  To  do  this 
we  must  encourage  the  deep  rooting  of  our  trees,  and  nothing  in  the 
line  of  soil  management  can  accomplish  the  desired  end  so  well  as 
making  available  to  the  roots  in  the  deeper  soil  layers,  air,  plant  food 
and  water  by  the  methods  above  enumerated. 


28  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  CALIFORNIA  SOILS 

Any  attempt  to  classify  the  soils  of  California  upon  scientific  lines 
or  even  to  describe  them  in  their  wonderful  variety,  according  to 
their  geographical  occurrence,  would  lead  beyond  the  limitations  of 
at  treatise  upon  the  practice  of  fruit  growing.  Rather  let  an  attempt 
be  made  to  designate  certain  grades  of  soil  with  brief  characteriza- 
tion of  their  leading  features  as  they  are  related  to  the  growth  of 
fruits.  By  such  a  course  it  may  be  made  to  appear  that  though  the 
soils  of  the  State  are  predominantly  light,  deep  and  rich,  and  thus 
eminently  fitted  for  fruit  growing,  there  are  many  degrees  in  the 
possession  of  these  characters  or  any  of  them,  in  local  soils,  and  upon 
this  individual  manifestation  they  rate  all  the  way  from  perfection 
to  defectiveness.  Let  a  classification  proceed,  then,  upon  a  descend- 
ing scale. 

Light,  Deep  Loams. — Admixture  of  clay  with  enough  coarse 
materials  to  secure  permeability  to  air  and  water,  ease  in  culvation, 
deep  root  penetration  and  free  drainage  of  surplus  water,  produces 
soil  of  the  highest  adaptability  to  the  growth  of  fruit  trees  and  vines. 
These  soils  are  popularly  known  as  loams.  They  are  designated  as 
sandy  loams,  medium  loams,  and  clay  loams,  according  to  the  pro- 
portion of  clay  commingled  with  the  sand  or  coarse  materials. 

Professor  Hilgard  devised  the  following  nomenclature  of  soils 
based  upon  their  content  of  clay ;  sandy  soils,  less  than  5  per  cent  of 
clay ;  sandy  loams,  from  5  to  10  per  cent ;  ordinary  or  medium  loams, 
from  10  to  15  per  cent ;  clay  loams,  from  15  to  20  per  cent ;  clay  soils, 
from  20  to  50  per  cent  of  clay. 

The  coarse  materials  are  sand  grains  of  various  sizes  or  rock  par- 
ticles in  various  degrees  of  disintegration.  The  fine  materials  are 
clay  and  rock  powder,  commonly  designated  as  fine  silt.  Loam  soils 
may  result  from  deposits  by  flowing  water  or  may  consist  of  debris 
but  little  removed  from  local  rock  disintegration.  They  include  a 
wide  variety  of  materials,  but  agree  in  the  possession  of  striking 
adaptability  to  fruit  culture.  Some  of  the  leading  instances  of  such 
soils  may  be  cited. 

Loams  of  the  Valley  Plains. — On  the  east  side  of  the  Sacramento 
Valley  low  ridges  and  swales  at  right  angles  to  the  river's  course 
come  in  from  the  foothills,  forming  a  gently  undulating  plain  with  a 
fall  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  per  mile,  sometimes  right  up  to 
the  river  channels.  Nearly  all  the  soils  of  the  east  side  have  a  red- 
dish tinge,  showing  the  admixture  of  the  red  foothill  soil  and  demon- 
strating, by  the  way,  that  all  these  lands  are  well  drained.  In  cuts 
ten  to  twelve  feet  deep,  made  by  the  sloughs,  the  reddish  plains  loam 
is  seen  to  reach  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  depth,  being  then  underlaid  by 
gravelly  substrata.  The  width  of  this  class  of  profusely  fertile  valley 
land,  east  and  west,  varies  considerably,  according  to  the  meander- 
ings  of  the  rivers.  Away  from  the  water  courses,  the  higher  lands 
of  the  valleys  are  largely  red  or  yellow  loams,  sometimes  clayey  and 
difficult  of  cultivation  unless  taken  just  in  the  right  condition,  some- 
times gravelly  and  apt  to  dry  out  unless  the  natural  water  supply  is 


CALIFORNIA  VALLEY  SOILS  DESCRIBED 


29 


supplemented  by  irrigation,  but  mostly  a  free-working,  fairly  re- 
tentive, light  loam,  very  satisfactory  for  some  kinds  of  fruits. 

The  soils  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  have,  as  a  rule,  a  much 
greater  admixture  of  sand  than  those  of  the  Sacramento  Valley; 
there  is  also  a  more  distinct  subdivision  of  the  valley  lands  into  up- 
land or  "bench"  lands,  and  lowland  or  alluvial  lands  proper. 

Upon  the  upland  or  plains  soils,  especially  of  Fresno  and  Tulare 
counties,  wonderful  progress  in  fruit-growing  by  irrigation  has  been 
made.  Though  its  summer  aspect  is  most  forbidding  and  almost 
desert-like  in  lack  of  vegetation,  the  application  of  water  has  shown 
exceptional  quickness  of  growth,  early  bearing,  and  lavish  produc- 
tiveness of  tree  and  vine.  These  plains  loams  vary  in  appearance, 
and  are  from  this  fact  locally  named,  "reddish  loam,"  "white  ash," 
and  "sand  hill."  All  are  distinctly  calcareous.  Even  in  the  case 
of  the  latter,  which  is  the  lightest  and  made  of  almost  90  per  cent 
of  inert  sand,  it  is  so  deep  and  has  its  plant  food  in  such  highly 
available  condition  that  it  is  producing  very  large  crops  of  fruits 
where  there  is  no  rise  of  the  bottom  water  to  prevent  root  penetra- 
tion. In  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  there  are  some  loose 
loams  of  light  color  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  granite,  but 
they  are  as  a  rule  inferior  to  the  red  foothill  soils,  which  are  more 
clayey,  and  will  be  mentioned  among  the  clay  loams  later. 

The  soils  prevailing  in  the  valley  of  Southern  California,  from 
Redlands  at  its  head  to  Los  Angeles  at  its  opening  out  toward  the 
sea,  consist  chiefly  of  granitic  sand,  which  at  some  points  on  the 
slopes  forms  the  soils  exclusively,  but  everywhere  constitutes  a 
prominent  ingredient  of  the  valley  and  mesa  lands.  These  mesa 
lands  are  conspicuous  for  their  orange-red  tint,  and  the  red  sandy 
loam  of  which  they  are  composed,  to  depths  varying  from  ten  to  as 
much  as  eighty  feet,  is  evidently  the  choice  soil  for  orange  culture. 
It  is  manifest  that  at  some  remote  epoch  it  filled  the  entire  valley. 
Of  the  middle  portion  much  has  been  washed  away,  but  islands  of 
it  form  red-land  tracts  of  greater  or  less  extent  all  over  the  region, 
traversed  by  and  more  or  less  commingled  with  the  gigantic  wash 
from  the  valleys  and  canyons  of  the  Sierra  Madre.  The  latter  fre- 
quently consists  largely  of  gravel,  and  were  it  not  for  the  luxuriant 
natural  vegetation  borne  by  these  gravel  beds,  few  would  have 
thought  of  devoting  them  to  the  costly  experiment  of  orange  plant- 
ing, which  nevertheless,  has  proved  eminently  successful  even  on 
these  unpromising-looking  masses  of  debris.  In  the  upper  valley 
(San  Bernardino  Valley  proper)  the  red  loam  is  conspicuous,  and 
gives  its  name  to  the  flourishing  city  and  citrus  district  of  Redlands, 
on  the  terminal  slope ;  but  the  heavy  flow  of  water  from  the  upper 
canyons,  notably  from  that  of  the  Santa  Ana  River,  has  scoured  it 
out  of  the  valley  itself,  and  left  there,  at  least  on  the  northern  por- 
tion, gray  and  blackish  granitic  loams  of  great  depth  and  produc- 
tiveness, underlaid,  and  therefore  underdrained,  by  the  enormous 
gravel  beds  that  hold  the  artesian  water  of  this  favored  region. 

The  reddish  mesa  soils  prevail  through  the  smaller  Southern  Cali- 
fornia valleys  as  well,  and  are  similar  in  character,  as  they  are  de- 
rived from  similar  geological  formations. 


30  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Where  the  surface  descends  gradually  to  the  seashore,  and  not  in 
bluffs,  there  are  as  in  Los  Angeles  and  Orange  counties,  coast  flats 
several  miles  in  width,  where  the  soil  is  a  dark-colored  sandy  loam, 
glistening  with  scales  of  mica,  and  more  or  less  affected  with  alkali 
in  the  lower  portions.  Similar  soils  are  found  in  tracts  of  greater 
or  less  extent  up  the  coast  as  far  as  Santa  Barbara  at  least.  As  a 
rule,  these  seashore  lands  are  very  productive,  but  fruits  for  them 
must  be  chosen  with  reference  to  their  low  level  and  exposure  to 
coast  influences. 

The  light  loams  of  the  so-called  desert  region  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia are  not  inferior  in  productive  capacity  to  some  of  the  best 
soils  of  the  great  valley,  which  they  greatly  resemble,  save  in  the 
scarcity  of  vegetable  matter.  Only  a  detailed  survey,  however,  can 
determine  the  tracts  having  an  arable  soil,  as  against  those  overrun 
by  arid  sand.  The  soil  of  the  Colorado  River  bottom  is  highly  pro- 
ductive, easily  worked,  being  quite  light.  It  is  a  highly  calcareous 
soil,  and  now,  as  the  water  of  the  Colorado  River  has  been  made 
available  for  irrigation,  is  yielding  rich  returns  for  cultivation. 

The  valleys  of  the  seaward  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  have  mostly 
gray,  light,  and  silty,  rather  than  sandy  soils,  quite  similar  in  ap- 
pearance, from  Ventura  to  Humboldt  county,  though  differing  con- 
siderably in  composition,  those  of  the  southern  region  being  more 
calcareous,  and  apparently  richer  in  phosphoric  acid ;  as  the  coast 
region  consists  for  the  most  part  of  low  ranges  with  intervening 
valleys,  the  valleys  are,  as  a  rule,  small,  though  a  few  show  consid- 
erable area.  In  such  a  country  the  soil  surface  shows  wide  diversity 
with  its  smaller  areas  than  on  the  vast  stretches  of  the  great  interior 
valley ;  consequently,  so  far  as  soil  goes,  the  coast  farms  are  often 
suited  to  a  wider  range  of  fruits  than  the  interior  valley  farms  of 
similar  size. 


ALLUVIAL  OR  SEDIMENTARY  LOAMS 

These  soils  have  been  considered  from  the  earliest  plantings  by 
Americans  as  par  excellence  the  fruit  soils  of  the  great  valley  of 
Central  and  Northern  California.  They  occurr  along  the  courses  of 
existing  streams,  and  extend  back  to  variable  distances,  until  they 
merge  into  the  valley  loams,  or  adobes.  These  deposits  are  consider- 
ably higher  than  the  present  beds  of  the  streams,  and  are  sometimes 
described  as  "next  to  river  bottom."  They  consist  of  fine  alluvium, 
with  seldom  any  admixture  of  coarse  materials.  These  river  soils 
are  usually  very  deep  and  they  are  naturally  well  drained. 

These  deposits  cross  the  valley  in  somewhat  irregular  courses ; 
they  are  of  greater  or  less  width  according  to  the  drainage  area 
whence  they  have  come.  They  vary  also  in  depth,  and  tapper  down 
on  either  side  to  the  level  of  the  red  loam  or  abode  upon  which  they 
have  been  deposited.  Such  strips  are  first  chosen  by  the  fruit 
planters  of  the  district  in  which  they  occur.  In  the  valleys  of  the 
rivers  crossing  the  eastern  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  there  are, 
bordering  the  streams  as  well  as  Tulare  Lake,  considerable  areas  of 


CLAY  AND  CLAY  LOAM  SOILS  3} 

brown  to  blackish  loam  varying  from  heavy  to  light,  but  for  the  most 
part  easily  tilled  and  exceedingly  rich.  Considerable  fruit  has  been 
grown  for  years  on  these  situations,  and  some  kinds  do  well  on  these 
bottoms  which  do  not  show  adaptation  to  the  plains.  Some  even  of 
the  higher  lying  portions  of  these  "black  lands"  support  thrifty 
orchards  without  irrigation.  The  wider  stretches  of  alluvial  soils 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  valley,  as  in  the  Mussel  Slough  country  and 
the  Visalia  region,  for  instance,  are  notably  well  adapted  to  fruit 
growing.  The  occasional  intrusion  of  alkali,  which  must  be  care- 
fully avoided,  is  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  general  approval  of  these 
alluvial  lands  for  fruit  purposes. 

Soil  of  similar  character  is  found  in  some  small  valleys  consisting 
of  an  alluvial  wash  from  the  bordering  hills  which  in  some  places 
reaches  a  depth  of  thirty  feet  or  more  without  notable  change  in 
character.  Such  soils  have  proved  very  fertile  and  durable. 

The  rich  river  bottom,  adjacent  to  the  beds  of  the  main  rivers 
and  sloughs  of  the  valley,  has  usually  a  dark,  rich,  and  moist  soil, 
easily  tilled  and  not  subject  to  baking  and  cracking.  It  is  largely 
used  for  the  growth  of  vegetables  and  alfalfa,  but  considerable  areas 
have  been  planted  with  fruit  trees,  especially  with  pears,  which  do 
not  suffer  from  submergence  of  their  roots  for  considerable  time. 

In  the  coast  valleys  of  the  State  there  are  also  very  extensive 
areas  of  alluvial  soils  which  are  largely  used  in  fruit  production,  as 
well  as  upland  loams  formed  in  place  by  the  disintegration  of  local 
rock  formations.  The  famous  fruit  region  extending  from  Oakland 
southward  nearly  one  hundred  miles,  including  the  Alameda  and 
Santa  Clara  Valleys,  has  very  large  areas  of  alluvial  soil,  ranging 
from  deep,  rich  blackish  loams  used  for  vegetables  and  small  fruits 
to  lighter  loams  resulting  from  intermixture  of  sediment  brought 
by  streams  from  adjacent  hillsides  with  the  clay  of  the  valley 
bottom.  It  is  to  these  deep,  rich  alluvial  deposits  that  the  region 
owes  its  great  reputation  in  fruit  lines. 


CLAY  LOAMS 

Of  loams  containing  sufficient  clay  to  render  them  somewhat 
heavy  and  tenacious,  there  is  also  a  great  variety  in  California. 
Their  suitability  for  different  fruits  depends  upon  selection  of  roots 
adapted  to  their  character  and  upon  the  depth  and  degree  of  reten- 
tiveness  of  the  soils  themselves.  They  are  more  difficult  of  tillage 
than  the  free  loams,  but  offer  some  sompensation  therefor  in  their 
richness  and  durability. 

Clay  Loams  of  the  Foothills  and  Valley  Border. — The  soils  of  the 
foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  throughout  its  courses  along  the  great 
valley,  vary  from  a  moderately  clayey  loam  to  a  heavy,  though  not 
uncommonly  gravelly,  often  orange-red  clay.  This  character  seems 
to  be  sensibly  the  same,  whether  the  soil  be  derived  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  ancient  slate  bed-rock  or  directly  from  the  dark- 
colored  granites,  thus  creating  a  presumption  that  the  two  rocks  are 


32 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


closely  related.  The  soils  are  highly  charged  with  iron  to  the  extent 
of  from  seven  to  over  twelve  per  cent,  which  being  finely  divided, 
imparts  to  them  the  intense  orange-red  tint.  The  soil  of  the  foot- 
hills agree  with  the  soils  of  the  valley  in  having  a  good  percentage 
of  lime,  while  the  supply  of  potash  and  phosphates,  as  well  as  of 
organic  matter,  is  smaller,  and  sometimes  low,  though  never  ap- 
parently inadequate  for  present  productiveness,  in  the  presence  of 
so  much  lime. 

Along  the  base  of  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  there  is  in  Fresno, 
Tulare,  and  part  of  Kern  country,  a  narrow  belt,  irregular  in  width, 
of  partly  red  and  partly  black  clay  or  adobe,  so  highly  calcareous 
as  to  break  up,  when  dry,  into  small  fragments,  producing  a  con- 
dition that  has  received  the  name  "dry  bog."  It  is  upon  this  that 
many  of  the  citrus  orchards  of  the  Porterville  and  Mt.  Campbell 
districts  are  chiefly  grown.  A  white,  calcareous  marl  sometimes 
occurs  beneath  this  soil  at  varying  depths,  inducing  chlorosis  or 
yellowing  of  citrus  leaves,  owing  to  its  impervious  nature  which 
does  not  allow  of  good  drainage  and  therefore  kills  the  roots  through 
suffocation  and  acid  production.  Westward  of  this  "dry  bog"  land 
there  is  a  belt  of  reddish  or  brown  loam  soils,  corresponding  to  those 
similarly  located  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  but  generally  more 
clayey,  and  hence  frequently  designated  as  adobe  by  contrast  with 
the  very  sandy  soils  of  the  valley  at  large,  although  properly  they 
should  be  classed  simply  as  clayey  loams.  This  belt  is  eigth  to  ten 
miles  wide  in  middle  Tulare  county  and  narrows  to  the  north  and 
south.  Here  these  lands  have  a  gentle  slope  of  ten  to  twenty  feet 
per  mile  from  the  base  of  the  foothills,  and  appear  to  be  underlaid 
at  a  depth  of  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  by  water-bearing  gravel.  The 
soil  is  a  reddish,  more  or  less  sandy,  loam,  changing  little  in  its 
aspect  for  several  feet.  Its  adaptation  to  fruit  is  shown  by  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  Lindsay  region. 


CLAY  SOILS 

Thus  far  a  very  small  area  of  true  adobe*  soil  has  been  employed 
in  horticulture.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  character  of  what 
is  known  as  adobe  in  different  localities.  Its  color  varies,  as  the 
popular  terms  "black  waxy,"  "black,"  "brown,"  and  "gray"  adobe 
indicate.  Its  physical  condition  and  chemical  composition  also 
vary  greatly.  The  black  adobe  of  the  east  side  of  the  Sacramento 
Valley  is  easily  tilled  as  compared  with  the  gray  adobe  on  the  west 
side,  which  is  very  refractory  and  often  largely  impregnated  with 
alkali.  To  render  soil  of  adobe  character  useful  for  fruit  growing, 
this  tendency  to  dry  out  and  crack,  thus  allowing  evaporation  from 
below  as  well  as  from  the  surface,  must  be  overcome.  The  discussion 
of  this  point  belongs  to  the  chapter  on  cultivation.  Adobe  soils  are, 
as  a  rule,  rich  and  durable  and  therefore  promise  long  fruitfulness 

*This  name  has  been  erroneously  applied  to  the  loam  commonly  used  in  the  construction 
of  abode  houses.  Agriculturally,  it  means  "a  heavy  clay  soil,"  such  as  could  not  be  used  in 
building. 


TREATMENT  FOR  DEFECTIVE  SOILS 


33 


to  trees  and  vines  with  roots  adapted  to  heavy  soils,  but  difficulty  of 
cultivation,  excessive  retention  of  water,  and  other  evils  are  always 
present. 

DEFECTIVE  SOILS 

Although  California  soils  are  predominantly  of  the  depth,  light- 
ness and  richness  best  suited  to  the  growth  and  bearing  of  fruit 
trees  and  vines,  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are 
marked  exceptions,  and  failure  to  observe  this  fact  has  resulted  in 
considerable  disappointment  and  loss.  There  is  in  California  much 
'land  which  is  bad  from  a  horticultural  point  of  view  and  it  is  apt  to 
occur  even  in  the  vicinity  of  lands  of  the  highest  excellence.  It  is, 
therefore,  necessary  to  advise  that  the  closest  examination,  to  be 
made  before  investment,  be  made  in  the  planting  of  fruits. 

Although  there  are  instances  of  deficiency  in  plant  food  in  Cali- 
fornia soils  and  considerable  areas  of  land  sterile  through  excess  of 
saline  and  alkaline  salts,  these  are  usually  indicated  by  the  local 
reputation  of  the  tracts,  if  the  newcomer  will  take  pains  to  make 
inquiry.  It  is  rather  the  more  obscure,  subsoil  conditions  which  lead 
to  loss  or  failure,  and  they  may  be  unknown  even  to  men  who  have 
owned  or  farmed  the  land  for  years  for  ordinary  field  crops.  These 
defects  are,  in  the  main,  three : 

Leachy  Subsoils. — While  it  is  best  in  all  cases  to  choose  deep 
soils  for  cropping  purposes,  it  is  frequently  profitable  to  grow  fruit 
on  soils  with  defective  subsoils.  Among  these  defective  subsoils 
there  is  frequently  encountered,  underlying  good  alluvial  loams,  a 
very  pervious  sand  or  gravel  which  allows  of  a  too  rapid  escape  of 
moisture  and  plant  food.  This  may  result  in  starving  the  tree  or 
killing  it  for  want  of  water.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  possible 
with  three  or  four  feet  of  good  loam  above  the  gravel  to  maintain 
profitably  the  shallow  rooted  trees  by  practicing  heavy  green 
manuring  and  constant  summer  cultivation  to  conserve  what  mois- 
ture the  loam  retains  and  by  recourse  to  irrigation,  when  required. 

Hardpan. — It  has  frequently  been  observed  that  even  where 
hardpan  has  been  blasted  prior  to  tree  planting,  the  evil  effects  of 
waterlogging  in  a  rather  retentive  overlying  soil  have  either  killed 
trees  or  made  them  unprofitable.  This  condition  occurs  not  only  on 
level  land  but  also  on  rather  steep  hillsides  where  on  a  priori  con- 
siderations it  would  never  be  expected.  In  such  cases  drainage 
gives  immediate  relief  and  the  maintenance  of  a  good  supply  of 
organic  matter  in  the  soil,  with  constant  summer  cultivation,  will 
usually  insure  good  moisture  conditions. 

"Plow  Sole"  or  Plow  Pan." — Constant  plowing  to  the  same 
depth  or  a  failure  to  break  up  thoroughly  the  silty  deposits  at  the 
bottom  of  irrigation  furrows  may  in  a  few  seasons  produce  a  hard- 
ened and  difficultly  permeable  layer  of  soil  known,  according  to  its 
origin,  as  plow  sole  or  "irrigation  hardpan."  This  may  also  be  ag- 
gravated through  the  treading  of  stock  and  fruit  pickers.  Such 


34  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

hardened  soil  layers  interfere  with  root  development  and  make  for 
poor  aeration  and  water  supply.  They  must  be  broken  up  by  plow- 
ing or  subsoiling. 

Rise  of  Ground  Water. — The  rise  of  the  water  table  mainly  due 
to  excessive  irrigation  or  the  impermeability  of  one  of  the  under- 
lying soil  layers  is  a  question  of  the  most  serious  significance  and 
one  which  the  prospective  purchaser  of  land  or  the  owner  of  cropped 
land  must  not  lose  sight  of.  For  this  reason  precautions  taken  in 
the  examination  of  land  for  hardpan,  irrigation  with  necessary,  but 
not  superfluous,  amounts  of  water  and  adequate  provision  for  drain- 
age will  not  only  go  far  toward  making  land  profitable  at  the  time 
cropping  is  commenced,  but  will  prevent  troubles  for  the  future 
through  the  accumulation  of  alkali  and  other  baneful  physiological 
effects  on  plants  of  a  high  water  table. 

Alkali. — The  term  "alkali"  denotes  an  accumulation  of  salts,  in 
a  limited  depth  of  soil,  which  may  be  of  such  nature  and  quantity  as 
to  render  the  soil  partially  or  totally  unfit  for  profitable  cropping. 
The  term  has  no  necessary  reference  to  the  reaction  of  the  soil,  as  is 
commonly  supposed,  is  therefore,  a  misnomer,  and  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  term  "alkaline,"  as  referred  to  soil,  since  the  latter 
denotes  merely  a  "sweet"  or  favorable  condition  for  the  develop- 
ment of  most  of  our  crop  plants. 

The  "Alkali"  salts  may  include  common  salt,  Glauber  salt,  car- 
bonate of  soda,  Epsom  salt,  the  chlorides  of  calcium  and  magnesium 
and  more  rarely  some  others,  but  for  practical  purposes  we  may  take 
the  ordinary  classification,  namely  that  of  "black"  and  "white" 
alkali  as  being  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  soil  management.  By  the 
"black"  alkali,  which  is  by  far  the  most  harmful  of  the  sodium  of 
salts  mentioned,  we  mean  carbonate  of  soda.  It  is  so  called  because 
it  dissolves  out  the  humus  and  forms  a  black  slimy  layer  on  the  sur- 
face. Very  small  quantities  of  this  salt  are  sufficient  to  make  clay 
soils  unworkable  because  of  the  puddling  effect  it  has  on  clay,  and 
similarly  very  small  quantities  of  it  have  the  power  of  stopping  the 
important  process  of  nitrification.  Since  poorly  aerated  soils  in  the 
arid  regions  are  favorable  to  the  reactions  which  produce  "black" 
alkali,  especially  where  carbonates  are  plentiful  or  where  excessive 
amounts  of  nitrate  of  soda  are  used  for  fertilizing,  no  pains  should 
be  spared  to  insure  to  soils,  as  nearly  as  possible,  perfect  aeration 
through  drainage  and  tillage ;  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
use  of  irrigation  water,  and  nitrate  of  soda  should  be  employed 
sparingly. 

The  term  "white  alkali"  is  usually  applied  to  either  common  salt 
or  Glauber  salt,  or  both,  in  soils.  Where  present  in  sufficient  quantity 
white  alkali  salts  may,  through  evaporation  of  water,  be  deposited 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil  as  a  white  efflorescence,  such  as  that  seen 
in  exaggerated  form  on  the  Nevada  desert,  on  some  soils  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  and  on  some  of  the  Coachella  Valley  soils.  Of  the 
"white"  alkali  salts  common  salt  is  by  far  the  more  harmful,  and 
most  fruit  trees  are  not  very  resistant  to  it.  They  can,  however,  be 


HOW  TO  DETECT  SOIL  DEFECTS  35 

successfully  grown  in  soils  containing  very  considerable  quantities 
of  Glauber  salt. 

In  connection  with  consideration  of  the  possible  natural  alkali- 
content  of  the  soil,  it  is  essential  to  guard  against  its  increase  by  the 
use  of  alkaline  water  for  irrigation — which  will  be  mentioned  in  the 
chapter  on  irrigation. 

Prospecting  for  Soil  Defects. — For  subterranean  prospecting, 
Professor  Hilgard  commends  a  steel  rod  not  less  than  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  (round  or  square,  preferably  the  latter),  well 
pointed  at  one  end,  and  provided  at  the  other  with  a  stout  iron  ring 
for  the  reception  of  a  stout  cross-handle,  such  as  is  used  for  post-hole 
augers.  With  such  a  prod,  or  sounding  rod,  not  less  than  five  feet  in 
length,  the  exploration  of  the  subsoil  for  hard-pan  or  dense  clay 
layers  becomes  a  matter  of  a  few  minutes.  It  is  easy  also  to  detect 
thus  the  presence  of  underlying  layers  of  quicksand,  gravel,  or  other 
loose  materials  through  which  irrigation  water  would  waste,  or 
which  would  prevent  the  rise  of  bottom  water  within  reach  of  plant 
roots,  by  the  large  interspaces  between  their  grains.  Any  remaining 
doubts  as  to  the  nature  of  such  underlying  material  at  particular 
points  can  then  quickly  be  solved  by  the  use  of  a  post-hole  auger 
or  by  digging,  for  thorough  inspection  of  each  foot  of  depth  which 
may  be  found  desirable.  Subsoil  prospecting  or  sampling  can  also 
be  very  easily  done  by  boring  with  an  ordinary  carpenter's  auger, 
iy2  inches  in  diameter — the  shank  being  lengthened  by  welding-in 
a  piece  of  steel,  three  or  four  feet  in  length,  according  to  the  depth 
it  is  thought  desirable  to  penetrate.  Separate  samples  for  each  foot 
of  depth  are  thus  easily  taken. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  WILD  FRUITS  OF  CALIFORNIA 

The  wild  fruits  of  California  are  numerous,  and  for  the  most  part 
peculiar  to  the  region,  being  either  of  local  genera  or  local  species  of 
more  widely  distributed  genera.  Very  few  are  identical  with  the 
wild  fruits  common  to  great  areas  of  the  continent.  For  this  reason 
our  wild  fruits  constitute  a  very  interesting  subject  for  botanical 
study,  and  they  are  now,  perhaps,  more  widely  than  ever  before, 
attracting  the  attention  of  botanical  pomologists.  Viewed  from  the 
standpoint  of  practical  pomology  or  horticulture,  our  wild  fruits  can 
not  be  claimed,  on  the  whole,  to  have  attained  any  very  great  im- 
portance. 

A  few  fruits,  as  will  be  noted  further  on,  have  demonstrated  their 
culinary  or  household  value,  and  are  locally  sought  for,  but  none 
have  any  notable  commercial  value.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
some  of  our  most  delicious  wild  fruits  are  very  exacting  in  their 
choice  of  conditions,  and  can  not  be  moved  far,  even  within  the  limits 
of  our  own  State. 

Another  reason  why  we  have  made  little  of  our  own  wild  species 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  our  climate  favors  the  superior  growth  of 
the  best  improved  fruits  of  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.  Therefore, 
we  have  little  occasion  for  recourse  to  the  improvement  of  local  wild 
fruits,  because  of  superior  hardiness  and  adaptation,  as  has  been 
done  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

The  distribution  of  our  wild  fruits  is  determined  by  limitations 
of  areas  of  similar  climatic  conditions.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be 
said  that  fruits  are  most  aboundant  in  foothill  and  mountain  regions, 
and  that  our  great  valleys  have  always  been  practically  destitute  of 
them,  except  along  streams  borders.  These  fruits  are  most  abundant 
in  the  northern  portion  of  the  State,  but  some  exist  throughout  the 
State,  usually  thriving  at  higher  elevations  as  they  proceed  south- 
ward.* 

Oregon  Crabapple  (Pirus  rivularis). — This  fruit,  though  more 
abundant  in  the  more  northerly  regions  of  the  Coast,  as  its  name  in- 
dicates, is  found  in  the  northwest  counties  of  this  State.  It  chooses  a 
moist  situation,  becomes  a  tree  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  high,  shows 
white  bloom,  and  red  or  yellow  oblong  fruit,  about  half  an  inch  long. 
The  flavor  is  rather  acid,  but  the  fruit  is  eaten  by  the  Indians,  and 
was  sometimes  used  for  jelly-making  by  early  settlers. 

Wild  Plum  (Prunus  subcordata). — This  must  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  useful  of  our  wild  fruits.  Even  now,  when  the  plum 
varieties  of  all  the  world  have  been  introduced,  residents  in  some  of 
the  Sierra  regions,  where  the  fruit  abounds,  prefer  the  wild  plum 

*The  botanical  characters  and  relations  of  the  fruiting  plants  mentioned  in  this  chap- 
ter may  be  pursued  in  the  "Manual  of  California  Flowering  Plants,"  by  Dr.  W.  L.  Jepson, 
published  by  the  Associated  Students  Store,  Berkeley:  price,  $3. 


CALIFORNIA  WILD  PLUMS  AND  CHERRIES  37 

to  the  cultivated  fruit,  both  for  eating  and  preserving  and  jelly- 
making. 

Concerning  the  variable  species,  subcordata,  which  has  varieties 
both  excellent  and  worthless,  Dr.  W.  L.  Jepson  of  the  University  of 
California  furnishes  the  following  note : 

In  the  coast  ranges  and  central  Sierras  I  have  never  seen  Prunus  sub- 
cordata with  an  edible  or  near-edible  fruit.  But  in  Modoc  and  Siskiyou 
counties  the  shrubs  bear  abundantly  a  bright  red,  roundish  plum,  which 
is  used  freely  for  preserving  and  highly  praised  for  the  manufactured  pro- 
duct. These  plums  are  certainly  very  beautiful.  They  are  of  a  fine  crimson 
color  and  I  saw  shrubs  in  the  Warner  mountains  loaded  with  them.  At  the 
same  time  I  saw  shrubs  of  a  sub-race  ripening  two  weeks  later  a  reddish 
fruit,  much  more  bitter  and  little  used  by  the  settlers.  In  addition  there  is 
the  yellow  variety  (Kelloggii),  which  is  highly  esteemed. 

The  variety,  Kelloggii,  has  a  narrower  range,  forms  a  larger 
shrub,  and  bears  a  yellow  fruit,  larger  and  better  than  the  typical 
species. 

Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the  edible  varieties, 
both  red  and  yellow,  by  cultivation  and  selection  of  seedlings,  and 
the  results  are  promising,  as  fruit  has  been  shown  at  our  fairs 
notably  better  than  the  wild  gatherings.  The  roots  have  also  been 
used  to  some  extent  as  stocks,  but  seem  to  possess  no  marked  advan- 
tage. The  late  Mr.  Felix  Gillet,  of  Nevada  City,  reported  that  graft- 
ing an  improved  plum  on  the  wild  stock  seems  to  cause  the  root  to 
grow  to  much  greater  size  than  natural  to  it.  Observation  upon 
grafted  and  non-grafted  seedlings  in  the  same  nursery  row  con- 
vinced him  of  this  behavior.  Other  experimenters  have  condemned 
the  stock  because  of  dwarfing  and  suckering.  In  the  early  days  the 
wild  plums  in  the  mining  regions  of  the  mountains  were  largely 
made  use  of  and  highly  praised  by  pioneers. 

Oso  Berry  (Osmaronia  cerasiformis). — This  fruit  is  sometimes 
called  the  "California  false  plum."  It  has  a  plum-like  form,  one- 
half  inch  long,  and  is  of  a  rich,  blue-black  color,  but  is  bitter,  though 
not  disagreeable  to  birds  and  animals,  which  feed  upon  it.  The  white 
bloom  of  the  shrub  has  an  almond  odor.  Used  as  a  stock,  the  plum 
varieties  grafted  upon  it  have  been  dwarfed. 

Wild  Cherries  (Prunus  sp.). — Quite  a  group  of  wild  fruits  come 
under  this  generic  grouping,  and  they  have  marked  and  widely  dif- 
ferent characteristics.  The  western  choke-cherry  (Prunus  demissa) 
closely  resembles  the  Eastern  choke-cherry,  and  bears  its  round,  red, 
or  dark  purple  fruit  on  a  raceme.  It  is  used  for  marmalade  by  house- 
wives in  the  mountain  districts.  This  species  has  proved  of  some 
utility  both  for  its  fruit  and  as  a  stock  for  grafting  in  early  days 
when  better  cherry  stock  was  not  available.  Another  species,  Islay 
(Prunus  ilicifolia),  has  evergreen  foliage,  and  is  a  useful  hedge 
plant. 

Of  species  bearing  fruits  in  umbels,  or  true  cherry  style,  we  have 
the  Bitter  Cherry  (Prunus  emarginata),  which  makes  a  handsome 
tree,  sometimes  thirty  feet  high,  but  its  oval,  dark  red  fruit  is  quite 
bitter  and  astringent.  The  bush  form  bearing  bright  red  fruit,  in- 
tensely bitter,  is  the  variety  Californica. 


38 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


California  Grape  (Vitis  Californica). — Along  our  streams  the 
native  grape-vine  attains  large  size  and  fruits  freely,  the  fruit  re- 
sembling the  "frost  grape"  of  the  East.  The  vine  frequently  covers 
and  sometimes  kills  large  trees  with  the  density  of  its  foliage.  Some 
variation  is  reported  in  the  species,  but  it  is  possible  that  some  of  the 
better  kinds  are  seedlings  from  some  imported  species,  bird  planted. 
The  species  has  attained  something  of  a  reputation  as  a  phylloxera- 
resisting  root  for  grafting,  but  it  has  proved  exacting  in  its  choice 
of  soils  and  situations,  and  otherwise  not  desirable,  and  some  East- 
ern species  are  now  relied  upon  for  this  service. 

Elderberry  (Sambucus  glauca). — The  elderberry  makes  a  fine 
tree  in  California,  sometimes  twenty  feet  or  more  in  height,  and  with 
a  trunk  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter.  The  fruit  is  borne  in  large 
quantities  and  is  used  to  some  extent  for  preserves  and  pastry. 

Raspberries  (Rubus  sp.). — In  the  mountains  of  the  eastern  part 
of  the  State  is  a  scarlet  hemispherical  berry  of  pleasant  flavor,  which 
is  called  "thimbleberry"  (Rubus  parviflorus).  It  seems  to  have  an 
advantage  over  a  variety  (velutinus)  of  the  same  species  which  is 
found  near  the  coast  and  has  a  dry,  insipid  fruit.  Another  raspberry, 
which  is  found  in  all  hilly  and  mountainous  regions,  both  on  the 
coast  and  in  the  interior,  is  Rubus  leucodermis.  It  resembles  the 
black-cap  raspberry  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  except  that  it  has  yellow- 
ish-red fruit.  This  fruit  is  quite  largely  gathered  for  domestic  uses, 
and  some  efforts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  the  plants. 

Salmon  Berry  (Rubus  spectabilis). — The  beauty,  size,  and  de- 
licious flavor  of  this  fruit  are  highly  commended  by  all  who  have 
enjoyed  it  in  the  upper  coast  counties  of  California  and  farther 
northward.  The  plant  makes  a  strong  bush,  five  to  ten  feet  high, 
and  delights  in  the  woods  and  shady  banks  of  streams.  The  praise 
of  all  who  know  the  fruit  has  led  to  frequent  attempts  to  introduce 
the  plant  to  warmer  and  drier  parts  of  the  State,  but  such  efforts 
have  thus  far  uniformly  failed. 

Wild  Blackberry  (Rubus  vitifolius). — This  fruit  should  perhaps 
be  called  a  "dewberry,"  as  it  has  trailing,  or,  at  most,  but  partially 
raised  stems,  which  extend  from  five  to  twenty  feet.  The  plant 
occurs  abundantly  on  banks  of  streams  and  other  sufficiently  moist 
locations,  both  in  the  coast  and  interior  regions  of  the  State.  Around 
the  margin  of  Humboldt  Bay,  on  land  cleared  by  fire  or  axe,  black- 
berries spring  up  abundantly  on  the  denuded  land.  Tons  of  the  fruit 
are  said  to  remain  after  the  local  housewives  have  done  their  utmost 
in  preserving  and  jelly-making.  In  the  low-land  region  around 
Stockton  considerable  quantities  are  sometimes  gathered  for  sale. 
The  fruit,  which  has  been  held  in  high  repute  ever  since  pioneer 
days,  is  oblong,  black  and  sweet.  The  species  is  variable,  and  the 
anomaly,  a  white  blackberry,  has  been  reported  from  Del  Norte 
county.  The  native  wild  blackberry  is  one  of  the  parents  of  the  Lo- 
ganberry and  of  some  of  Mr.  Burbank's  hybrids  which  are  widely 
known. 


CALIFORNIA  WILD  BERRIES  AND  CURRANTS  39 

Wild  Strawberries  (Fragaria  sp.).— We  have  in  California  two 
Eastern  species :  Fragaria  vesca  and  F.  Virginiana.  Thus  far  these 
have  only  been  reported  from  localities  in  the  Sierra  mountain 
region.  Another,  the  sand  strawberry,  has  been  found  identical  with 
a  South  American  species,  Chilensis,  and  it  occurs  along  the  coast, 
where  the  fruit  is  esteemed,  and  is  sometimes  abundant  enough  to 
gather  in  quantity.  A  fourth  species,  wood  strawberry,  is  local,  and 
is  named  Californica.  It  bears  a  small  round  fruit  and  is  partial  to 
the  coast  region.  Recently  some  cultural  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  wild  strawberries,  and  varieties  worthy  of  propagation  have 
been  reported  by  growers  resident  in  the  Sierra  region.  Mr.  Albert 
F.  Etter  of  Ettersburg,  Humboldt  county,  has  secured  notable  re- 
sults in  crossing  with  the  wild  strawberry,  as  will  be  noted  in  the 
chapter  on  that  fruit. 

Wild  Gooseberries  and  Currants  (Ribes  sp.). — Some  of  our 
currant  species  are  achieving  quite  a  reputation  abroad  as  orna- 
mental shrubs,  but  they  bear  insipid  fruit.  The  fruit  of  Ribes  tenui- 
florum  is,  however,  more  agreeable,  and  is  esteemed  for  jellies,  etc., 
by  dwellers  in  its  region,  which  is  the  mountain  region  of  the  ex- 
treme north  of  the  State.  We  also  have  a  species  (bracteosum) 
which  has  something  of  the  black  currant  flavor  and  a  fair-sized  fruit, 
black  with  whitish  bloom,  and  very  sweet. 

There  are  also  several  species  of  Ribes  which  are  classed  with 
the  gooseberries,  but  only  three  bear  edible  fruit.  One  of  these 
(Ribes  divaricatum)  is  peculiar  to  this  coast;  another  (Ribes  Roe- 
zlii)  occurs  at  middle  elevations  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  berries 
are  small  to  medium,  of  pleasant  flavor,  and  well  armed  with  spines. 
Another  species  (Ribes  leptanthum),  common  in  San  Luis  Obispo 
and  Kern  counties,  resembles  the  flavor  of  the  cultivated  gooseberry, 
and  is  free  from  spines. 

Cranberries  and  Huckleberries  (Vaccinium  sp.). — We  have  sev- 
eral species  belonging  to  the  same  botanical  genus  as  the  Eastern 
cranberry,  but  quite  different  from  it  both  in  growth  of  the  plant 
and  character  of  fruit.  The  fruit  of  two  species  is  reddish,  but  in- 
sipid. Other  species  (V.  ovatum,  etc.)  have  dark  blue  or  purple 
fruit.  Some  of  these  are  locally  esteemed,  and  the  argument  drawn 
from  them  is  that  the  cranberry  of  commerce  would  succeed.  It 
should  be  stated,  however,  that  the  situations  in  which  these  plants 
thrive  are  not  at  all  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  bog  cran- 
berry. A  huckleberry  (Vaccinium  ovatum)  is  largely  gathered  in 
the  redwood  region  of  Northern  California,  for  canning  and  pie- 
making.  The  berries  are  juicy  and  delicious,  and  the  preserved  fruit 
has  a  very  agreeable  flavor.  In  one  year  as  many  as  two  thousand 
boxes  were  profitably  gathered  on  the  hills  of  western  Sonoma 
county. 

Other  Berries. — There  are  many  small,  wild  fruits  commonly 
designated  as  berries,  which  are  of  considerable  botanical  interest. 
The  fruit,  too,  may  be  said  to  be  edible,  judging  by  the  taste  of  In- 
dians, birds,  and  wild  beasts,  but  not  likely  to  be  much  more  than 


40  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

ornamental  in  the  eyes  of  white  people.  They  may  be  briefly  enu- 
merated : 

The  "manzanita"  (various  species  of  Arctostaphylos,  especially 
A.  manzanita,  A.  glauca,  and  A.  patula)  the  "little  apple"  of  the 
Spaniards,  bears  a  rather  dry  but  sub-acid  fruit. 

The  "bear  berry"  (Arctostaphylos  uvaursi)  is  esteemed  by  the 
Indians  both  as  food  and  medicine. 

"The  western  buffalo  berry"  (Shepherdia  argentea)  has  small 
acid  edible  fruits. 

The  "salal"  (Gaultheria  shallon),  small  fruit,  either  red  or  pur- 
ple, is  also  a  favorite  of  the  aborigines. 

Of  "barberries"  we  have  three  species  of  Berberis.  One,  aqui- 
folium,  is  called  the  "Oregon  grape,"  chiefly  notable  for  its  hand- 
some bloom,  which  has  been  chosen  the  State  flower  of  Oregon.  The 
fruit  is  dark  blue  and  the  root  is  said  to  be  a  febrifuge.  Another 
species  (nervosa)  has  a  larger  fruit  which  is  esteemed  in  cookery; 
and  a  third  species  (pinnata)  bears  a  small,  pleasant-flavored  fruit. 
It  is  the  Lena  amarilla  of  the  Spanish  Californians. 

Our  "service  berry"  (Amelanchier  alnifolia)  is  from  a  quarter  to 
a  third  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  of  a  purple  color. 

The  "lemon  berry"  is  a  fruit  of  Rhus  integrifolia,  and  is  coated 
with  an  acid  exudation  which  is  said  to  dissolve  in  water  and  make  a 
pleasant  drink.  The  fruit  of  Rhus  trilobata  is  said  to  have  both  a 
sweet  and  acid  coating. 

The  berries  of  the  "toyon"  or  "tollon"  (Heteromeles  arbuti- 
folia),  or  "California  holly,"  are  said  to  be  eaten  by  Indians,  but 
they  serve  the  white  people  a  better  purpose  in  Christmas  decora- 
tions. 

The  "jujubes"  of  commerce  (Zizyphus  jujuba)  has  a  local  rela- 
tive in  Zizyphus  parryi,  which  is,  however,  dry  and  mealy,  rather 
than  juicy. 

The  "beach  strawberry,"  or  "sea  fig,"  is  the  fruit  of  Mesembri- 
anthemum  aequilaterale,  a  relative  of  the  ice-plant.  The  good-sized 
fruit  is  gathered  along  the  seashore,  and  its  flavor  remotely  suggests 
a  strawberry. 

Wild  Olive  (Forestieria  Neo-mexicana). — This  is  a  tall  willow- 
like  shrub,  found  in  springy  places  on  the  borders  of  the  Mojave 
Desert.  It  also  grows  in  the  Salinas  Valley.  It  bears  an  abundance 
of  small  fruits  which,  from  their  botanical  relationship  to  the  olive, 
have  attracted  some  attention.  Experiments  to  determine  its  stand- 
ing as  a  possible  root  for  the  olive  have  been  suggested. 

Wild  Nuts  of  California. — The  wild  nuts  of  California  are  of  very 
little  commercial  importance.  The  wild  almond  (Prunus  Ander- 
sonii)  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  is  chiefly  of  botani- 
cal interest,  although  some  experiments  are  in  progress  in  its  use  as 
a  grafting  stock  for  the  sweet  almond.  The  California  filbert  (Cory- 
lus  Californica)  has  none  of  the  quality  of  the  improved  filberts  nor 
even  of  the  wild  hazelnut.  Our  native  chestnut,  the  giant  Chin- 
quapin (Castanopsis  chrysophylla)  has  a  sweet  kernel,  but  a  hard 


THE  WILD  NUTS  OF  CALIFORNIA  4^ 

shell,  almost  like  a  hazelnut ;  its  hear  *-elative,  Castanopsis  semper- 
virens,  or  Bush  Chinquapin  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  dry  Coast 
Range,  is  said  to  have  a  better  flavored  kernel.  The  nuts  of  both 
of  these  species  are  very  difficult  to  obtain  because  the  fruit  sets 
sparingly  and  the  squirrels  harvest  the  crop  early.  Of  our  two  spe- 
cies of  native  walnuts,  one  local  in  Southern  California  (Juglans 
Californica)  is  usually  a  small  tree  bearing  a  small  nut.  A  better 
tree  is  the  walnut  of  Central  California  (Juglans  Hindsii),  bearing 
a  larger  nut  which  is  better  in  flavor  than  the  Eastern  black  walnut, 
but  its  hard  shell  makes  it  of  little  commercial  account  in  competi- 
tion with  better,  cultivated  nuts.  The  root  is  widely  used  as  a  stock 
for  the  English  walnut,  as  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  the 
walnut. 

The  one  native  nut  which  is  regularly  sold  in  the  local  market  is 
the  "pinenut" — seeds  of  several  species  of  Pacific  Coast  pines,  par- 
ticularly the  "Nevada  Nut  Pine"  or  "One-leaf  Pinyon."  Their 
flavor  is  somewhat  resinous,  but  is  agreeable. 

The  seeds  of  two  species  of  palms,  Washingtonia  filifera  and  the 
Lower  California  Erythea  armata,  are  sought  for  by  the  Indians,  who 
also  eat  the  sweetish  fruit  of  the  Yucca  Mojavensis,  which  somewhat 
resembles  in  shape  the  banana,  and  in  flavor  the  fig,  and  is  called  the 
"wild  date." 

The  Indians  also  use  the  acorns  of  several  species  of  California 
oaks  as  food,  extracting  the  bitterness  by  soaking  in  water,  and  then 
making  a  rude  bread  of  the  acorn  meal. 

The  "jajoba,"  or  "goat-nut"  (Simmondsia  Californica),  is  a  low 
shrub,  the  fresh  fruits  of  which,  deprived  of  their  seed-coats,  are 
eaten  like  almonds,  and  when  dried  by  fire  and  ground  they  are  used 
as  a  beverage,  in  the  form  of  tablets  made  up  with  sugar,  or  as  a 
simple  infusion.  Fire-dried  seeds  contain  48.30  per  cent  of  fatty 
matter ;  the  oil  is  suitable  for  food  and  of  good  quality,  and  is  said 
not  to  turn  rancid.  In  Lower  California  it  is  prepared  by  boiling 
with  water. 

The  nuts  of  the  California  laurel  were  roasted  by  the  native  tribes 
and  esteemed  a  great  delicacy. 

Cactus. — The  common  cactus  (Opuntia  Engelmanni)  bears  a 
sweet  edible  fruit  which  the  Indians  dry  in  large  quantities  for  win- 
ter use.  By  long  boiling  they  make  a  sauce,  which,  after  slight 
fermentation,  they  consider  especially  nutritious  and  stimulating. 
The  local  species  has  been  used  by  Mr.  Burbank  in  crossing  to  secure 
improved  spineless  fruits  on  plants  of  greater  productiveness. 


CHAPTER  V 

CALIFORNIA  MISSION  FRUITS 

Cultivated  fruits  were  first  brought  into  California  from  the 
south.  Mission  work  among  the  Indians  of  Lower  California  was 
actually  begun  by  the  establishment  of  the  mission  at  Loreto  by 
Salvatierra,  October  19,  1697.  The  following  years  horses  and  cattle 
were  brought  from  Mexico,  and  from  this  introduction  came  ulti- 
mately the  vast  herds  which  roamed  the  hills  and  plains  of  Cali- 
fornia. Probably  the  first  seeds  and  plants  of  cultivated  vegetables 
and  fruits  came  about  the  same  time,  for  there  was  a  small  garden 
and  a  few  fruit  trees  at  Loreto  in  1701.  But  Loreto  was  not  fitted 
for  horticulture,  and  in  the  same  year  an  expedition  in  charge  of 
Father  Ugarte,  who  is  called  the  founder  of  agriculture  in  Lower 
California,  crossed  over  the  mountains  to  a  more  suitable  location 
at  the  mission  of  Vigge  Biaundo,  which  had  been  destroyed  some 
time  before  by  hostile  Indians.  Ugarte  restored  the  mission,  made 
irrigating  ditches,  and  planted  fruit  trees  and  vines.  This  effort  was 
successful  from  a  horticultural  point  of  view,  for  in  1707  Ugarte 
made  more  wine  than  would  suffice  for  mission  use,  and  sent  some 
to  Mexico  in  exchange  for  other  goods.  Thus  began  the  export  trade 
in  California  wine. 

The  Jesuits  continued  their  establishment  of  missions  in  Lower 
California  until  there  were  fifteen  missions,  at  five  of  which  there 
were  vineyards,  and  presumably  as  many  or  more  which  had  gardens 
with  fruit  trees. 

The  variety  of  fruits  grown  in  Lower  California  was  small.  They 
had  figs,  oranges,  citrons,  pomegranates,  plantains,  and  some  olives 
and  dates.  There^were  no  North  European  fruits,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  peaches,  which,  however,  did  not  appear  to  thrive. 

The  Jesuits  were  supplanted  in  Lower  California,  in  1768,  by  the 
Franciscans.  The  Franciscans,  led  by  Junipero  Serra,  at  once 
pressed  northward,  and  entered  the  territory  which  is  now  the  State 
of  California.  Their  first  establishment  was  at  San  Diego,  in  1769. 
Thence  they  proceeded  northward,  braving  many  perils,  and  under- 
going great  hardships,  establishing  missions  through  the  coast  re- 
gion of  the  State.  Credit  is  given  to  the  secular  head  of  the  expedi- 
tion to  San  Diego,  Don  Jose  de  Galvez,  representing  the  king  of 
Spain,  for  ordering  the  carrying  of  seeds  of  fruit,  grains,  vegetables, 
and  flowers  into  the  new  territory,  and  from  the  planting  at  San 
Diego  the  same  varieties  were  taken  to  the  twenty  missions  after- 
wards established. 

Kinds  of  Fruit  at  the  Missions. — It  is  of  no  little  interest  to  ascer- 
tain how  great  a  variety  of  fruits  was  grown  in  these  mission  or- 
chards. Vancouver,  in  1792,  found  a  fine  orchard  at  Santa  Clara, 
with  apple,  peach,  pear,  apricot,  and  fig  trees,  all  thrifty  and  promis- 
ing. He  also  describes  at  the  mission  of  San  Buena  Ventura  apples, 
pears,  plums,  figs,  oranges,  grapes,  peaches  and  pomegranates. 


MISSION  FRUITS  IN  AMERICAN  OCCUPATION  43 

Robinson  described  the  orchards  connected  with  the  Mission  of  San 
Gabriel  as  very  extensive,  having  among  their  trees  oranges,  citrons, 
limes,  apples,  pears,  peaches,  pomegranates,  and  figs.  There  were 
also  grapes  in  abundance.  Edwin  Bryant  noticed  at  San  Luis  Obispo 
Mission  the  orange,  fig,  date-palm,  olive,  and  grape.  E.  S.  Capron, 
in  a  general  enumeration  of  the  fruits  grown  at  the  missions,  includes 
cherries. 

Early  Planting  by  Others  than  the  Padres. — Though  the  earlier 
Spanish  population  had  the  example  of  successful  horticulture  before 
them  for  half  a  century  at  the  missions,  they  did  not  seem  inclined 
to  emulate  the  efforts  of  the  padres  upon  their  own  grounds,  except 
in  occasional  instances.  General  Vallejo  planted  fruit  trees  in 
Sonoma  Valley  as  early  as  1830,  and  of  his  place  it  is  said :  "It  is 
an  old  and  well-cultivated  place,  well  known  in  all  the  northern 
portions  of  California  while  this  State  was  still  Mexican  territory." 
Exceptions  there  were  also  at  the  south.  The  old  fruit  garden  on 
the  Camulos  Rancho,  in  Ventura  county,  has  become  famous.  Fre- 
mont, writing  of  his  observations  in  1846,  says  that  among  the  arid, 
brush-covered  hills  south  of  San  Diego  he  found  little  valleys  con- 
verted by  a  single  spring  into  crowded  gardens,  where  pears, 
peaches,  quinces,  pomegranates,  grapes,  olives,  and  other  fruits  grew 
luxuriantly  together. 

Scarcely  had  six  years  elapsed  subsequent  to  the  settlement  of 
the  pueblo  of  San  Jose  on  its  present  site  before  the  inhabitants 
were  enjoying  the  benefits  of  luxurious  fruits.  Before  1805  more 
fruit  was  grown  than  could  be  disposed  of  in  its  natural  state. 

Decline  of  the  Mission  Orchards. — The  decline  of  most  of  the 
mission  orchards  and  gardens  followed  the  secularization  of  the 
establishments  in  1834.  There  were  a  few  exceptions,  where  the 
mission  lands  fell  into  enterprising  Spanish  or  American  hands. 
During  the  years  of  neglect,  the  more  tender  trees  died,  and  the 
more  hardy  survived.  The  pear  and  the  olive  vied  with  the  vine  in 
withstanding  drouth  and  the  trampling  and  browsing  of  the  cattle 
that  roamed  unmolested  through  the  deserted  gardens.  These  pears, 
as  will  be  described  presently,  were  turned  to  good  account  by  the 
early  American  settlers ;  the  olive,  fig  and  vine  furnished  cuttings 
for  most  of  the  plantations  made  during  the  first  twenty  years  or 
more  of  American  occupation. 

But  it  seems  that  not  all  the  mission  orchards  were  permitted  to 
fall  into  decay  after  secularization.  In  1846  Edwin  Bryant  found 
at  the  Mission  San  Jose  two  gardens  inclosed  by  high  adobe  walls. 
The  area  was  from  fifteen  to  twenty  acres,  all  of  which  was  planted 
with  fruit  trees  and  grape  vines.  There  were  about  six  hundred 
pear  trees  and  a  large  number  of  apple  and  peach  trees,  all  bearing 
fruit  in  great  abundance,  the  quality  of  the  pears  being  excellent, 
the  apples  and  peaches  indifferent.  Other  visitors  to  some  of  the 
mission  orchards  between  the  events  of  secularization  and  American 
occupation  speak  of  being  regaled  with  pears  and  milk,  a  dish  which 
seemed  to  them  ambrosial  after  the  weary  journeys  overland  across 
the  deserts,  or  after  months  of  ship  fare. 


44  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Planting  ol  Mission  Fruits  by  Early  Settlers. — There  were  quite 
considerable  plantations,  chiefly  of  mission  grapes  and  oranges,  by 
early  settlers  in  the  neighborhood  of  Los  Angeles.  General  Bidwell 
saw  in  Los  Angeles  in  1845  the  largest  vineyard  that  he  had  seen  in 
California,  and  the  vines  were  the  most  thrifty.  Wine  was  also 
abundant — even  the  Angelica.  Los  Angeles  had  orchards,  also, 
mostly  of  oranges.  The  largest  orange  orchards  at  that  time  were 
those  of  Wolfskill,  Carpenter,  and  Louis  Vigne.  During  recent  years 
the  modern  city  of  Los  Angeles  has  been  built  over  and  beyond 
them. 

Among  the  early  planters  of  mission  fruits  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  State  was  Yount,  who  planted  vines  in  Napa  Valley  in  1838, 
and  other  fruits  later.  John  Wolfskill,  of  Winters,  saw  grapes  and 
peaches  at  Yount's  in  1841,  and  J.  M.  Pleasant  took  peach  pits  from 
Yount's  over  into  Pleasant's  valley,  Solano  county,  in  1851.  Dr. 
Marsh,  on  his  place  at  the  base  of  Mount  Diablo,  had,  in  1842,  a 
mission  grape  vineyard  more  than  an  acre  in  extent,  and  in  good 
bearing.  The  vines  were  planted  about  1838.  Mr.  Wolfskill  planted 
a  few  vines  on  Putah  Creek  in  1842. 

Partial  Revival  of  the  Mission  Fruit  Gardens, — After  the  incom- 
ing of  Americans  in  1849  some  of  the  old  Mission  trees  were  secured 
by  enterprising  men,  and  made  to  renew  their  youth  by  pruning, 
cultivation,  and  irrigation,  that  they  might  minister  to  the  great 
demand  for  fruit  which  sprang  up  among  the  gold  seekers.  The 
trees  richly  reciprocated  the  care  and  attention  given  them,  and 
there  still  exist  at  the  San  Gabriel  Mission  old  pear  trees  grafted 
over  with  improved  varieties  by  W.  M.  Stockton  in  1854.  The  first 
fruits  offered  for  sale  in  San  Francisco  markets  were  from  the  pear 
trees  of  Santa  Clara  and  San  Jose  Missions,  and  from  the  mission 
grapevines  of  the  same  localities,  and  of  Los  Angeles  county.  These 
grapes,  packed  in  sawdust,  came  up  the  coast  by  steamer,  and  were 
then  re-shipped  to  the  mining  camps,  arriving  for  the  most  part  in 
good  condition,  and  were  very  popular.  It  is  recorded  that  one 
thousand  five  hundred  tons  of  these  grapes  were  sent  from  Los 
Angeles  county  to  San  Francisco  and  the  mines  in  1852.  Another 
instance  in  which  thrift  followed  neglect  is  seen  in  the  fact  that,  in 
1858,  Don  Andres  Pico,  who  succeeded  to  possession  of  the  orchard 
at  the  San  Fernando  Mission,  did  a  considerable  business  in  drying 
pears  and  other  fruits,  using  the  labor  of  the  Indians. 

At  the  present  time  vestiges  of  the  old  mission  orchards  still  re- 
main, the  pears  and  olives  still  bearing,  and  in  some  cases  the  old 
date  palms  guarding  the  desolate  scenes,  or  standing  as  reminders 
of  the  old  regime,  while  the  new  life  of  California  is  surging  up 
around  them. 

RUSSIAN  FRUITS 

The  second  introduction  of  cultivated  fruits  to  California  was  by 
the  Russians.  The  exact  date  of  their  planting  at  Fort  Ross  on  the 
ocean  side  in  Mendocino  county,  is  not  known,  but  is  believed  to 
have  been  as  early  as  1812.  The  survivors  of  the  original  Russian 


RUSSIAN  INTRODUCTION   OF  FRUITS  45 

planting  look  "very  old  and  mossy,  and  are  not  very  thrifty,  but 
still  bear  some  fruit  every  year."  They  were  planted  too  closely, 
and  have  undergone  periods  of  neglect,  no  doubt.  The  trees  are 
apple  for  the  most  part,  but  there  were  also  cherries,  and  some  of 
both  fruits  survive.  The  trees  are  all  believed  to  have  been  grown 
from  seed,  and  if  this  be  true  some  fortunate  results  were  obtained, 
for  there  is  still  grown  in  Green  Valley,  Sonoma  county,  a  medium- 
sized,  bell-shaped  apple,  lightly  striped  with  red,  which  is  called 
the  Fort  Ross  or  Russian  apple,  and  was  probably  propagated  by 
grafts  from  the  Fort  Ross  orchard.  Seeds  were  also  secured  from 
this  source  for  propagation  of  apple  trees  in  early  days  in  that  sec- 
tion of  the  State. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CALIFORNIA'S   LEADERSHIP   IN   AMERICAN 
FRUIT  INDUSTRIES 

The  first  cultivated  fruits  of  the  old  era  came  to  California  with 
the  padres.  The  first  fruits  of  the  new  era  came  with  the  American 
pioneers.  Though  mot  a  little  inquiry  has  been  made,  it  is  not  yet 
possible  to  declare  definitely  who  brought  the  first  budded  or  grafted 
trees  upon  California  soil.  It  is  a  tradition  in  the  family  of  Martin 
Lelong,  who  came  to  California  as  a  member  of  Stevenson's  regi- 
ment in  1846,  that  he  brought  with  him  a  small  lot  of  trees  of  French 
varieties  of  apples  growing  in  a  box,  and  that  they  were  planted  in 
Los  Angeles. 

In  the  fall  of  1849,  W.  H.  Nash  joined  with  R.  L.  Kilburn  in  or- 
dering from  a  nursery  in  western  New  York  a  small  box  of  thirty- 
six  fruit  trees,  which,  packed  in  moss,  well  survived  the  journey 
around  the  Horn,  arriving  and  being  planted  in  Napa  Valley  in  the 
spring  of  1850.  The  shipment  included  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Rox- 
bury  Russet,  Winesap,  Red  Romanite,  Esopus  Spitzenburg  apples ; 
Bartlett  and  Seckel  pears,  Black  Tartarian  and  Napoleon  Bigarreau 
cherries. 

Before  the  introduction  of  grafted  fruit  trees,  and,  indeed,  for 
several  years  afterwards,  there  were  many  shipments  of  fruit-tree 
seeds  from  the  Eastern  States  to  California.  Mr.  Barnett  planted 
Kentucky  seed  as  early  as  1847  in  Napa  county.  T.  K.  Stewart 
brought  to  California  with  him,  in  1848,  about  two  hundred  pounds 
of  vegetable  and  fruit  seeds,  the  latter  including  peach,  pear  and 
apple,  all  of  which  were  planted  on  the  American  River,  within  the 
present  limits  of  Sacramento,  in  the  spring  of  1849.  At  the  same 
time  he  planted  figs  and  olives,  and,  in  1851,  seeds  of  oranges.  From 
all  these  he  secured  bearing  trees.  In  1848  also,  Peter  Weimar,  who 
was  with  Marshall,  the  discoverer  of  gold,  at  Coloma  planted  seeds 
which  he  took  from  dried  apples  brought  from  the  east  and  grew 
seedling  apples  which  were  very  profitable. 

But  these  early  efforts  at  improvement  of  California  fruits  were 
but  faint  forerunners  of  the  zeal  and  enterprise  which  followed  the 
great  invasion  by  gold  seekers.  As  soon  as  the  first  thought — to  get 
gold  directly  from  the  soil — would  admit  the  second — to  get  it  in- 
directly, by  agricultural  and  horticultural  arts — there  came  a  de- 
mand for  something  better  than  the  wild  fruits  of  the  mountains, 
better  and  more  abundant  than  the  seedling  fruits  from  the  mission 
orchards.  At  first  everything  in  the  line  of  fruit-tree  seed  which 
could  be  obtained  was  planted.  Thus  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
mines  soon  began  to  show  growing  fruit  trees.  But  seedlings  of  any 
kind  would  not  satisfy  the  planters,  and  effort  was  put  forth  in  every 
direction  after  grafted  trees  of  the  best  varieties.  Oregon  had  a 
few  years  the  start  of  California  as  an  inviting  field  for  immigration 
and  the  advantage  also  of  winning  the  attention  of  those  who  went 
out,  not  as  gold  seekers,  but  as  agricultural  producers.  Oregon  had 


INTRODUCTION  OF  IMPROVED  FRUITS  47 

grafted  trees  in  bearing,  and  nursery  stock  as  well,  about  the  time 
the  demand  sprang  up  for  it  in  California.  Up  to  1847  the  cultivated 
fruit  of  Oregon  consisted  of  seedlings  introduced  by  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  in  1824,  and  by  the  early  settlers  from  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  In  1847  Henderson  Lewelling  crossed  the  plains  from  Henry- 
county,  Iowa,  to  Oregon,  bringing  with  him  a  pretty  general  vari- 
ety of  grafted  fruits.  He  fitted  up  a  wagon,  selected  small  plants, 
and  planted  them  in  soil  in  the  boxes.  He  arrived  in  Oregon,  late  in 
the  fall,  with  three  hundred  plants  alive.  The  same  fall  William 
Meek  arrived  in  Oregon  with  a  few  varieties  of  fruit  trees.  He  and 
Lewelling  put  their  stock  together,  and  commenced  the  first  nursery 
of  grafted  fruits  on  the  Pacific  Coast  about  five  miles  south  of  Port- 
land, on  the  east  bank  of  the  Willamette  river.  In  March,  1851, 
grafts  of  apple,  pear,  peach,  plum  and  cherry  were  brought  to  Cali- 
fornia by  Mr.  Seth  Lewelling  and  sold  in  Sacramento. 

Other  commercial  importations  and  shipments  by  planters  for 
their  own  use  were  also  made,  so  that  the  plantings  of  1851-52  were 
quite  large.  Still  there  was  great  doubt  as  to  the  success  of  the 
trees.  Mr.  G.  G.  Briggs,  after  his  great  melon  profits  of  1851,  went 
back  to  New  York  State  for  his  family,  and,  returning  to  California, 
brought  with  him,  as  he  says,  "with  no  idea  that  they  would  succeed, 
but  as  a  reminder  of  home,"  fifty  peach  and  a  few  apple  and  pear 
trees.  To  his  surprise,  the  trees  grew  well  in  1852,  and  the  next 
year  blossomed  and  bore  some  of  the  best  peaches  he  ever  saw.  The 
pears  also  bore  some  fine  fruit  the  same  year. 

There  were  other  introductions  of  grafted  trees  in  1852,  for,  at  a 
fair  held  in  San  Francisco  in  1853,  there  were  several  kinds  of 
apples,  grown  by  Isaac  A.  Morgan,  of  Bolinas,  on  trees  planted  the 
previous  year,  for  which  a  silver  medal  was  awarded,  which  is  still 
cherished  by  the  members  of  his  family.  Apples  were  also  shown 
from  Napa.  David  Spence,  of  Monterey,  showed  the  first  almonds 
grown  in  California.  During  the  winter  of  1852-53  the  distribution 
of  grafted  trees  extended  widely  over  the  State.  Five  dollars  for  a 
small  tree  was  frequently  paid  at  the  nursery  in  Oregon,  and  the 
trees  were  carried  overland  into  the  mining  districts  of  California, 
as  well  as  brought  to  San  Francisco  for  distribution  through  the 
valleys- 
Fruit  Gardens,  Not  Orchards. — It  is  interesting  to  note  that  much 
of  the  pioneer  effort  was  expended  upon  fruit  gardens  rather  than 
fruit  orchards.  Two  ideas,  at  least,  led  in  this  direction.  One  was 
the  popular  thought,  which,  however,  was  very  early  found  to  be 
erroneous,  that  frequent  and  copious  irrigation  was  essential  to  the 
growth  of  fruit  in  this  dry  climate.  Another  was  the  ambition, 
which  was  correct,  both  from  a  horticultural  and  commercial  point 
of  view,  to  secure  the  fruit  just  as  soon  as  possible,  for  the  double 
purpose  of  determining  what  was  adapted  to  the  novel  conditions, 
and  to  secure  the  magnificent  prices  which  fruit  commanded  in  the 
market.  For  these  ends  dwarfing  stocks  naturally  suggested  them- 
selves, and  were  employed  to  an  extent  which  seems  wonderful  when 
it  is  remembered  that  now  very  few  dwarf  fruit  trees  are  grown. 
Very  early,  say  from  '52  to  '58,  at  San  Jose,  Oakland,  Stockton  and 


48  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Sacramento,  small  areas,  which  would  now  only  be  considered  re- 
spectable house  lots,  were  turned  to  great  profit  with  dwarf  pear 
and  apple  trees.  The  place  of  Mr.  Fountain,  near  Oakland,  was 
called,  in  1857,  "The  finest  orchard  of  dwarf  trees  in  the  State." 
It  consisted  of  three  acres  set  with  one  thousand  six  hundred  apple 
and  pear  trees,  all  dwarf  from  root  grafts,  two  years  old,  and  four 
feet  high,  and  most  of  them  in  good  bearing.  He  started  the 
branches  from  the  ground,  pruning  severely,  and  heading  in  during 
the  winter.  He  claimed  that  dwarfing  gave  him  better  and  larger 
fruit,  and  from  two  to  three  years*  sooner  than  with  standard  trees. 
He  did  not  irrigate,  but  plowed  frequently,  four  inches  deep,  up  to 
the  first  of  June. 

But  though  these  dwarf-tree  gardens  were  formally  declared  "to 
be  the  fashion,"  and  though  the  list  of  stock  of  one  Sacramento 
nurseryman,  in  1858,  included  ninety-five  standard  and  eight  thou- 
sand and  sixty-eight  dwarf  pear  trees  for  sale,  the  foundations  of  the 
greater  orchards  were  early  laid  upon  the  basis  of  standard  trees. 
Thus  the  Briggs'  orchard,  of  one  thousand  acres  on  the  moist  land 
of  the  Yuba,  was  planted  with  trees  sixteen  feet  apart  each  way, 
and  other  early  planters  on  the  rich  lands  of  central  Alameda  county 
adopted  about  the  same  distance. 

Quite  in  contrast,  too,  with  the  prevalence  of  dwarf  trees,  and 
contemporaneous  with  it,  was  the  grand  plan  which  the  pioneer  of 
pioneers,  General  Sutter,  laid  out  his  orchard  on  Hock  Farm,  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Feather  River,  eight  miles  from  its  junction  with 
the  Yuba.  Several  acres  were  set  apart  for  an  ornamental  fruit 
orchard,  the  trees  and  shrubs  being  so  arranged  as  to  present  a 
unique  landscape  garden,  nearly  every  article  in  which  is  productive 
of  fruit.  The  fruit  trees  were  planted  on  either  side  of  the  broad 
avenues  opening  through  the  extensive  grounds  in  various  direc- 
tions. 

But  neither  the  narrow  dwarf-tree  garden  plan  nor  the  broad 
landscape-garden  plan  survived.  Neither  of  them  harmonized  with 
the  commercial  idea  of  orcharding — large  production  and  economy 
of  cultivation,  and  both  were  soon  abandoned.  The  only  early  plant- 
ing of  dwarf  trees  which  now  survives  is  the  Block  orchard  of  pears 
at  Santa  Clara  which  will  be  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  that  fruit. 

Irrigation  Abandoned. — The  early  abandonment  of  dwarf  trees 
suggests  also  the  early  abandonment  of  irrigation  in  the  valleys  of 
Northern  California — as  early  as  1856.  Facilities  which  had  been 
secured  for  irrigation  of  orchards  were  allowed  to  go  unused,  be- 
cause it  was  thought  better  not  to  use  them.  One  case  is  reported 
in  Napa  county  where  means  to  furnish  the  orchard  with  thirty 
thousand  gallons  of  water  per  day  were  allowed  to  lie  idle.  The 
substitution  of  cultivation  for  water,  of  course,  attended  this  reform. 
The  announcement  of  a  practice,  in  1856,  "to  plow  deep,  dig  wide 
and  deep  holes  for  planting,  and  work  the  ground  from  February 
to  July,  allowing  no  grass  or  weeds  to  grow  among  the  trees,"  shows 
that  the  thorough  and  clean  culture,  for  which  California  became 
famous,  is  an  old  idea.  Even  the  abandonment  of  the  plow,  and 
almost  weekly  use  of  the  cultivator,  was  the  practice  of  some  grow- 


PIONEER  EXPERIENCES  IN  FRUIT  GROWING  49 

ers  in  the  San  Jose  district  before  1860.  In  fact,  the  descriptions  of 
orchard  management  in  that  day  include  nearly  all  the  methods 
which  have  since  prevailed.  Later  experience  has,  however,  shown 
that  irrigation  facilities  are  more  valuable  even  for  deciduous  fruits 
than  was  once  thought  possible.  This  proposition  will  be  discussed 
in  the  chapter  on  irrigation.  As  for  the  policy  of  clean  cultivation 
for  the  whole  year,  it  also  has  been  succeeded  by  a  more  rational 
policy  of  cover  cropping  which  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapters  on 
cultivation  and  fertilization. 

Early  Wisdom  and  Enterprise. — It  is  evident  to  anyone  who 
studies  the  records,  that  California  was  very  fortunate  in  numbering 
among  the  early  settlers  so  many  men  with  horticultural  tastes,  skill, 
and  experience.  The  rapidity  with  which  fruit  trees  were  multiplied, 
and  the  confidence  with  which  these  early  comers  entered  upon  the 
nursery  business,  shows  their  training.  Although  there  were  many 
trees  brought  here  from  the  East  and  from  Europe,  they  constituted 
only  a  small  percentage  of  the  plantings  of  the  first  few  years; 
but  the  orchards,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  small  number  of  trees 
introduced  to  furnish  grafting  and  budding  stock,  were  the  product 
of  the  soil.  When  this  is  borne  in  mind,  it  becomes  all  the  more 
wonderful  how  so  much  could  be  done  in  a  new  country,  in  a  distant 
part  of  the  world,  in  so  very  short  a  time.  It  was  an  observation 
which  was  put  upon  record  as  early  as  1856,  that  "some  varieties  of 
fruit  are  much  improved  by  change  to  this  State,  and  some  are  not 
benefited."  The  test  seems  to  have  been  that  if  a  variety  was  not 
better  than  at  the  East,  it  should  be  discarded. 

The  First  Oversupply. — The  wonderful  stimulus  given  to  the 
fruit  interest  by  the  results  obtained  in  growth  and  in  marketing, 
soon  induced  larger  plantings  than  the  demand  warranted.  In  1857 
it  was  publicly  stated  that  "there  are  single  farms  in  this  State  con- 
taining each  over  half  a  million  fruit  trees  in  orchard  and  nursery — 
one  person  owning  enough  trees,  when  fully  matured,  to  produce  as 
much  fruit,  other  than  grapes,  as  will  be  sold  this  year  throughout 
our  State.  The  day  is  not  far  distant  when  fruit  will  be  an  impor- 
tant crop  for  raising  and  fattening  swine."  This  was,  to  a  certain 
extent,  a  statement  of  a  croaker,  for  plantation  continued,  rare  va- 
rieties were  brought  from  the  East,  the  South,  and  from  Europe; 
the  growth  of  some  fruits  continued  to  be  very  profitable  and  the 
nursery  business,  confined  to  fewer  hands,  was  profitable  also.  The 
idea  that  quality  rather  than  size  should  be  striven  for  led  to  more 
discrimination  in  propagation  and  better  treatment  of  trees. 

The  decade  from  1858  to  1868  was  one  of  quiet  in  the  fruit  in- 
terest of  California.  Many  of  the  too  hastily  and  carelessly  planted 
trees  died  from  lack  of  proper  cultivation  and  pruning,  and  the 
borer  wrought  sad  havoc.  In  1860  and  1861  there  was  serious  de- 
pression. It  is  recorded  that  peaches  were  worth  but  one  cent  a 
pound,  and  many  were  allowed  to  go  to  waste  as  not  worth  gather- 
ing. The  flood  of  1862  destroyed  many  trees  along  the  Sacramento 
River,  and  replanting  was  slow  until  prices  began  to  improve,  as 
they  did  soon  afterward.  The  rapid  development  of  the  mining  in- 


50 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


terest  in  Nevada,  and  the  construction  of  roads  across  the  Sierras, 
opened  the  way  for  the  disposition  of  much  fruit  grown  in  the  foot- 
hills and  in  the  region  around  Sacramento. 

The  imports  of  dried  and  canned  fruits  were  large,  and  growers 
were  exhorted  to  take  steps  to  secure  this  trade  for  themselves. 
Something  was  done  in  this  direction,  for  by  1867  the  local  product 
of  canned  fruit  was  equal  to  the  demand.  Drying  did  not  advance 
so  fast ;  for  two  years  later  there  were  imports  of  six  thousand  bar- 
rels of  dried  apples,  while  hundreds  of  thousands  of  bushels  of 
the  fruit  were  rotting  under  the  trees  in  our  orchards. 

The  decade  under  review  was  also  notable  for  the  first  appear- 
ance of  cured  raisins  and  prunes  at  the  State  Fair  of  1863.  The 
raisins  were  from  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  grape,  and  the  report 
states  that  so-called  raisins  exhibited  previous  to  that  time  were 
merely  dried  grapes.  Dr.  J.  Strentzel,  of  Martinez,  was  the  first 
exhibitor  of  Muscat  raisins,  and  he  exhibited  also  dried  grapes  of 
four  varieties  to  show  the  contrast  between  a  raisin  and  a  dried 
grape.  It  is  recorded,  however,  that  true  raisins  from  the  Muscat 
grape  were  made  by  A.  P.  Smith,  of  Sacramento,  in  1858.  J.  R. 
Nickerson,  of  Placer  County,  exhibited  the  dried  prunes,  which  were 
of  the  German  variety. 

Though  this  decade  was  one  of  uncertainty  and  doubt,  there 
were  rich  lessons  of  experience  learned,  and  the  foundations  for 
coming  greatness  were  well  laid.  Many  of  our  leading  lines  of 
production  trace  their  beginnings  to  this  period,  and  their  later 
developmentis  have  been  beyond  any  anticipations  then  cherished. 

Fresh  Fruits  for  Distant  Markets. — In  1869  the  first  fresh  fruits 
were  sent  East  over  the  newly-opened  overland  line.  The  first  sea- 
son's shipments  amounted  to  thirty-three  tons  of  pears,  apples, 
grapes,  and  plums ;  in  1870  seventy  carloads,  or  about  seven  hundred 
tons,  were  sent.  A  new  era  began  with  the  year  1886,  when  the  first 
full  train  load  of  fifteen  cars  of  fresh  fruit  from  deciduous  trees 
went  overland.  Shipping  train  loads  of  oranges  from  Southern 
California  began  at  an  earlier  date.  The  development  of  this  phase 
of  California  fruit  production  during  the  last  fifteen  years  is  shown 
in  the  adjacent  table.  Statistics  of  long  distance  shipments  of 
fresh  fruits  from  the  beginning  are  given  in  earlier  editions  of  this 
book. 

Shipments  of  Fresh  Fruits  Beyond  State  Lines  by  Rail,  in  Actual  Carloads. 

Miscel- 
Year  Oranges  Lemons  Apricots  Cherries  Grapes  Peaches  Pears  Plums     laneous     Total 

1910  .       .   28,317    4,782       290        250    4,948    2,518  2,361  1,552       17    25,542 

1911   39,630    6,764       215        216    6,374    2,0272,3251,366       16    45,638 

1912  .       .  34,329    5,961        196        244    6,357     1,621  3,135  1,776       15    58,738 

1913  15,893  2,192  158  231     6,363  2,3592,4961,706  19  53,622 

1914  45,594  2,954  382  166    8,773  2,1442,7251,907  49  34,121 

1915  40,011  6,851  392  205    9,563  1,6892,6462,225  58  65,326 

1916  38,034  7,200  290  164    9,722  1,9093,7011,999  106  64,753 

1917  46,447  7,914  403  33013,944  2,4324,8022,651  66  69,902 

1918  17,204  6,331  440  35616,358  3,1374,5712,483  75  50,955 

1919  39,307  10,023  420  335  19,017  2,773  4,248  2,918  49  79,091 

1920  35,547  9,029  312  49424,065  3,1074,3762,533  312  80,777 


PRESENT  EXTENT  OF  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY 


51 


The  table  does  not  include  apples  because  they  are  not  handled 
in  the  same  way  as  other  fruits.  The  figures  of  dried  and  canned 
fruits  and  nuts  will  appear  in  Chapter  XLI. 

The  Fruit  Interests  of  1920.— The  fruit  interests  of  California 
now  constitute  the  greatest  single  industry  of  California,  and  the 
fruit  output  of  California  is  far  greater  than  that  of  any  other  State 
in  the  Union.  Notable  progress  has  been  secured  in  planting,  in 
the  growth,  preparation  and  marketing  of  the  product,  in  the  con- 
test with  injurious  insects  and  plant  diseases,  and,  in  fact,  in  all 
things  which  contribute  to  success. 

Some  idea  of  the  dimensions  of  the  California  fruit  interests  may 
be  had  from  the  enumeration  of  the  trees  and  vines  made  by  the 
State  Board  of  Equalization  for  March  1,  1920,  and  the  report  of 
the  quantities  and  valuations  of  the  products  to  the  growers  made 
by  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  the  year  1920,  as  follows : 

Acreage  of  California  Fruits:   Also  Products  and  Valuation  for  1920 


Fruit 

Bearing  trees 

Non-Bearing 

Product 

Valuation 

Almond   

.  2,711,550 

1,872,387 

5,500  tons 

$     1,980,000 

Apple    

.  2,276,406 

1,149,300 

6,000,000  bushels 

9,605,000 

Apricot   

.  3,336,646 

548,054 

115,000  tons 

9,775,000 

Cherry    

.      750,794 

301,917 

15,000   do 

3,000,000 

Fig    

.      543,940 

386,024 

10,000   do 

900,000 

Peach    

.  10,708,395 

980,403 

345,000   do 

26,220,000 

Pear    

.  2,168,198 

1,098,668 

90,000   do 

8,100,000 

Plum  

.   1,133,135 

261,553 

35,000    do 

3,150,000 

Prune   

.11,829,833 

3,329,634 

*95,000    do 

19,000,000 

Orange  

.  9,978,635 

1,490,826 

18,700,000  boxes 

51,425,000 

Lemon    

.  2,212,883 

531,253 

4,500,000    do 

2,700,000 

Pomelo    

.      143,423 

149,802 

325,000    do 

893,750 

Olive    

.   1,150,059 

353,199 

10,000  tons 

800,000 

Walnut   

.   1,173,123 

381,068 

21,500   do 

8,000,000 

Grapes,  table.  .  . 
Grapes,  raisin... 

.      f64,823 
.    t!38,922 

t!5,938 
t!9,814 

160,000   do 
*180,000   do 

12,000,000 
55,800,000 

Grapes,   wine.  .  . 

.    t!26,357 

tlO,697 

380,000    do 

24,700,000 

Strawberries  .  .  . 

t4,974 

10,808,048  quarts 

2,540,082 

Berries,    other.. 

.       t2,962 

4,650,678      do 

931,140 

Total  valuation  on  farm  I 

'not  in  mark 

et).. 

..$241,519,972 

flndicates  acres. 

*Figures  for  prunes  and  raisins  are  weights  of  cured  products. 

It  was  shown  by  the  U.  S.  Census  of  1910  that  California  led 
the  other  States  in  every  fruit  except  two — the  apple  and  the  cherry. 
California  also  led  in  the  total  value  of  all  fruits  produced  in  all 
States — producing  in  fact  about  one-fourth  of  all  the  fruit  grown  in 
the  United  States.  Since  the  census  year,  1909,  the  California  fruit 
interests  have  notably  advanced,  and  it  is  anticipated  that  the  census 
of  1920  will  show  that  California  leads  in  the  production  of  all  fruits 
grown  in  the  United  States  except  the  apple.  The  preliminary  re- 
ports of  the  Census  of  1920  place  the  farm  value  of  the  fruit  crops  of 
1919  at  $270,910,705.  The  less  value  for  1920,  as  given  above,  is  due 
to  fluctuations  both  in  production  and  prices  prevailing. 


52  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

INFLUENCE    OF  THE    FRUIT   INDUSTRIES    UPON 
CALIFORNIA   DEVELOPMENT 

Enlistment  in  California  fruit  growing  has  proved  exceedingly 
satisfactory  to  tens  of  thousands  of  people  in  the  various  ways 
along  which  they  have  approached  it.  The  fruit  districts  are  full 
of  cottage  homes  sheltering  families  of  those  who  have  begun  with 
small  investments  and  have  made  a  good  livelihood,  and  often  con- 
siderably more,  from  a  few  acres  of  fruits  grown  largely  without 
expenditure  for  hired  labor.  The  study  of  the  needs  of  the  tree  or 
vine  and  ministering  to  them  by  personal  effort  has  brought  new 
health  and  new  incentive  to  the  worn  and  weary  who  have  taken 
up  outdoor  life  and  activity  in  California  fruit  growing  with  a  wise 
choice  of  location,  land  and  fruits,  for  obviously  in  all  investments 
one  must  be  wise  as  well  as  willing. 

In  large  operations  hundreds  have  notably  succeeded  by  pur- 
chasing good  land  in  large  tracts  at  low  rates  and  making  ample 
investment  for  its  development  and  improvement.  Some  of  the  most 
delightful  of  our  towns  and  villages  have  arisen  as  a  direct  result 
of  such  employment  of  capital.  Well  established  communities,  well 
churched  and  schooled,  well  provided  for  in  local  trade  and  trans- 
portation, have  followed  investment  and  devoted  effort  in  colony 
enterprises. 

Hundreds,  also,  have  purchased  large  tracts  of  wild  land  and 
have  developed  fine  estates  for  their  own  personal  gratification, 
with  thriving  orchards  of  all  kinds  of  fruits,  rich  pastures  tenanted 
with  improved  livestock,  parks,  gardens  and  buildings  comparable 
with  the  estates  of  the  European  nobility,  except  that  California 
conditions  favor  freedom  and  variety  in  outdoor  effort  unknown 
in  Europe,  and  command  proportional  interest  and  enthusiasm. 
Estates  for  winter  residences  in  California  are  exceptionally  desir- 
able, not  only  because  of  natural  advantages  and  greater  possibilities 
of  development,  but  because  of  the  advanced  standing  of  the  State 
financially  and  socially. 

All  of  these  lines  of  effort,  then — home-making  in  a  small  way, 
colony  enterprise  and  private  estate  development — have  yielded  on 
the  whole  great  satisfaction  and  success.  Fruit  growing  has  been 
the  central  idea  in  nearly  all  of  them,  but  it  is  obvious  that  activity 
in  any  productive  line  begets  opportunity  for  other  lines,  and  so  all 
branches  of  agriculture  have  advanced  and  the  diversification  is 
highly  desirable.  Opportunities  in  manufacture,  trade  and  pro- 
fessional effort  of  all  kinds  have  been  quickly  seized  and  developed 
with  much  originality  and  success.  Fruit  growing  has  created  them 
all  and  has  in  turn  been  advanced  by  allr  for  every  accumulation  of 
capital  promotes  it.  Successful  toilers  in  all  lines  become  planters. 
The  ancestral  delight  of  the  race,  to  sit  beneath  one's  own  vine  or 
fig  tree,  is  nowhere  more  enthusiastically  manifested  than  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  nowhere  else  does  the  emotion  of  comfort  in  ownership 
yield  such  profound  and  protracted  satisfaction. 


AN  OPPORTUNITY  FOR   DEVELOPMENT  53 

THE  OUTLOOK  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

The  outlook  for  California  fruits  and  fruit  products  involves  con- 
siderations of  much  economic  interest.  Though  the  volume  is  already 
large  and  there  may  be  experienced  now  and  then  temporary  dull- 
ness or  depression  in  this  line  or  that,  the  business  is,  on  the  whole, 
brisk  and  profitable.  There  is  such  a  wide  range  in  the  fruits  grown 
and  the  products  made  from  them,  and  such  changes  in  local  con- 
ditions in  the  many  purchasing  States  and  foreign  countries  with 
which  Californians  deal,  that  there  must  be  some  fluctuations  in  the 
values  of  some  of  the  supplies  offered  in  distant  market.  The  result 
is  that  first  one  fruit  and  then  another  one  seems  to  be  more  or  less 
profitable.  The  fact,  however,  that  all  are  increasing  in  volume  and 
the  total  traffic  brings  each  year  more  money  to  the  State,  is  a 
demonstration  of  the  standing  of  the  collective  output.  Each  year 
new  markets  are  found,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  the  capacity 
of  old  centers  of  distribution  is  shown  to  be  greater  than  anticipated. 
There  is  every  reason  to  expect  that  the  products  can  be  profitably 
multiplied.  There  have  been  secured,  largely  through  co-operative 
efforts  of  growers,  so  many  improvements  in  handling  and  trans- 
portation that  distant  shipment  has  become  more  safe  and  profitable 
and  distribution  far  wider.  Jt  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  further 
improvement  in  movement  and  reduction  of  cost  will  be  realized 
and  the  per  capita  consumption  in  the  populous  parts  of  our  own 
country  proportionately  advanced.  In  spite  of  all  that  wintry  States 
can  do  for  local  supplies,  California  can  find  open  markets  before 
and  after  the  short  ripening  season  of  the  Eastern  States  for  her 
early  and  late  fruits,  and  can  use  her  own  midseason  fruits  in  the 
drying  and  canning  industries,  though  it  is  a  fact  that  in  the  height 
of  the  Eastern  fruit  season  a  considerable  quantity  of  California 
fruit  will  command  the  highest  prices  because  of  its  exceptional  size, 
beauty  and  keeping  qualities.  The  citrus  fruits  will  continue  to 
supply  an  American  product  of  exceptional  quality  and  freshness, 
while  prunes  and  other  cured  fruits  and  nuts  and  raisins  will  not 
only  do  this,  but  will  push  forward  into  larger  trade  abroad.  The 
patriotic  service  rendered  by  California  fruit  producers  during  the 
last  war,  in  supplying  wholesome  foods  to  the  allied  armies,  has  re- 
turned an  appreciative  publicity  which  will  be  of  incalculable  trade 
advantage  in  the  future.  The  fact  is  that  European  countries  can 
not  grow  fruit  enough  to  supply  their  own  people,  and  fruit  has  been 
largely  a  luxury.  California  canned  and  dried  fruits  are  being  wel- 
comed by  the  great  middle  classes  and  are  likely  to  become  a  staple 
of  their  diet. 

The  development  of  adjacent  territory  on  the  American  continent 
and  other  Pacific  countries  may  shape  the  future  of  California  as  a 
fruit-producing  State  in  a  way  which  can  at  present  only  be  dreamed 
about.  It  should  be  remembered  that  California  has  a  unique  char- 
acter from  a  horticultural  point  of  view.  Not  only  does  the  State 
have  a  monopoly  of  semi-tropical  conditions  of  the  United  States 
(excepting  small  parts  of  the  Gulf  States  and  Arizona),  but  Cali- 
fornia has  command  of  the  whole  of  northwest  America  and  the 


54  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

whole  of  northeast  Asia,  not  only  in  the  supply  of  semi-tropical 
fruits,  but  in  early  ripening  of  hardy  fruits  as  well. 

California  does  not  grow  tropical  fruits,  as  has  already  been  con- 
ceded in  Chapter  I.  They  must  come  from  the  islands  and  the  trop- 
ical south  coast  countries.  Semi-tropical  fruits  are,  however,  vastly 
more  important  in  commerce  than  tropical,  and  a  region  which  suc- 
cessfully combines  northern  orchard  fruits  with  the  whole  semi- 
tropical  class  commands  the  fruit  trade  of  all  accessible  populous 
regions  which  have  limited  fruit  capabilities. 

Prophets,  far-seeing  in  world  courses,  declare  that  the  Pacific 
ocean  is  to  be  the  arena  for  commerce  greater  than  the  world  has 
yet  seen,  and  the  Pacific  coast  countries  are  to  contain  the  greater 
part  of  the  world's  population.  This  greatest  quartosphere  with  its 
superlative  opportunities  and  activities  will  have  California  as  its 
treasure  house  of  fruits  and  fruit  products.  During  the  long  winter 
the  citrus  fruits  will  afford  tonic  and  refreshment,  and  before  hardy 
fruits  bloom  in  northern  climes  the  same  fruits  will  appear  from  the 
early  ripening  districts  of  California.  In  this  traffic  California  will 
not  only  be  practically  without  a  competitor,  but,  sitting  beside  the 
sea,  there  will  also  be  every  advantage  of  water  transportation  and 
the  sustaining  ocean  temperatures  of  the  fruits  in  transit.  California 
dried  and  canned  fruits  will  render  acceptable  diet  even  through 
the  most  Arctic  stretches  along  which  development  may  advance 
in  North  America  and  North  Asia,  while  a  succession  of  fresh  fruits 
will  flow  to  all  Pacific  ports  throughout  the  year.  California,  too, 
will  be  the  winter  residence  for  all  the  North  Pacific  millionaires 
and  the  haven  of  rest  and  recuperation  for  all  who  are  worn  by 
Arctic  cold  or  tropic  heat  throughout  the  great  circle  of  the  Pacific 
ocean.  Here  the  arts  will  flourish,  education  attain  its  highest 
achievements  and  culture  prevail.  Then  fruit  growing  both  as  a 
commercial  enterprise  and  as  a  home  delight  will  attain  value, 
volume  and  perfection,  of  which  present  achievements  are  but  a 
faint  foreshadowing. 


PART  TWO:  CULTURAL 


CHAPTER  VII 

CLEARING  LAND  FOR  FRUIT 

The  greater  part  of  the  orchard  and  vineyard  area  of  this  State 
was  naturally  almost  clear  for  planting.  The  removal  of  large  trees, 
which  paid  the  cost  of  the  work  in  firewood,  or  the  grubbing  out  of 
willows  on  some  especially  rich  bottom  land,  was  about  the  extent 
of  clearing  which  our  earlier  planters  had  to  undertake,  and  many 
of  them  perhaps  never  had  to  lift  an  axe.  Still  there  has  always 
been  some  clearing  done,  here  and  there,  ever  since  the  earliest  days, 
especially  upon  hill  lands,  the  peculiar  value  of  which  for  some  fruits 
is  generally  recognized. 

Though  in  most  cases  of  clearing  by  the  actual  settler  himself  the 
problem  is  merely  one  of  muscle  and  persistence,  using  the  best 
appliances  one  can  afford,  some  few  hints  may  be  given  from  the 
experience  of  others  which  may  be  useful.  Spare  time  during  the 
summer  and  fall  can  often  be  used  to  advantage  with  a  sharp  axe 
in  trimming  up  the  smaller  trees,  which  are  large  enough  to  yield 
fencing  material,  and  getting  out  posts  from  the  redwoods  and  oaks, 
and  rails  and  pickets  from  the  pines.  By  thus  using  the  waste 
material  the  settler  can  often  get  out  enough  fencing  material  to  in- 
close his  land  and  thus  save  considerable  expense.  Brush,  too, 
which  cannot  be  made  use  of,  can  be  lopped  off — in  short,  all  the 
sharp  axe  work  can  be  done  in  a  dry  time.  The  actual  clearing, 
however,  should  be  done  in  winter,  when  the  ground  is  wet  and  soft, 
and  digging  is  easy  or  "snaking  out"  is  possible. 

Partial  and  Thorough  Clearings. — Orchards  are  planted  on  both 
partially  and  thoroughly  cleared  land.  By  the  former  practice  clear- 
ing enough  is  done  to  give  space  for  the  tree  holes,  the  debris  is 
burned  up,  and  the  trees  planted.  In  this  kind  of  work  the  stumps 
are  left  to  be  taken  out  at  a  convenient  season,  the  object  being  to 
get  fruit  trees  to  growing  as  soon  as  possible.  Where  one  is  work- 
ing with  little  more  than  his  own  muscle,  and  has  no  capital,  this 
soirt  of  planting  is  better,  perhaps,  than  not  planting  at  all,  but  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  subsequent  work  will  be  done  at  a 
great  disadvantage,  and  as  cultivation  is  likely  to  be  very  imperfect, 
it  would  be  a  question  whether  in  the  end  anything  would  be  gained 
by  such  a  plan.  The  encumbered  character  of  the  ground  will,  of 
course,  prevent  the  use  of  the  horse  in  cultivation  until  most  of  the 
stumps  are  removed.  Whenever  possible  the  clearing  for  fruit 
should  be  thorough,  everything  which  will  interfere  with  good  cul- 
tivation removed ;  roots  grubbed  so  that  as  little  shooting  up  as  pos- 


55  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

sible  is  secured;  the  ground  evened  up  to  obviate  standing  water, 
and,  where  needed,  arrangements  made  for  irrigation  and  drainage, 
as  will  be  considered  later. 

Removal  of  Standing  Trees  and  Stumps. — Old  methods  of  hand 
chopping,  digging  and  burning  by  which  the  pioneers  cleared  their 
way  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  have  been  largely  superseded 
by  more  efficient  and  cheaper  methods  and  agencies,  explosives, 
horse  and  man-power  pullers,  etc.,  and  descriptions  of  their  use 
have  been  published  by  the  government  in  the  interest  of  develop- 
ment and  settlement  of  idle  lands.  Those  interested  in  clearing 
should  apply  for  such  publications  before  enter-ing  upon  the  work.* 

Horse-Power  Stump  Pullers. — The  use  of  horse-power  devices 
for  tree  felling  and  stump  extraction  has  increased  considerably  of 
late.  One  which  has  achieved  good  results  is  a  local  invention  called 
a  "California  Stump  Puller."  It  is  simply  a  specially  designed  cap- 
stan worked  by  one  horse,  with  a  wire  cable  five-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  an  improved  snatch  block,  chains,  and  a  drafthook  to 
unite  the  cable  with  the  chains.  Power  is  applied  to  the  capstan 
with  a  sweep.  It  is  calculated  that  with  this  device,  properly  ad- 
justed, one  horse  is  enabled  to  produce  an  effect  equal  to  the  capacity 
of  60  horses  without  it,  and  that  a  1, 200-pound  horse  which  can 
move  a  dead  weight  of  one  and  a  half  tons  for  a  short  distance  can 
move  a  dead  weight  of  90  tons  with  the  devices  employed  in  the 
machine.  It  is  so  rapidly  adjustable  that  on  one  trial  in  Napa 
county  eighteen  stumps  were  pulled  in  eighteen  minutes,  long  roots 
coming  clear  out  of  the  ground  with  each  stump. 

The  Use  of  Powder. — Another  means  for  the  removal  both  of 
stumps  and  of  growing  trees  which  has  come  into  quite  wide  use 
during  the  last  few  years,  is  high  explosives,  which  have  vastly 
cheapened  the  clearing  of  lands,  where  either  large  trees  or  stumps 
have  to  be  removed.  Full  instructions  for  the  use  of  powder  are 
furnished  by  the  agents  in  San  Francisco,  and  they  often  send  an 
expert  to  start  the  work  and  give  instruction  if  there  is  much  to  be 
done.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  cost  of  handling  trees  and 
stumps  with  explosives  is  less  than  one-fifth  that  by  hand  grubbing, 
and  the  ratio  of  saving  increases  as  the  trees  are  larger,  as  powder 
is  cheaper  than  muscle. 

Removing  Shrubs  and  Brush. — In  the  case  of  removing  shrubs 
of  a  somewhat  tall  growth,  the  top  is  made  to  help  out  the  roots. 
This  is  done  either  with  a  good  strong  rope  or  a  chain.  To  do  this 
requires  two  men  and  a  pair  of  horses,  and  two  chains,  each  ten  or 
twelve  feet  long.  A  chain  should  be  placed  around  the  bush  some 
distance  above  the  ground,  to  give  leverage.  If  the  bush  is  not 
removed  at  the  first  pull,  start  the  horses  in  the  opposite  direction. 
While  the  driver  is  unfastening  the  chain  from  the  chaparral,  the 
second  man  can  place  the  other  chain  around  another  bush,  and  the 


*An  up-to-date  review  of  the  subject  which  gives  due  prominence  to  Pacific  Coast 
methods  is  "Farmers'  Bulletin  974"  on  "Clearing  Land" — which  can  be  had  free  by  ap- 
plication to  the  Division  of  Publications,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


CLEARING  SHRUBS  AND  GRAPE  VINES  57 

one  who  gets  through  his  work  first  should  at  once  assist  the  other. 
In  this  way  the  horses  are  kept  in  constant  employment,  and  neither 
of  the  men  need  lose  a  moment's  time.  This  work  should  be  done 
when  the  ground  is  thoroughly  wet. 

Another  rig  to  snake  brush  and  small  trees  is  contrived  in  this 
way :  Use  single  and  double  block  or  shives  with  1-in.  diameter 
rope.  On  the  block  you  pull  from  (the  double  block)  use  two  10-ft. 
chains  with  ring  in  one  end  and  hook  on  other.  Secure  this  to 
a  good  anchor  bush  or  to  three  or  five  of  them,  enough  to  hold. 
Fasten  them  right  down  close  to  the  ground  so  there  is  no  leverage 
on  them.  As  soon  as  you  have  pulled  all  you  can  reach  in  a  circle 
around  the  anchor  trees,  take  one  anchor  chain  off,  or  start  with 
one  anchor  chain,  then  hook  on  other,  take  in  big  circle  on  single 
block  end.  One  to  four  chains  can  be  used ;  take  two  half-hitches 
as  high  as  possible,  make  first  chain  taut ;  2nd  chain  2  ft.  slack ;  3rd 
chain  3  ft.  slack,  and  so  on — so  your  horses  are  pulling  one  bush  at 
a  time.  Chains  do  not  tie  in  hard  knots  when  horses  are  pulling  on 
them,  as  ropes  do. 

A  Vine  Puller. — What  is  called  a  "vine  puller,"  because  it  is 
used  to  clear  off  old  vineyard,  is  also  available  for  shrub  pulling. 
Use  two  wagon  wheels,  long  pole  4x6x12  pine  with  large  strong 
iron  hook  on  one  end.  Bolt  the  hook  on,  allow  the  end  with  the  hook 
on  to  project  over  the  axle  18  in.  Bolt  the  pole  down  to  axle.  This 
gives  you  great  leverage.  Roll  right  along  on  the  short  end  over 
the  axle.  Use  a  good  five-eighths  chain.  Take  double  half-hitch 
around  bush ;  raise  the  pole  into  air,  take  a  short  tie  on  bush ;  start 
the  horse  and  out  comes  the  bush. 

Roller  and  Plow. — Where  manzanita  grows  upright,  as  on  hills 
north  of  the  bay,  the  same  methods  of  extraction  can  be  employed 
with  it,  first  slashing  off  enough  to  allow  adjusting  the  rope  or  chain 
a  few  feet  above  the  ground.  Where  it  grows  lower,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, on  the  hills  of  Santa  Clara,  the  manzanita  brush  is  gone  over 
with  a  roller  so  as  to  break  it  down,  and  then  the  land  is  burned 
over.  The  roller  should  be  rigged  with  a  tiller  (header  fashion)  so 
tjhat  the  horses  can  push  the  roller  and  walk  over  the  flattened 
brush.  The  only  object  of  the  rolling  is  to  smash  the  brush  down 
so  that  it  will  burn  readily.  When  the  brush  is  got  rid  of  in  this 
way,  the  breaking  plow  is  trusted  to  get  rid  of  the  roots.  Horses 
should  be  shod  with  a  plate  of  sheet  iron  between  the  shoe  and  hoof 
to  prevent  snagging,  and  not  less  than  four  of  them  used.  Much  of 
the  Santa  Clara  county  vine  belt  was  cleared  in  that  way.  Of  course 
this  method  only  answers  for  the  lighter-rooted  growths ;  tough- 
rooted  chaparral,  oak,  holly,  etc.,  must  be  grubbed  out,  unless  the 
roots  are  snaked  out  by  the  tops,  as  has  been  described. 

Clearing  Old  Vineyards. — This  is  done  on  small  areas  by  grub- 
bing and  snaking  as  has  been  prescribed  for  the  larger  shrubs. 
Large  vineyard  clearings  and  removal  of  undesirable  fruit  trees  are, 
however,  much  more  cheaply  done  by  pulling  one  after  another  with 
the  tractor.  Two  concrete  instances  of  procedure,  after  the  land  is 


58  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

cleared  of  the  top  growth  of  arms  and  canes  by  chopping,  may 
be  given : 

Mr.  I.  D.  Cox  of  Sonoma  county  pulled  seven  acres  of  roots  a 
day  with  a  tractor  and  two  men  nearly  as  fast  as  the  tractor  travels 
in  low  gear.  Two  chains  are  hooked  to  the  tractor,  one  man  to 
each — pulling  two  rows  per  trip.  The  end  of  the  chain  is  fastened 
to  a  five-foot  iron  rod  about  seven  inches  from  its  end.  While  the 
chain  is  still  slack,  the  man  pokes  the  short  end  of  a  rod  around  a 
vine  and  catches  it  over  the  chain  while  the  tractor  pulls  out  the 
vine.  Then  he  drops  the  stump  quickly  and  hooks  onto  the  next  one. 

Mr.  I.  T.  Onstott  of  Sutter  county  used  a  45-horsepower  tractor 
and  a  "digger"  which  looks  something  like  a  nursery  tree  digger, 
having  a  U  iron  fixed  to  a  sled  of  4xl2's  so  its  cross  bar,  shod  with 
a  cutting  knife,  runs  deep  enough  underground  to  cut  the  roots 
below  plow  depth.  A  hook  or  "gopher"  follows  the  cutting  edge  so 
that  as  it  slides  under  the  stumps  it  raises  them  out  of  the  subsoil. 
After  chopping  the  stumps  off,  a  furrow  was  plowed  each  side  of 
them,  the  tractor  digger  lifted  them  loose,  and  they  were  easily 
picked  out  and  thrown  onto  wagons. 

Marketable  Products  of  Clearing. — Whether  any  money  can  be 
made  from  the  results  of  clearing  depends  altogether  upon  local 
markets  for  wood  and  charcoal,  and  the  cost  of  transportation  to 
them.  From  clearings  near  large  towns  enough  can  be  sometimes 
had  to  pay  for  the  work  and  hauling,  and  along  railways  wood  can 
often  be  shipped  with  profit.  This  can  be  learned  by  local  inquiries. 

Charcoal  Burning. — Charcoal  can  usually  be  sold  to  advantage, 
and  wood  can  sometimes  be  profitably  disposed  of  in  this  way  when 
it  cannot  be  marketed  for  fuel.  A  considerable  acreage  of  unprofit- 
able fruit  trees  has  been  occasionally  disposed  of  in  this  way.  Char- 
coal is  made  from  most  kinds  of  wood,  and  sometimes  stumps  and 
large  roots  are  charred.  A  simple  process  of  charcoal  burning  is 
given  by  an  experienced  burner,  as  follows : 

To  burn  a  pit  of  charcoal,  the  prime  necessity  is  to  perform  the  process 
of  combustion  with  the  least  possible  contact  with  air.  Select  a  suitable 
place  not  too  far  from  the  dwelling,  because  the  operation  must  be  watched 
from  time  to  time  by  night  as  well  as  by  day.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dig 
much  of  a  "pit"  in  the  ground.  Choose  hard  limbs  of  pine,  spruce  or  what- 
ever wood  is  most  available  of  that  kind.  Dry,  dead  limbs,  if  not  decayed, 
take  for  choice.  Set  them  up  wigwam  fashion,  close  together,  fitting  them 
as  well  as  they  will  allow,  the  apex  forming  the  chimney.  Be  careful  to 
keep  the  chimney  free,  because  the  fire  should  be  there  applied  to  brisk 
"kindling"  as  far  down  as  possible.  Build  round  and  round,  taking  the  pre- 
caution to  lay  three  or  four  straight  pieces,  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter, 
along  the  ground  from  the  outside  to  the  center.  These  may  have  to  be 
withdrawn  to  promote  the  draught. 

The  wood  all  being  in  place  it  is  now  required  to  cover  it  thoroughly. 
In  the  absence  of  turf  or  sods,  it  must  be  thatched  with  leafy  green  boughs, 
or  anything  that  will  prevent  the  earth  or  dirt  that  is  now  neaped  on  from 
running  through.  Pack  this  soil  covering  carefully,  exclude  air  as  far  as 
possible,  except  when  the  port-holes  referred  to  near  the  ground  are  needed. 
The  direction  of  the  wind  will  determine  which  ones  are  to  be  opened.  When 
the  fire — after  a  few  hours  more  or  less,  according  to  the  materials — has 
got  a  good  hold,  close  also  the  chimney.  Visit  the  pit  regularly  night  and 
day;  lessen  or  increase  the  draught  as  may  seem  needed;  and  in  a  week  or 


SUPPRESSING  SPROUTS   ON   CLEARINGS  59 

ten  days  the  two  or  three  cords  of  wood  should  be  turned  into  good  hard 
coal.  When  uncovered  water  or  dirt  should  be  thrown  upon  coal  that  is  too 
lively  when  spread  out  on  the  ground. 

Cutting  to  Kill  Brush. — Just  when  to  cut  to  kill  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  growth  and  of  the  season.  One  conclusion 
seejms  to  be  that  with  deciduous  growths  the  best  time  to  cut  is 
when  they  have  just  made  their  most  vigorous  growth,  and  this  is 
in  the  summer — but  the  month  to  be  chosen  for  the  work  will  de- 
pend upon  the  location,  though  August  is  generally  selected  as  the 
best  time. 

In  the  case  of  evergreens,  the  cutting  should  be  just  before  the 
coldest  weather,  in  which  they  are  the  nearest  dormant.  Ever- 
greens, however,  differ  much  in  tenacity  of  life,  for  while  most  kinds 
are  easily  killed,  the  California  redwood  will  endure  almost  any 
atmse  with  the  axe  or  fire  and  still  spring  up  repeatedly  and  per- 
sistently for  years. 

The  Use  of  Sheep  and  Goats  on  Sprouts. — On  sprouting  brush, 
there  is,  perhaps,  no  cheaper  or  more  effective  means  of  repression 
than  sheep  and  goats.  They  are  used  after  the  top  growth  is  cleared 
away  instead  of  grubbing,  if  one  can  wait,  for  by  the  persistent  cut- 
ting down  of  growth  many  small  stumps  and  roots  will  decay 
enough  in  a  year  or  two  to  be  plowed  out  with  a  strong  team  and 
plow. 

Sage-Brush  Clearing. — Desert  vegetation  was  formerly  largely 
cleared  by  grubbing  or  snaking  out  with  a  length  of  railroad  iron 
with  a  heavy  team  at  each  end.  Recently  for  large  clearing  a  steam 
tractor  has  been  used — the  cleared  brush  being  used  for  fuel. 
Hitched  to  the  tractor  was  an  outfit  consisting  of  a  roller  to  bend 
the  brush  down,  cutters  to  dig  it  out,  and  a  rake  to  collect  and  dump 
into  windrows.  The  roller  is  made  of  iron  cylinders  about  three  feet 
in  diameter  and  seven  feet  wide.  The  digger  consists  of  three  heavy 
V-shaped  "weed  cutters"  which  run  underground,  being  supported 
on  wheels  hitched  behind  the  roller.  Trailing  behind  the  digger  is 
the  rake,  which  is  about  12  feet  wide  and  runs  on  7-foot  wheels ;  it 
is  shaped  like  an  ordinary  horse  hay-rake.  The  teeth  of  this  ele- 
phantine rake  plow  through  the  ground  some  inches  deep.  Brush 
cannot  get  into  the  wheels,  for  they  are  lined  inside  with  sheet  iron. 

Burning  of  the  Debris. — However  the  trees  and  underbrush  may 
be  wrenched  from  the  soil,  fire  is  the  final  cleaner.  Where  trees  are 
to  be  worked  up  into  fire-wood,  it  should  be  done  as  soon  as  they 
are  felled,  for  the  work  is  much  less  than  after  they  become  dry  and 
hard.  If  it  is  not  designed  to  break  the  land  the  first  winter,  the 
wood  is  left  to  season  and  it  becomes  lighter  and  easier  to  handle. 
The  brush  and  roots,  if  no  use  is  to  be  made  of  them,  can  be  left  to 
lie  on  the  clearing  to  dry  out  during  the  following  summer,  and 
after1  the  first  rains  of  the  following  fall  the  whole  area  can  be 
burned  over.  Such  stumps  as  do  not  burn  with  the  brush  must  be 
gathered  in  piles  and  re-fired.  Burning  before  the  first  rain  should 
not  be  attempted,  unless  it  be  in  exceptional  situations,  because  of 


50  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

the  danger  of  communicating  fire  to  the  surrounding  country,  which 
is  a  standing  danger  in  our  dry  climate.  Under  the  present  law  it 
becomes  necessary  to  secure  permission  from  the  State  Forester  at 
Sacramento  before  starting  field  fires  in  the  dry  season.  After  the 
rain,  clean  up  the  ground  perfectly. 

First  Crop  on  a  Clearing. — It  is  the  opinion  of  some  clearers  in 
the  redwood  region  that  the  soil  is  not  fit  for  fruit  trees  the  first 
year  after  the  original  growth  is  removed,  and  they  grow  a  field 
crop  the  first  year.  They  claim  that  peas  are  the  best  corrective  of 
"redwood  poisoning,"  and  fortunately  in  the  upper  redwood  dis- 
trict they  have  a  climate  well  suited  to  the  pea. 

Surface  Leveling  and  Draining. — There  is  often  occasion  to  clear 
the  land  of  stone  and  rocks.  The  latter  should  be  blasted  out  of  the 
way  so  that  the  land  may  be  clear  for  the  plow  and  cultivator.  Once 
in  a  while  one  will  come  upon  a  stone  wall  enclosing  an  orchard  in 
this  State,  as  trim  and  true  a  wall  as  the  most  thrifty  New  England 
farmer  can  boast,  but  walls  are  not  common.  Our  valley  orchard 
lands  are,  as  a  rule,  naturally  as  free  from  stone  as  they  are  from 
underbrush,  but  on  the  hills  it  is  different.  Probably  the  best  way 
to  dispose  of  much  of  the  stone  is  to  dig  trenches  in  the  natural 
water  runs,  put  in  stone,  cover  with  small  brush,  and  then  with  soil 
deep  enough  so  the  plow  will  not  reach  the  brush.  This  disposes  of 
the  stone  for  all  time,  and  at  the  same  time  helps  to  drain  the  soil. 
Concerning  other  treatment  of  the  land  after  the  rubbish  is  removed, 
P.  W.  Butler  writes  as  follows : 

When  water  runs  are  wide,  lateral  ditches  should  be  cut  extending 
entirely  through  the  moist  areas.  If  during  the  rainy  season  a  run  is  likely 
to  have  more  water  than  can  be  conveyed  properly  through  a  covered  trench, 
it  should  be  left  open  and  graded,  so  that  a  team  can  cross  it,  and  for  fifteen 
feet  on  each  side  sow  to  alfalfa,  which  will  take  the  place  of  unsightly 
weeds,  that  would  otherwise  grow  at  the  point  that  cannot  be  cultivated. 

To  distribute  the  work  more  evenly  through  the  first  year  buildings  can 
be  erected,  a  well  dug,  and  the  trenches  done  in  the  dry  season,  while  all  the 
grubbing,  leveling,  plowing  and  planting  must  be  done  the  following  season, 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  sufficiently  moistened.  All  depressions  where 
water  would  stand  should  be  "filled,  and  all  flat  places  should  be  graded 
until  water  will  readily  flow  off,  and  not  be  retained  so  near  the  surface 
of  the  ground  as  to  cause  it  to  become  soured.  This  leveling  can  be  best 
done  by  one  man  and  a  pair  of  horses.  Plow  the  adjacent  elevated  land 
and  scrape  into  the  places  to  be  filled.  The  land  is  now  ready  for  plowing, 
and  should  be  done  thoroughly,  subsoiling  to  as  great  a  depth  as  the  re- 
moval of  the  stumps  will  allow.  It  is  now  well  to  go  over  the  ground 
again  with  the  scraper  and  level  all  the  most  elevated  points  so  they  can 
be  readily  reached  by  water  in  irrigating.  Then  cross-plow  as  deeply  as 
possible  without  again  subsoiling,  harrow  and  drag,  and  the  ground  will  be 
ready  to  plant. 

Mr.  Butler  writes  with  reference  to  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  where  irrigation  must  be  practiced.  Where  irrigation  is 
not  used,  leveling,  or  rather  grading,  may  be  unnecessary,  but  it  is 
often  quite  desirable  that  there  may  be  no  depressions  to  retain 
surplus  water.  The  life  of  the  trees  and  ease  of  cultivation  may 
demand  this  unless  the  soil  should  be  light  and  deep  enough  to  allow 
free  drainage. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

CALIFORNIA   NURSERY   OPERATIONS 

California  nursery  stock  is  unrivaled  in  growth,  health  and  vigor. 
This  is  the  verdict  of  all  the  visiting  horticulturists,  and  has  been 
formally  declared  by  the  victories  of  California  tree  growers  at  the 
World's  Fairs  held  in  this  country,  where  the  highest  premiums 
have  been  awarded  to  Californians  in  nearly  all  classes  in  which 
they  exhibited  since  1885/ 

The  quality  of  the  trees,  which  can  be  purchased  at  our  nurseries, 
and  the  reasonable  rates  at  which  they  are  usually  sold,  make  it 
little  worth  while  for  the  orchard  planter  to  try  to  grow  his  owii 
trees.  In  fact,  the  investment  called  for  to  purchase  a  good  assort/ 
ment  of  well-grown  trees  will  be  one  of  the  best  which  the  orchard) 
planter  can  make.  The  professional  grower,  if  he  is  honest  and  en- 
terprising, can  give  the  purchaser  the  advantage  of  his  experience 
and  skill  in  the  choice  of  stocks  suited  to  his  soil,  varieties  of  fruit 
adapted  to  his  situation,  and  be  of  assistance  to  him  in  other  ways 
connected  with  his  enterprise ;  and  such  helps  to  an  inexperienced 
planter  or  to  a  newcomer  are  very  valuable.  To  those  who  may 
be  possessed  of  limited  means,  or  who  may  like  to  use  spare  time 
in  growing  trees,  suggestions  are  offered.  There  will,  however,  b-e 
very  much  which  can  be  learned  only  by  actual  experience. 

In  the  selection  of  a  location  for  a  commercial  nursery  there  are 
matters  involved  which  it  is  not  proposed  to  discuss.  Attention  will 
be  paid  rather  to  matters  connected  with  what  may  be  called  a  farm 
nursery.  The  first  point  will  be  the  selection  of  a  piece  of  ground, 
which  offers  proper  soil,  exposure,  and,  in  most  parts  of  the  State, 
facilities  for  irrigation — to  be  used  whenever  necessary  to  get 
good  growth. 

Proper  Soil  for  Nursery. — The  soil  should  be  a  mellow  loam, 
easy  of  cultivation  and  not  disposed  to  crust  and  crack.  In  all  re- 
spects what  one  would  choose  as  a  rich,  kind  garden  soil  will  answer 
well  for  the  nursery.  The  soil  should  be  moist,  but  thoroughly 
drained,  either  naturally  or  artificially.  In  this  respect  a  soil  which 
might  yield  fair  crops  of  some  shallow-rooted  vegetables  would  not 
always  be  suitable  for  young  trees,  which,  to  do  well,  must  have 
favorable  conditions  to  send  the  roots  to  considerable  depth.  Good 
spots  are  often  found  in  the  rich  loam  along  the  banks  of  creeks, 
as  in  such  situations  one  finds  generally  a  deep  alluvium,  well 
drained  by  the  creek.  But  such  situations,  if  liable  to  overflow, 
should  be  rejected  because  standing  water  is  not  good  for  trees, 
and  because  the  soil  will  be  apt  to  be  soaked  with  water  and  inac- 
cessible just  at  the  time  when  the  trees  should  be  lifted  for  trans- 
planting to  orchard. 


62  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  find  an  ideal  nursery  spot  on  every 
ranch,  but  still  trees  may  be  well  grown  on  less  favorable  places  if 
attention  is  given  to  correcting  natural  defects.  For  example,  if  the 
soil  be  naturally  heavy,  it  may  be  improved  somewhat  by  repeated 
plowing  and  cultivation,  during  the  year  before  starting  the  trees. 
If  it  be  an  adobe,  its  mechanical  condition  may  be  greatly  improve< 
by  the  application  of  a  top  dressing  of  lime  at  the  rate  of  six  hun( 
dred  to  one  thousand  pounds  of  lime  to  the  acre.  For  this  purpose 
"lime  waste,"  which  contains  both  lime  and  wood  ashes,  can  be  had? 
cheaply  at  the  kilns.  Old  plaster  which  may  have  been  left  fromj 
house  repairs  is  excellent.  Even  builders'  lime  would  not  be  ver 
expensive,  for  but  little  would  be  required  for  so  small  a  plot  oi 
land  as  a  farm  nursery  would  need  to  cover.  The  lime  will  increase, 
the  availability  of  plant  food  in  a  heavy  soil  as  well  as  render  it^ 
more  friable.  Heavy  soil  may  also  be  improved  by  the  addition  of 
sand.  A  few  loads  of  sand  will  remove  the  tendency  to  crack,  and 
will  act  as  a  mulch  to  prevent  evaporation  of  moisture.  If  the  soil 
be  very  loose  and  subject  to  too  rapid  drying  out,  the  remedy  will 
be  moderate  irrigation  during  the  summer,  but  it  should  cease  early 
enough  to  allow  the  young  trees  to  ripen  their  wood  before  the 
frosts  of  autumn.  Mulches  of  various  light,  fine  materials,  rotted 
straw  and  the  like,  may  be  used  to  advantage  among  the  young 
seedlings  in  preventing  drying  out  of  the  soil,  if  the  plot  is  to  be 
hand-worked,  but  such  materials  are  apt  to  be  in  the  way  of  neat, 
thorough  work  with  the  horse.  A  mulch  of  sand  is  not  open  to  this 
objection. 

Land  which  has  been  in  cultivation  for  garden  or  field  crops  is 
to  be  preferred  over  a  newly-cleared  land.  It  is  often  the  case  that 
soil  from  which  old  stumps  or  shoots  have  recently  been  removed 
has  become  soured  from  the  process  of  decay  in  the  dead  wood. 
Although  the  organic  matter  from  decay  of  woody  fiber  tends  to 
enrich  the  soil  afterwards,  certain  acids  are  formed  if  the  land  lies 
without  cultivation.  These  are  not  favorable  to  the  growth  of  young 
roots.  This  evil  quality  in  the  soil  is  removed  by  cultivation  and 
aeration,  or  may  be  corrected  by  the  application  of  lime.  This  state 
of  soil  is  most  complained  of  in  connection  with  old  stumps  and 
roots  of  oak  trees. 

Situation  and  Exposure. — Warmth  in  the  soil  is  necessary  to  a-* 
good  growth,  and  a  good  year's  growth  is  essential  to  the  production*., 
of  a  satisfactory  tree.   Drainage  contributes  notably  to  the  warmth^ 
of  the  soil.    Exposure  is  also  of  importance.   Plenty  of  sunshine  and- 
protection  from  cold  winds  are  to  be  secured.     Sometimes  a  little- 
elevation  is  desirable.    It  would  be  a  serious  mistake  to  seek  moist^ 
low  land  if  the  piece  lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  little  valley  or  depres* 
sion  where  the  cold  air  settles  during  the  night  and  frosts  are  fre-- 
quent.     In  such  cases  choose  higher  ground.     Of  course,  in  broad^ 
open  valleys  there  is  not  this  objection,  for  such  seasonable  frosts 
as  may  be  expected  there  are  not  injurious  to  deciduous  nursery^ 
stock.    The  greatest  nurseries  in  the  State  are  in  the  open  valleys, 
not  on  the  lowest  ground,  however,  in  all  cases,  but  on  what  would 


GROWING  NURSERY  STOCKS  FROM  SEEDS  63 

be  called  good  rich  valley  land.  There  are,  however,  situations  in 
the  thermal  belts  in  which  the  temperature  does  not  fall  low  enough 
to  check  growth  of  deciduous  trees  and  cause  the  leaves  to  drop. 
In  such  cases  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  select  lower  and  colder 
ground  for  the  nursery  of  deciduous  trees. 

Preparation  for  Nursery  Ground. — The  best  preparation  for  nur- 
sery ground  is  the  growth,  the  previous  season,  of  a  cultivated  or 
hoed  crop.  This  will  secure  frequent  working  of  the  soil,  thorough 
pulverization  of  the  clods,  etc.  The  produce  of  the  hoed  crop  should 
thus  pay  the  cost  of  putting  the  land  in  good  condition,  at  least. 
Where  the  retention  of  moisture  is  an  object,  as  is  in  some  parts  of 
the  State  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  sometimes  small  and  no 
facilities  for  irrigation  provided,  it  will  perhaps  pay  better  in  the 
end  to  keep  the  land  in  bare  fallow  during  the  previous  summer; 
but  there  must  be  frequent  and  thorough  cultivation,  keeping  the 
surface  always  mellow,  or  more  moisture  may  be  lost  by  evaporation 
than  a  hoed  crop  would  require  for  its  growth.  Properly  cultivated 
fallow  soil  will  have  a  moisture  within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface, 
while  unworked  soil  adjoining  will  be  baked  hard  and  dry  to  a 
depth  of  several  feet.  During  the  winter  immediately  preceding  the 
planting,  the  green  stuff  should  be  allowed  to  grow  for  a  time,  but 
should  be  plowed  under  before  it  gets  high  enough  to  interfere  with 
perfect  turning  of  smooth  furrows.  The  decay  of  this  green  crop  is 
of  advantage  to  the  soil.  Another  plowing  in  the  spring  and  a 
thorough  harrowing  will  leave  the  ground  in  good  condition  to 
receive  the  pits  or  root  grafts,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Growth  of  Seedlings  for  the  Nursery. — Fruit  trees  are  produced 
from  buds  and  root  grafts  upon  seedlings  locally  grown  or  imported. 
The  kinds  of  seedlings  preferred  for  different  fruits  are  discussed 
in  the  special  chapter  given  to  each  fruit. 

It  is  usual  to  take  seeds  from  sources  where  they  can  be  collected 
with  the  least  trouble.  Apple  seeds  are  washed  out  from  the  pomace 
of  the  cider  press ;  apples  and  pears  from  the  coring  and  peelings  of 
canneries  and  drying  establishments ;  pits  of  the  stone  fruits  are 
derived  from  the  same  source.  Supplies  can  usually  be  purchased 
from  such  establishments  at  a  moderate  cost.  The  trouble  is  that 
from  such  supplies  one  is  apt  to  get  seeds  and  pits  from  all  varieties, 
possessing  different  degrees  of  health  and  vigor.  There  is  just  as 
much  to  be  gained  from  selecting  the  seed  from  which  to  grow  good 
strong  stocks  for  fruit  trees  as  there  is  in  selecting  good  garden  or 
field  seed.  One  can  generally  get  good  peach  pits,  for  it  is  easy  to 
have  the  order  filled  when  the  cannery  is  running  on  strong-growing 
yellow  varieties,  for  these  are  believed  to  be  most  vigorous,  and  yet 
some  claim  much  preference  for  pits  from  vigorous  seedling  trees, 
and  make  extra  efforts  to  secure  them.  Wherever  it  is  possible,  and 
if  one  is  only  to  produce  a  small  lot  of  trees,  it  is  practicable  to 
select  from  the  fruit  the  seeds  for  planting.  Not  only  is  there  great 
difference  in  the  strength  of  different  varieties,  but  individual  trees 
vary  greatly.  If  one  is  taking  seeds  from  an  old  orchard  to  start 
his  nursery  with,  he  can  take  pains  to  get  his  seed  from  his  strong- 


54  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

est  trees,  and  thus  secure  also  that  which  is  probably  best  adapted 
to  his  locality. 

Apple  and  Pear  Seedlings. — For  a  small  lot  of  apple  and  pear 
trees  the  seed  can  be  best  sown  in  boxes.  Select  plump  pips  and 
keep  in  moist  sand,  from  the  time  they  are  taken  from  the  fruit 
until  sowing.  Fill  the  boxes,  which  should  be  three  or  four  inches 
deep,  with  good  garden  mold,  cover  the  seed  about  half  an  inch, 
and  then  cover  the  soil  lightly  with  chaff  or  fine  straw  to  prevent 
the  surface  from  drying  out.  Be  sure  that  the  boxes  have  cracks 
or  holes  in  the  bottom  for  drainage,  and  the  whole  is  kept  moist,  but 
not  wet.  When  the  seedlings  have  grown  to  the  height  of  three 
inches  they  can  be  set  out  in  the  nursery  rows  as  one  would  set  out 
cabbage  plants — if  the  work  is  carefully  done  and  growing  condi- 
tions favorable.  The  easier  and  more  common  way  is  to  "stratify" 
or  alternate  layers  of  seed  and  damp  sand  in  the  storage  boxes  and 
sow  in  nursery  rows  in  the  open  ground  when  the  soil  is  in  good 
condition  (in  February  or  March  usually)  and  the  seeds  swollen  or 
showing  sprouts. 

Cherry  Seedlings. — There  are  different  ways  of  handling  pits  of 
stone  fruits  to  prepare  them  for  setting  out  in  the  open  ground, 
which  will  be  described.  The  cherry  is  grown  from  pits  of  two  wild 
varieties;  one  is  commonly  called  the  "Black  Mazzard."  It  is  the 
common  wild  cherry  of  the  East,  and  is  the  original  type  of  what 
are  known  as  the  Heart  and  Bigarreau  types  of  cherries.  The  other 
is  the  "Mahaleb,"  a  European  wild  species,  which  is  used  in  the 
East,  where  it  thrives  better  than  the  Mazzard,  as  it  is  hardier  stock. 
In  this  State  the  Mahaleb  does  not  seem  to  have  much  dwarfing 
effect,  as  trees  on  that  stock  in  this  State  over  twenty-five  years  old 
are  twenty-five  inches  in  diameter  of  trunk.  The  Mahaleb,  however, 
ripens  its  wood  earlier,  and  for  this  reason  may  be  valuable  in  the 
colder  parts  of  the  State.  It  is  also  freer  from  root  trouble  by  ex- 
tremes of  wetness  and  drouth  in  the  soil,  and  is  largely  used  on  low 
lands.  The  Mazzard  is,  however,  chiefly  used  in  California.  A  way 
of  treating  cherry  stones  is  that  given  by  W.  W.  Smith,  a  pioneer 
cherry  grower  of  Vacaville : 

The  fruit  of  the  Mazzard  should  be  allowed  to  get  perfectly  ripe  on  the 
tree,  then  gathered  and  let  lie  in  a  heap  for  three  or  four  days,  so  that  they 
may  be  partially  or  wholly  freed  from  the  pulp  by  washing  them  in  water. 
They  should  then  be  spread  out  in  the  shade  and  stirred  frequently  for 
about  twenty-four  hours.  This  will  give  the  outside  of  the  pit  time  to  dry 
sufficiently  to  prevent  molding,  while  the  kernel  itself  will  remain  fresh  and 
green.  They  should  then  be  placed  in  moist  (not  wet)  sand  and  kept  so 
until  the  rains  set  in  in  the  fall,  when  they  can  be  planted  in  drills,  in  good, 
rich,  mellow  soil,  prepared  the  previous  spring  and  kept  clean  of  weeds 
through  the  summer,  ready  for  the  purpose.  They  should  never  be  allowed 
to  get  perfectly  dry;  and  the  reason  for  it  is  that  we  have  but  little  or  no 
freezing  and  thawing  weather  in  this  country  to  cause  the  pits  to  open;  but 
if  they  are  kept  constantly  moist  it  answers  the  same  purpose  as  freezing. 
The  seeds  of  the  Mahaleb  cherry  will  sprout  with  less  difficulty,  but  the 
same  rules  for  keeping  the  Mazzards  will  apply  to  them. 

Other  stock  for  the  cherry  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
that  fruit. 


TREATMENT  OF  PITS  OF  STONE  FRUITS  55 

Citrus  Fruits. — The  propagation  of  citrus  fruits  will  be  described 
in  detail  in  Chapters  XXXIII,  XXXIV  and  XXXV. 

The  Larger  Stone  Fruits. — In  handling  pits  of  the  larger  stone 
fruits,  apricot,  peach,  plum,  etc.,  the  chief  requisite  is  to  prevent 
drying  and  great  hardening  of  the  pit.  Some  plant  in  the  fall  and 
trust  to  natural  conditions  to  start  the  seedling  in  the  spring,  but 
this  interferes  with  the  cultivation  of  the  ground,  and  leaves  the 
seedling  to  grow  in  soil  which  has  perhaps  been  puddled  by  heavy 
winter  rains.  There  must  also  be  much  hand  work  done  to  clear 
the  rows  from  weeds.  It  is  much  better  to  keep  the  pits  from  drying 
by  covering  with  sand  moderately  moist,  hasten  the  sprouting  by 
appropriate  treatment  toward  spring,  and  then  plant  out  in  thor- 
oughly prepared  soil,  and  they  will  make  a  satisfactory  growth. 
The  following  method,  by  D.  J.  Parmele,  of  Vacaville,  has  given 
good  results : 

Keep  the  pits  out  of  the  sun  until  the  rains  commence  in  the  fall,  then 
put  them  into  a  box  about  a  foot  deep  with  openings  at  the  bottom  for  drain- 
age, and  scatter  sand  or  fine  earth  through  them,  putting  about  two  inches 
on  top,  and  place  them  under  the  eaves  of  a  building  on  the  south  side, 
where  they  will  get  well  soaked  every  time  it  rains.  If  there  should  be  a 
long  dry  spell  during  the  winter,  water  them  a  little.  About  March  they  will 
open  and  sprout.  Then  take  a  plow  and  open  a  deep  furrow  in  loose,  mellow 
ground,  and  with  a  hoe  pull  about  two-thirds  of  the  dirt  back  into  the 
furrow,  breaking  the  clods,  and  making  it  fine,  the  same  as  you  would  if  you 
expected  to  plant  onion  seed  there.  Drop  the  sprouted  pits  in  straight  line, 
and  cover  two  inches.  On  account  of  the  extra  work  in  preparing  the 
ground,  the  trees  will  be  large  enough  to  bud  in  July. 

Another  way  is  to  spread  out  the  pits  on  a  smooth  piece  of 
ground  and  cover  with  sacks,  and  over  these  a  layer  of  straw  three 
or  four  inches  thick  to  retain  moisture.  The  pits  may  be  planted 
out  as  soon  as  they  crack  open,  although  no  harm  will  be  done  if 
they  are  allowed  to  lie  until  the  sprouts  are  well  out. 

Another  method  which  has  been  especially  recommended  for 
treatment  for  almonds  is  the  following :  Lay  boards  upon  the  ground 
and  cover  them  with  an  inch  of  sand;  spread  on  this  a  layer  of 
almonds  and  then  another  inch  of  sand,  and  so  on.  Keep  the  pile 
wet,  and  in  three  weeks  of  warm  weather  they  will  burst  open.  Plant 
in  drills  one  inch  deep  and  put  over  them  a  light  coat  of  rotten  straw. 

If  from  any  cause  the  pits  have  become  quite  dry,  they  should  be 
soaked  in  water  two  or  three  days  before  planting. 

Nut  Tree  Seedlings. — In  growing  nut-tree  seedlings,  much  the 
same  methods  are  followed  as  with  pits  of  stone  fruits.  There  are 
methods  described  in  detail  by  California  growers  which  should  be 
given.  As  has  been  said,  the  nuts  may  be  planted  at  any  time  after 
ripening,  in  the  milder  parts  of  the  State,  if  the  grower  will  under- 
take the  greater  care  and  cultivation.  On  some  light  soils  where  the 
rainfall  is  not  excessive,  this  is  not  much  trouble.  Felix  Gillet,  of 
Nevada  City,  gives  this  as  his  method : 

The  nuts  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  gathered,  though  in  Nevada  City  it  is 
too  cold  to  plant  them  in  the  fall,  for  the  frost  in  winter  would  surely  lift 
the  nuts  right  out  of  the  ground.  For  keeping  and  sprouting  walnuts,  I 


56  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

throw  into  the  bottom  of  a  box  one  inch  deep  of  sand;  then  a  layer  of  nuts, 
put  in  another  inch  of  sand,  and  another  layer  of  nuts,  and  so  on  to  one  or 
two  inches  from  the  top.  Then  water  well  with  a  sprinkler  and  water  again 
during  the  winter  whenever  the  sand  gets  too  dry.  The  sand  has  to  be 
pretty  well  saturated  with  water,  especially  from  the  first  of  January  down 
to  planting  time,  which  is  in  February,  March  or  April,  according  to  local- 
ities. The  latter  part  of  March  or  first  week  in  April  is  best  for  Nevada 
City.  The  nuts  are  planted  in  drills  and  covered  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three 
inches. 

In  propagating  chestnuts  it  is  always  better  to  select  for  seed  the  largest, 
finest  and  healthiest  nuts;  in  the  fall  or  beginning  of  winter  the  nuts  have  to 
be  planted  in  a  box  of  damp  sand,  by  layers,  the  box  being  kept  in  a  cellar. 
The  nuts  may  be  stored  in  a  hole  in  the  open  ground,  a  layer  of  chestnut 
leaves  being  first  thrown  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  on  top  of  that  a  layer 
of  nuts,  then  another  layer  of  leaves,  and  so  on  to  the  top,  which  has  to  be 
properly  covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  earth  so  as  to  prevent  the  frost 
injuring  the  nuts.  In  February  or  March,  according  to  location,  the  nuts  are 
taken  out  and  planted  in  drills  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches;  less  for 
smaller  seed  like  American  chestnuts. 

In  growing  seedlings  of  English  walnuts,  Mr.  J.  Luther  Bowers, 
of  Santa  Clara,  has  shown  that  water-soaking  of  nuts  may  make  it 
unnecessary  to  undertake  storage  in  damp  sand,  if  the  nuts  are  of  the 
last  crop.  He  describes  the  method  as  follows : 

The  nuts  should  be  large  and  thin  shelled  and  should  be  of  last  year's 
crop.  To  ascertain  this,  break  a  few  and  split  the  kernel  open  at  the  germ 
end,  or  the  point  where  the  root  starts.  If  the  meat  of  the  kernel  shows  a 
clear  color  they  are  of  last  year's  crop,  but  if  the  flesh  shows  any  discolora- 
tion they  are  old  and  will  not  germinate.  I  have  often  got  hold  of  a  lot  that 
were  mixed,  old  and  new  together.  Never  risk  a  lot  of  this  kind,  for  failure 
will  follow.  After  the  nuts  have  been  selected  place  them  in  some  kind  of  a 
tin  vessel;  a  five-gallon  oil  can,  with  the  top  removed  is  just  the  thing.  Then 
cover  them  with  hot  water  at  not  over  110  degrees  F.  Let  them  remain  in 
this  water  for  24  hours  and  plant  at  once,  keeping  them  in  the  water  all 
the  time.  Do  not  let  them  become  the  least  bit  dry,  and  be  sure  the  soil  is 
moist,  and  put  every  nut  in  with  the  sharp  point  exactly  straight  down.  The 
root  starts  from  this  point  and  will  go  straight  down,  and  if  not  molested 
will  the  first  year  be  about  three  times  the  length  of  the  top;  that  is,  if  the 
top  grows  one  foot,  the  straight  tap  root  will  be  three  feet  or  more  long,  and 
will  be  from  three-fourths  to  an  inch  thick  where  it  grew  out  of  the  nut, 
tapering  both  up  and  down. 

Tribble  Brothers,  of  Elk  Grove,  give  the  following  as  their  prac- 
tice with  native  black  walnuts : 

Gather  the  nuts  as  soon  as  most  of  them  have  dropped  from  the  trees  and 
put  them  in  a  trench.  Cover  with  leaves,  and  on  the  leaves  put  a  thin  layer 
of  earth,  leaving  them  until  sprouted  and  ready  to  plant  in  rows.  When 
ready  to  plant,  assort  the  nuts  according  to  the  growth  of  the  sprouts,  and 
as  we  find  the  longest  sprouts  make  the  most  rapid-growing  trees,  and  by 
selecting  we  can  get  even  growth  in  the  nursery  rows.  In  our  soil  we  plant 
the  nuts  about  five  inches  deep. 

Purchased  Seedlings. — Formerly  a  very  large  proportion  of  some 
kinds  of  the  cherry,  pear  and  apple  trees  produced  in  this  State  were 
worked  upon  imported  seedling  stock.  These  stocks  were  cheap  and 
being  carefully  graded  by  sizes  were  very  convenient  and  popular. 
Such  foreign  seedlings  were  excluded  by  the  National  Quarantine 
act  of  1919  and  California  grown  seedlings  are  now  supplied  in  ex- 
cellent quality  by  those  who  make  a  specialty  of  producing  them. 


TREES  FROM  SEEDS  AND  CUTTINGS  67 

It  is  easy  enough  to  grow  peach,  almond,  apricot,  and  Myrobalan 
seedlings,  but  small  seeds,  like  apples  and  pears,  often  do  not  show 
up  well  in  the  spring,  especially  if  the  soil  is  of  a  kind  that  crusts 
over  with  rain  and  sunshine.  Purchased  seedlings  are  planted  in 
nursery  rows  in  the  winter,  as  has  already  been  described,  and 
budded  in  the  following  summer,  grafting  the  next  spring  where  the 
buds  fail.  If  the  seedlings  are  large  they  are  often  root-grafted  at 
once,  and  then  one  summer  in  the  nursery  gives  a  tree  suitable  for 
planting  out. 

Fruit  Trees  from  Cuttings. — It  is  feasible  to  grow  a  number  o£ 
kinds  of  fruit  trees  from  cuttings,  but  it  is  not  desirable  in  many 
cases  to  do  it.  Trees  grown  from  a  graft  or  bud  in  a  seedling  root 
are  much  better.  The  root  system  of  a  seedling  is  naturally  stronger 
and  more  symmetrical.  The  roots  from  a  cutting  start  out  at  the 
bottom  and  spread  out  horizontally  and  irregularly.  This  style  of 
a  root  system  is  expressively  named  "duck-foot  roots,"  and  they 
do  not  give  the  tree  a  deep,  strong  hold  on  the  soil.  Trees  can,  how- 
ever, be  multiplied  very  fast  from  cuttings.  Notable  instances  of 
this  are  the  Myrobalan  plum  and  the  Leconte  pear.  Cuttings  of 
deciduous  trees  should  be  taken  from  well-matured  wood  of  the 
previous  season's  growth,  and  planted  in  rows  and  in  well-prepared 
soil,  as  has  already  been  described  for  the  sowing  of  fruit  tree  seeds. 
The  cuttings  should  be  taken  before  the  sap  begins  running  in  the 
winter.  A  cutting  about  ten  inches  long,  four-fifths  of  its  length 
buried  in  the  ground,  will  answer.  Be  sure  that  the  ground  is  firmed 
well  at  the  base  of  the  cutting,  but  keep  the  surface  loose.  Small 
wood  is  better  than  large,  though,  of  course,  the  extreme  ends  of 
twigs  should  be  rejected  usually.  Cultivation  of  cuttings  is  the  same 
as  that  of  seedlings,  and  budding,  when  the  cuttings  are  to  be  used 
as  stocks,  is  also  governed  by  the  same  rules. 

The  orange  and  lemon  can  be  grown  from  cuttings,  but  the  work 
is  done  during  the  summer  while  the  ground  is  warm.  Cut  from 
wood  one  or  two  years  old  ;  set  in  the  open  ground  with  partial  shade 
and  give  plenty  of  water,  but  be  sure  that  there  is  free  escape  for 
surplus  water.  Cuttings  started  in  the  warm  weather  and  given 
partial  shade  and  plenty  of  irrigation  are  very  apt  to  succeed.  This 
method  of  growing  these  fruits  is  not,  however,  in  wide  use  or  favor. 

The  propagation  of  the  grape,  olive  and  fig  from  cuttings  will  be 
considered  in  the  chapters  on  those  fruits. 

Planting  Out  in  Nursery. — For  planting  out  in  nursery,  the  term 
"spring"  is  given  as  the  proper  time,  but  in  California  it  must  be 
remembered  that  spring  is  not  any  definite  division  of  the  year. 
"Spring  weather"  comes  from  the  first  of  February  to  the  first  of 
May,  according  to  the  latitude  or  elevation  or  exposure  resulting 
from  local  topography.  Cherries  may  be  ripe  in  Vaca  Valley  before 
fruit  trees  put  out  leaves  in  Modoc  county;  and  between  these  ex- 
tremes there  are  advents  of  spring  in  other  places  according  to  the 
situation.  These  facts  are  more  fully  set  forth  in  the  chapter  on 
climate.  Spring  must  be  detected  in  the  behavior  of  vegetation  and 
not  by  the  calendar.  When  the  tree  buds  swell  and  the  leaves  ap- 


58  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

pear,  spring  has  come  for  that  locality.  But  whether  one  can  plant 
his  nursery  then  or  not  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  soil 
and  the  condition  of  the  rainfall  for  that  season.  This  varies  much, 
from  year  to  year.  As  a  rule,  however,  in  most  parts  where  fruit  is 
grown  at  present  in  large  quantities,  the  heavy  cold  rains  will  be 
over  by  the  first  of  February,  and  then  nursery  operations  can  com- 
mence if  the  soil  is  in  good  condition.  If  not,  the  planter  must  wait 
until  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work  nicely.  There  will,  of  course, 
be  heavy  rains  after  the  first  of  February ;  but  they  will  only  necessi- 
tate cultivation  to  loosen  the  soil,  if  the  nursery  ground  is  well 
situated  for  drainage,  and  if  it  is  not  it  should  not  be  used  for  this 
purpose. 

Supposing  the  ground  has  been  deeply  plowed  and  thoroughly 
harrowed,  as  has  been  already  described,  the  laying  out  of  the 
ground  is  the  next  operation.  Everything  should  be  done  with  a 
view  to  the  use  of  the  horse  in  cultivation.  The  rows  should  be  laid 
out  as  straight  as  possible.  Some  use  a  plow  furrow;  some  an  ar- 
rangement like  a  corn-marker,  with  two  cultivator  teeth  set  four  feet 
apart ;  some  stretch  a  line,  to  get  the  pits  or  root  grafts  as  true  to  it 
as  possible,  and  some  trust  to  the  furrow  for  straightness.  No  rule 
can  be  laid  down  for  means  to  be  employed ;  the  result  must  depend 
upon  the  eye  and  skill  of  the  individual.  Some  people  can  hardly 
shoot  a  straight  line  with  a  gun.  Each  must  do  the  best  he  can  in 
this  respect. 

There  is  a  difference  in  practice  as  to  distance  between  the  rows 
in  nursery.  The  usual  distance  is  four  feet,  but  others  claim  that  it 
is  better  to  make  the  rows  six  feet  apart,  especially  where  no  irriga- 
tion is  practised,  as  this  gives  the  young  trees  more  room,  and  if  the 
ground  is  kept  thoroughly  cultivated,  as  it  should  be,  it  gives  the 
roots  a  greater  supply  of  moisture  to  draw  upon.  In  growing  a  small 
lot  of  trees,  where  there  is  plenty  of  land,  it  is,  of  course,  desirable 
to  give  them  every  advantage  in  the  way  of  facilities  for  growth,  but 
on  the  other  hand,  an  overgrown  tree  is  not  desirable.  Thrift  and 
strength  must  be  sought  rather  than  size. 

At  the  ends  of  the  rows  spaces  of  about  twelve  feet  should  be  left 
as  turning-ground  for  the  horse  when  cultivating,  and  as  a  roadway. 
The  length  of  nursery  rows  depends  upon  the  taste  of  the  grower. 
It  is  convenient  to  have  alleys  wide  enough  for  a  horse  and  cart  at 
intervals  of  three  hundred  feet,  but  in  small  nurseries  the  head-lands 
would  probably  give  all  the  access  required. 

The  depth  for  planting  seeds  and  pits  must  be  regulated  by  the 
size  of  the  seed  and  the  character  of  the  soil,  as  is  always  laid  down 
by  the  authorities,  and  in  this  State  another  condition  must  be  made, 
and  that  is  the  climate  or  weather  conditions  prevailing  in  the 
locality.  Where  the  rainfall  is  generally  light  and  the  soil  loose,  seed 
must  be  planted  deeper  than  where  good  spring  showers  are  to  be 
expected.  In  heavy  soils  seeds  must  be  planted  shallower  than  in 
light,  even  with  the  same  rainfall.  Suggestions  of  depth  will  be 
found  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  particular  fruits. 

During  the  spring  months  the  cultivator  must  be  used  as  often  as 
may  be  required  to  keep  the  weeds  from  getting  too  high,  or  the  soil 


ADEQUATE  MOISTURE  FOR  NURSERY  TREES  59 

from  becoming  too  densely  packed  by  heavy  rains,  but  the  ground 
should  never  be  worked  when  too  wet.  It  requires  some  watchful- 
ness and  promptitude  to  use  the  cultivator  just  at  the  right  time. 

Nursery  Irrigation. — In  parts  of  the  State  where  the  rainfall  is 
adequate,  cultivation  thorough,  the  soil  sufficiently  retentive,  and 
atmospheric  conditions  favorable,  the  seedling  will  make  its  growth 
without  irrigation,  and  some  nurseries  are  on  ground  not  provided 
at  all  with  irrigation  facilities.  In  other  parts  of  the  State  irrigation 
is  necessary.  Water  should  be  applied  sparingly,  and  yet  enough  to 
keep  the  seedlings  in  healthy  growing  condition.  This  is  shown  by 
the  leaves,  which  should  not  droop  or  curl.  Excessive  irrigation 
should  be  guarded  against,  because  a  soft,  excessive  growth  is  very 
undesirable.  Water  is  a  good  thing,  and  in  some  cases  a  very  neces- 
sary thing,  but  the  use  of  it  should  be  wisely  regulated.  At  budding 
it  is  necessary  that  the  sap  should  be  free  and  the  bark  slip  easily. 
To  foster  this  condition  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  give  a  watering 
a  few  days  before  budding  commences.  Water  should  be  applied  by 
running  it  through  shallow  furrows  between  the  rows,  and  the  culti- 
vator should  follow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work 
freely. 


CHAPTER  IX 

BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 

If  the  nursery  ground  has  been  well  worked  and  the  seed  properly 
handled,  the  growth  of  the  seedling  will  be  strong  and  rapid.  If  an 
early  start  was  had  and  other  conditions  favorable,  some  kinds  will 
be  ready  for  budding  in  June,  and  the  production  of  what  are  called 
"June  buds,"  will  be  described  presently.  In  ordinary  practice, 
however,  budding  will  come  later,  and  the  budding  season  extends 
from  July  to  October.  The  weight  of  the  budding  of  deciduous  trees 
is  generally  done  in  August  and  September. 


BUDDING 

The  process  of  budding,  as  employed  on  all  the  common  fruit 
trees,  is  very  simple.  It  consists  in  lifting  the  bark  and  inserting  a 
bud  from  another  tree  in  such  a  way  that  the  inner  bark  of  the  bud 
shall  come  in  contact  with  the  layer  of  growing  wood  in  the  stock, 
and  then  it  will  be  quickly  knit  to  it  by  the  new  cell-growth  if  the 
bark  is  closed  around  the  inserted  bud  closely  enough  to  prevent  the 
air  from  drying  the  two  surfaces  at  the  point  of  contact.  In  the 
engraving  1  is  the  cutting  or  "bud  stick"  from  the  tree  of  the  kind 
into  which  it  is  desired  to  transform  the  seedling.  This  cutting  is 
usually  made  from  the  growth  of  the  present  season,  which  has  well- 
formed  buds  at  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  although  in  some  cases,  older 
dormant  buds  may  be  used,  as  will  appear  in  the  discussion  of  the 
different  fruits.  If  buds  are  desired  to  mature  early,  pinch  off  the 
ends  of  the  growing  shoots  from  which  they  are  to  be  taken.  Suck- 
ers and  so-called  "water-sprouts"  should  not  be  used,  but  rather 
well-formed  wood  from  the  branches  of  the  tree.  It  is  requisite  that 
the  buds  be  taken  from  a  vigorous  healthy  tree  of  the  variety  de- 
sired. But  sticks  can  be  carried  or  sent  considerable  distances  if 
packed  in  damp  moss  or  other  material  to  prevent  drying,  but  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  enclose  too  much  water  or  decay  will  be  pro- 
moted. Fresh  shoots  in  tight  tin  boxes  without  wet  packing  are 
safer  and  carry  very  long  distances.  Sealing  the  ends  with  grafting 
wax  is  also  a  good  precaution  against  drying  out. 

Budding  knives  can  be  bought  at  all  seed  stores  and  cutlery  estab- 
lishments. They  have  a  thin,  round-ended  blade  at  one  end  of  the 
handle,  and  at  the  other  end  the  bone  is  thinned  down,  or  a  bone 
blade  inserted.  The  former  is  for  cutting  and  the  latter  for  lifting 
the  bark  of  the  stock  into  which  the  bud  is  to  be  placed.  Armed 
with  a  bud  stick  and  such  a  knife,  the  "budder"  starts  in  upon  a 
row  of  seedlings.  Bending  the  seedling  over  a  little  and  holding  it 
between  his  left  arm  and  his  left  leg,  he  reaches  down  for  a  smooth 
place  on  the  bark  as  near  the  ground  as  convenient  to  work,  and 
makes  vertical  and  horizontal  cuts  as  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4  in  the 
engraving,  with  the  bark  slightly  lifted  and  ready  for  the  insertion 


BUDDING  FRUIT  TREES  ILLUSTRATED 


1    A  stick  of  bud  wood.     2    Cutting  the  bud.          3    Vertical   incision 


4    Transverse    incision      5    Inserting  the  bud       6    Inserted  bud  ready 

for  tying. 


7    Waxed  cloth  ready    8    Waxed  cloth  tightly    9    Bud  staked  and  tied, 
for  twisting.  twisted. 


72  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

of  the  bud.  Next  he  cuts  from  his  bud  stick  a  bud,  as  shown  at  2. 
This  carries  with  it,  on  the  back,  a  small  portion  of  the  wood  of  the 
bud  stick  as  well  as  the  bud  and  bark.  It  was  once  claimed  that  this 
wood  should  be  carefully  dug  out,  but  in  budding  most  kinds  of  trees 
it  is  not  necessary ;  in  fact,  it  may  be  better  to  leave  it  in ;  such  at 
any  rate  is  the  general  practice.  The  point  of  the  bud  is  now  inserted 
at  the  opening  at  the  top  of  the  slit  in  the  bark  of  the  stock  and 
pushed  down  into  place,  as  shown  in  figure  5.  To  handle  the  bud,  the 
part  of  the  leaf  stem  which  is  left  on  is  of  material  assistance.  No- 
thing remains  now  but  to  apply  the  ligature  which  is  to  hold  down 
the  bark  around  the  bud. 

There  are  various  ways  of  tying  in  the  bud.  Any  way  will  do 
which  holds  down  the  bark  closely,  but  not  too  tightly.  Different 
materials  are  also  used,  soft  cotton  twine,  stocking  yarn,  strips  of 
cotton  cloth,  candle  wicking,  etc.  The  last-named  is  perhaps  the  best 
material,  on  all  accounts,  although  strips  of  cheap  calico  bear  evenTy 
upon  the  bark  and  do  very  good  work.  The  use  of  twine  is  speedy, 
but  the  strands  bearing  upon  a  narrow  surface,  and  not  being  elastic, 
they  are  apt  to  do  injury  by  cutting  into  the  bark  unless  carefully 
watched  and  loosened.  The  fiber  from  basswood  bark  was  formerly 
largely  used,  but  has  given  place  to  the  other  materials  named, 
which  are  more  handily  obtained.  The  buds  must  be  examined 
about  a  week  or  ten  days  after  the  insertion,  and  the  ligature  loos- 
ened, for  otherwise  it  will  cut  into  the  rapidly-growing  stock.  Some- 
times trees  are  badly  injured  by  neglect  in  this  particular. 

In  making  June  buds,  where  immediate  growth  of  the  bud  is  de- 
sired, some  growers  make  a  hard  knot  with  the  cord  around  the 
stock,  above  the  bud,  and  then  use  the  loose  ends  to  tie  the  bud. 
When  the  binding  around  the  bud  is  loosened,  the  hard  knot  remains 
on  the  stock,  girdles  it,  and  forces  the  sap  into  the  bud.  Thin  wire, 
known  to  nurserymen  as  "label  wire,"  is  also  used  for  this  purpose. 

In  going  through  the  nursery  row,  all  seedlings  which  are  large 
enough  are  budded  at  once.  In  going  through  the  row  again  to  look 
to  the  bands,  if  the  bud  is  seen  to  be  fresh  looking,  it  is  considered 
to  have  "taken."  In  stocks  where  the  first  bud  has  dried  up,  another 
is  inserted  lower  down.  Sometimes  seedlings  which  were  too  small 
to  hold  a  bud  at  the  first  working  over  are  given  a  bud  later  in  the 
season,  or  left  for  taking  up  for  root  grafting  in  the  winter. 

In  nursery  practice  the  budder  does  not  stop  to  tie  his  buds,  but 
is  followed  in  the  row  by  another  man,  who  carries  the  tying  ma- 
terial, and  does  this  part  of  the  work. 

In  selecting  buds,  one  must  be  sure  that  he  gets  leaf  buds,  and 
not  fruit  buds  only.  In  taking  buds  from  some  kinds  of  trees  which 
bear  on  new  wood,  he  may  be  obliged  to  take  both  fruit  and  leaf  buds 
together.  This  will  work  well  if  care  is  taken  not  to  rub  off  the  leaf 
bud.  It  is  rather  easier  to  work  with  buds  from  young  trees  not  yet 
in  bearing,  but  there  is  always  danger  that  these  may  not  be  of  the 
desired  variety. 

The  common  method  of  budding  thus  described  is  used  on  all 
common  orchard  fruits.  Special  styles  of  budding  for  special  fruits 
will  be  described  in  the  chapters  treating  of  those  fruits. 


GRAFTING  IN  NURSERY  AND  ORCHARD  73 

Usually  the  budded  trees  are  allowed  to  stand  in  the  nursery  row 
with  no  other  treatment  that  year  than  the  insertion  and  care  of  the 
bud,  the  latter  remaining  dormant  until  the  next  spring.  Then,  as 
soon  as  the  sap  begins  to  swell  the  buds  on  the  stock,  the  top  is  cut 
off  down  to  about  two  inches  above  the  bud,  and  all  growth  is  kept 
off  except  that  of  the  inserted  bud.  When  that  has  grown  out  about 
twelve  inches,  the  stub  is  cut  off  to  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
or  less  from  the  bud,  and  the  wood  is  quickly  grown  over  by  the 
bark.  As  there  are  apt  to  be  dormant  buds  on  the  stock  below  the 
inserted  bud,  the  trees  have  to  be  examined  from  time  to  time,  and 
all  such  suckers  removed.  This  is  the  common  practice  with  budded 
trees.  Exceptions  will  be  noticed  presently  in  connection  with  defini- 
tions of  different  kinds  of  trees  known  to  the  trade. 

Spring  Budding. — What  has  been  said  in  reference  to  budding 
applies  to  the  use  of  dormant  buds.  It  is  also  possible  to  work  with 
what  is  called  a  "pushing  bud."  This  process  consists  of  keeping 
bud-sticks  alive  and  dormant  by  burying  them  in  the  ground  until 
the  sap  is  starting  well  in  the  stock  in  the  spring,  and  then  putting 
them  in,  trimming  off  the  top  of  the  stock  so  as  to  force  the  bud  into 
growth.  In  this  way  the  grower  of  a  rare  variety  may  secure  trees 
for  planting  out  the  following  winter,  or  he  may  secure  a  stock  of 
buds  for  fall  budding  and  thus  multiply  his  stock  of  a  desirable 
variety  very  rapidly.  A  modification  of  this  method  consists  in  tak- 
ing buds  in  the  spring  when  they  have  grown  out  even  half  an  inch, 
and  inserting  them  by  the  usual  method  of  lifting  the  bark,  when  the 
sap  is  flowing  well  in  the  stock.  Then  cut  off  about  half  the  stock, 
so  as  not  to  give  the  bud  too  much  sap  at  first,  and  afterward,  when 
it  is  seen  to  have  taken  well,  the  balance  of  the  stock  is  cut  off  near 
the  bud.  This  method  gives  a  tree  the  first  season  and  saves  a  year 
over  dormant  budding.  Shade  and  protection  from  dry  wind  are 
desirable. 

Another  process  of  getting  a  small  tree  the  first  summer  is 
"June-budding,"  which  will  be  described  later. 


GRAFTING 

Grafting,  like  budding,  consists  in  bringing  the  growing  wood 
(inner  bark  or  alburnum)  of  the  scion  into  contact  with  the  same 
layer  of  the  stock.  It  can  be  applied  to  any  part  of  the  tree,  from 
the  topmost  branch  to  the  lowest  root,  as  is  the  case  when  new  trees 
are  made  from  scions  and  root  fragments.  Thus  grafting  pertains 
both  to  the  production  of  young  trees  for  planting  out  and  to  the 
transformation  of  old  trees  bearing  undesirable  fruit  into  producers 
of  better  varieties. 

Grafting  for  the  production  of  young  trees  is  first  in  order.  In- 
stead of  budding  the  seedling  during  the  first  summer  of  its  growth, 
it  may  be  allowed  to  complete  its  season's  growth,  and  drop  its 
leaves.  When  thus  dormant  the  young  trees  are  taken  from  the 
ground,  the  roots  rinsed  off  with  water  if  the  ground  is  wet  and 
sticky,  or  merely  shaken  free  from  clinging  earth  if  in  a  dry  time. 


74 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


t) 


Cleft  Graft 


Bark  Graft 


Saddle  Graft.      Wedge  Graft. 


Whip   Graft.        Bad  and  Good  Whip  Graft. 


Side  Graft. 


MAKING  AND  USING  GRAFTING  WAX  75 

Enough  trees  are  dug  at  once  to  graft  at  a  sitting.  The  grafting  can 
be  done  at  the  work  bench  in  the  tool-house  or  barn,  and  if  one  is 
pressed  with  other  daylight  work,  it  may  be  done  by  lamplight  at  the 
kitchen  table,  if  the  housewife  can  be  conciliated  for  the  muss  it  will 
make. 

Care  of  Scions. — The  scions  should  be  previously  selected,  and 
whether  taken  from  trees  on  the  place  or  brought  from  near  or  dis- 
tant sources  away  from  the  farm,  should  have  been  placed  a's  soon 
as  procured  in  moist  earth  on  the  north  side  of  the  house  or  other 
building,  where  they  will  keep  cool  and  damp  until  one  is  ready  to 
use  them.  In  parts  of  this  State  where  the  ground  is  apt  to  freeze,  it 
is  necessary  to  keep  scions  in  the  cellar  with  their  butts  covered  with 
moist  sand,  but  over  most  of  the  area  of  California  nothing  more  is 
needed  than  to  put  them  down  in  earth  at  the  base  of  a  tree  or  on  the 
north  side  of  a  building,  with,  perhaps,  a  box  or  barrel  inverted  over 
them  to  keep  out  mice  and  other  intruders.  Care  must  be  taken  not 
to  let  them  dry  up.  If  it  is  desirable  for  any  reason  to  keep  scions 
dormant  long  into  the  spring  or  summer,  of  course  storage  in  a  cool 
cellar  is  better,  for  even  in  ground  the  scions  will  burst  into  leaf 
after  a  warm  spell  of  spring  weather  unless  they  are  wholly  buried 
some  depth  in  the  ground  which  will  greatly  prolong  dormancy.  A 
place  must  of  course  be  selected  where  no  water  will  stand  in  the 
soil. 

In  selecting  wood  for  scions,  as  for  bud  sticks,  never  take  water 
shoots  or  suckers  that  start  from  the  body  of  the  tree  and  push  up 
through  the  older  branches,  but  always  give  the  preference  to  sound, 
fully-matured  wood,  from  the  lower  or  nearly  horizontal  branches. 
Careful  experiments  have  shown  that  trees  grown  from  such  scions 
are  more  likely  to  take  on  a  low,  spreading  habit  than  those  from  the 
central  or  upper  branches.  The  scions  should  be  tied  in  bundles 
with  a  stout  cord ;  and  a  piece  of  shingle,  with  the  name  of  the  variety 
written  plainly  and  deeply  thereon,  should  be  tied  in  with  each 
bundle. 

Grafting  Wax. — In  grafting,  a  wood  grafting  wax  is  a  requisite. 
The  ingredients  are  mixed  in  different  proportions  by  different 
growers.  A  few  recipes  which  are  known  to  give  good  results  are 
as  follows : 

Two  Ibs.  resin;  1  Ib.  beeswax,  1  quart  linseed  oil;  4  tablespoonfuls  tur- 
pentine. 

One  Ib.  beeswax;  5  Ibs.  resin;  1  pint  linseed  oil;  1  oz.  lampblack. 

One  Ib.  beeswax;  5  Ibs.  resin;  1  pint  linseed  oil;  1  pint  flour — the  flour 
stirred  in  after  the  other  ingredients  have  boiled  together  and  cooled  some- 
what. 

All  these  mixtures  are  made  with  the  aid  of  gentle  heat,  and 
during  grafting  the  wax  must  be  kept  warm  enough  to  apply  easily 
with  a  small  brush.  To  do  this  a  heater  can  be  made  by  removing 
the  top  of  a  five-gallon  oil  can  or  a  blasting  powder  can  and  making 
a  hole  for  draft  in  one  side  near  the  bottom.  A  slow  fire  can  be  kept 
going  to  heat  the  wax-pot  which  is  suspended  from  a  rod  across  the 


75  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

top.  Sometimes  a  smaller  can  is  used  and  a  small  oil  lamp  used  as 
a  heater  under  the  wax  container.  A  wire  handle  makes  this  outfit 
portable.  A  very  neat  small  wax  heater  may  be  made  of  a  common 
lantern — a  funnel-shaped  tin  cylinder  put  in  place  of  the  glass  globe, 
the  lower  end  being  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  bottom  of  the  globe. 
The  top  is  about  five  inches  in  diameter  and  a  small  can  containing 
the  wax  is  set  down  in  it.  The  wax  should  not  be  so  hot  as  to  run 
too  easily,  but  just  right  to  spread  well. 

As  a  substitute  for  all  the  old  grafting-waxes,  asphaltum,  "Grade 
D,"  has  recently  been  widely  and  successfully  used.  It  is  kept  warm 
enough  to  spread  well.  Many  use  the  asphaltum  pure ;  others  prefer 
addition  of  resin — one  part  of  the  resin  to  three  or  four  parts  of 
asphaltum,  according  to  different  grafters'  experiences.  The  two 
substances  are  melted  together  over  a  slow  heat.  The  resin  over- 
comes the  running  tendency  of  the  asphaltum  in  hot  weather.  A 
good  grafting  wax  is  also  made  by  melting  together  four  parts  by 
weight  of  asphaltum  to  one  of  paraffine. 

Grafting  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  use  of  strips  of  waxed  cloth 
or  waxed  paper,  the  latter  being  quite  good  enough  for  grafts,  which 
are  set  low  enough  to  be  protected  by  a  ground  covering;  also  for 
root  grafts.  This  waxed  paper  is  made  by  spreading  a  thin  coat  of 
wax,  with  a  brush,  upon  tough,  thin  wrapping  paper,  cutting  up  the 
paper,  when  cold,  with  a  sharp  knife,  on  a  board,  into  strips  about 
an  inch  wide.  Waxed  cloth  is  made  by  dipping  cheap  cotton  cloth 
into  hot  wax,  pulling  the  pieces  between  the  edges  of  two  boards  to 
take  out  as  much  wax  as  possible,  and  when  the  cloth  is  cold,  tearing 
it  up  into  half-inch  strips  for  small  grafts  or  wider  strips  for  larger 
grafts.  When  grafting  is  going  on  indoors,  these  strips  hanging  near 
the  stove  are  kept  in  good,  soft  condition  for  use. 

There  are  grafting  preparations  which  do  not  require  heating,  but 
remain  in  a  semi-fluid  state,  and  then  become  very  hard  by  contact 
with  the  air.  The  following  is  a  popular  French  preparation  : 

Melt  one  pound  of  resin  over  a  gentle  fire.  Add  to  it  one  ounce  of  beef 
tallow,  and  stir  it  well.  Take  it  from  the  fire,  let  it  cool  down  a  little,  and 
then  mix  it  with  a  tablespoonful  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  after  that  add 
about  seven  ounces  of  very  strong  alcohol.  The  alcohol  cools  it  down  so 
rapidly  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  put  it  once  more  on  the  fire,  stirring  it 
constantly.  Great  care  is  necessary  to  avoid  igniting  the  alcohol. 

This  wax  is  easily  prepared,  and  when  well  corked  will  keep  for 
years,  always  ready.  It  is  put  on  the  wounded  part  of  the  tree,  very 
thin,  and  soon  becomes  as  hard  as  stone.  Thus  it  is  valuable  not  only 
for  grafting,  but  for  covering  the  scars  caused  by  removing  limbs  in 
pruning.  It  is,  however,  rather  an  amateur's  recourse,  as  it  is  rather 
expensive  for  large  operations  for  which  asphaltum  is  used. 

Cleft  Grafting. — Where  various-sized  stocks  are  to  be  used,  as 
will  be  the  case  with  a  bunch  of  home-grown  seedlings,  different 
styles  of  grafting  must  be  used.  Where  the  stock  is  much  larger 
than  the  scion,  as  is  apt  to  be  the  case  with  California  seedlings,  the 
cleft  graft  will  be  simplest.  Cut  off  the  top  smoothly  above  the  root 
crown  and  then  split  the  top  of  the  stock,  as  shown  in  the  engraving. 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING  DESCRIBED  77 

Then  prepare  the* scion  by  whittling  it  to  wedge-shape  at  the  lower 
end.  Open  the  slit  in  the  stock  with  a  little  wedge  and  insert  the 
scion  so  that  its  inner  bark  matches  with  the  inner  bark  of  the  stock, 
something  as  shown  in  the  second  figure.  It  does  not  matter  whether 
the  outside  of  the  scion  is  flush  with  the  outside  of  the  stock  or  not ; 
the  vital  point  is  to  get  the  growing  layers,  just  inside  the  barks,  in 
contact  with  each  other,  and,  to  be  sure  of  this  it  may  be  well  to  give 
the  scion  a  slight  diagonal  pitch,  for  if  the  barks  cross  each  other, 
this  desirable  contact  is  sure  to  be  made.  It  is  well  to  make  the  side 
of  the  wedge  of  the  scion  which  goes  nearer  to  the  center  of  the  stock 
a  little  thinner  than  the  outside. 

A  scion  for  a  root  graft  is  cut  longer  than  for  use  in  the  top  of 
the  tree,  for  in  planting,  the  point  of  grafting  is  placed  a  little  way 
underground.  Such  scions  are  usually  cut  with  four  or  five  buds. 
After  the  scion  is  in  place,  it  only  remains  to  wrap  it  closely  with  a 
piece  of  waxed  cloth  or  paper,  in  such  a  way  that  all  the  cut  surfaces 
are  covered,  extending  the  wrapper  a  little  below  the  split  in  the 
root.  Paint  over  the  wrapper  with  warm  wax  put  on  with  a  brush, 
put  a  little  on  the  top  of  the  scion,  and  the  graft  is  complete. 

Side  Grafting. — Another  method  which  prevents  splitting  the 
stock  is  the  side  graft,  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure.  It  con- 
sists in  bending  the  stock  to  one  side  and  cutting  in  diagonally  with 
a  thin-bladed,  sharp  knife,  a  little  more  than  half  way  through  the 
stock.  Into  this  open  cut  insert  the  scion  so  that  the  inner  barks 
touch ;  then  allowing  the  stock  to  straighten  up,  hold  the  scion 
firmly.  Covering  with  a  wax  band  drawn  tight  makes  a  good  job, 
and  such  grafts  make  as  good  growth  as  the  buds  set  the  previous 
summer.  This  method  can  be  used  with  stems  or  branches  up  to  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  is  essentially  the  same,  as  will  be  mentioned 
later,  as  a  side  graft  for  working  over  old  trees.  In  this  style  of 
grafting,  a  stub  of  three  inches  or  more  may  be  left  above  the  graft, 
and  to  this  the  graft  can  be  tied  to  prevent  blowing  out  if  it  makes 
a  strong  growth.  Afterward  the  stub  is  cut  back  with  a  sloping  cut 
and  waxed  or  painted  to  prevent  checking. 

Whip  Grafting  in  the  Stem. — Grafting  above  the  root  or  in  the 
stem  of  the  stock  when  stock  and  scion  are  about  the  same  size,  is 
done  by  tongue  or  whip  grafting.  The  accompanying  sketch  shows 
a  whip  graft  in  the  stem  of  the  stock.  Grafts  up  to  an  inch  in 
diameter  can  be  made  in  this  way,  but  it  is  generally  used  for  smaller 
wood.  Care  must  be  taken  to  secure  proper  contacts  of  the  inner 
barks  at  least  on  one  side  of  the  stock.  After  pushing  the  parts 
together,  a  wax  band  holds  them  firmly  in  place,  or  the  joint  may  be 
simply  tied  and  painted  over  with  wax. 

A  Root  Graft. — When  the  root  stock  and  the  scion  are  about  the 
same  size,  the  tongue  graft  is  also  used,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  In 
making  this  both  the  stock  and  scion  are  given  a  sloping  cut  of  about 
the  same  length,  and  a  secondary  cut  made  in  each.  When  the  two 
are  put  together  the  wood  "tongues  in,"  or  interlocks  as  shown  in 
the  engraving.  The  object  of  this  is  to  make  more  points  of  contact 


78  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

for  the  inner  barks  of  root  and  scion,  and  at  the  same  time  to  inter- 
lock the  two  more  firmly.  In  putting  the  two  together,  if  the  stock 
is  slightly  larger  than  the  scion,  be  sure  to  put  the  scion  so  that  the 
inner  bark  contact  is  made,  and  this  will  bring  the  scion  a  little  to 
one  side  of  the  center.  Bind  with  the  wax  band,  and  paint  with  wax 
as  in  the  case  of  the  former  graft. 

In  large  nursery  practice  expert  grafters  have  come  of  late  years 
to  make  this  root  graft  without  wax,  merely  tying  in  the  graft.  For 
amateur  work  at  home  it  is  much  safer  to  use  the  wax. 

Grafting  in  the  root,  where  the  root  is  much  larger  than  the  scion, 
may  be  done  without  splitting  the  root  by  cutting  or  sawing  out  a 
triangular  piece  on  the  side  of  the  root  (smoothing  the  saw-cut  with 
a  sharp  knife)  cutting  the  scion  to  fit  and  trusting  to  a  strong  band 
to  hold  it  in  place.  This  graft  is  used  for  grafting  in  grape  roots, 
also,  with  root  grafting  the  walnut,  and,  by  some,  in  ordinary  top 
grafting  on  other  trees. 

Planting  Out  Root  Grafts. — This  root  grafting  can  be  done  in  the 
winter  before  it  is  time  to  plant  out,  and  the  grafts  can  be  made  a 
few  at  a  time,  as  convenient.  The  grafts,  then,  as  fast  as  prepared, 
should  be  bedded  in  moist  sand  in  the  cellar,  and  will  make  their 
contact  firm,  and  even  start  to  growing  a  little.  In  planting  out  in 
the  nursery  rows  be  sure  the  earth  is  firmed  well  around  the  root, 
otherwise  many  will  be  lost.  Plant  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart  in  the 
rows.  Keep  the  weeds  down  and  the  soil  well  cultivated  and  loose 
on  the  surface,  and  the  first  season's  growth  will  give  a  tree  fit  for 
planting  out  in  orchard  in  the  coming  winter.  For  irrigation  the 
rules  already  given  for  the  growth  of  seedlings  for  budding  will 
apply. 

PRUNING  TREES  IN  NURSERY 

As  for  other  treatment  of  the  trees  (either  from  bud  or  root  graft) 
in  nursery  during  the  first  year,  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion 
and  practice.  If  the  young  tree  will  be  content  to  make  a  straight 
switch  with  good  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  but  no  laterals 
thrown  out,  it  will  be  in  the  best  possible  shape  for  planting  in  the 
orchard,  and  gives  the  planter  a  chance  to  make  the  head  at  what- 
ever height  suits  him,  and  to  secure  uniformity  through  the  orchard. 
All  trees  will  not,  however,  be  content  with  this  growth,  but  will 
push  out  laterals  all  along  the  stem.  Even  in  this  case  some  let  the 
whole  growth  go  for  the  planter  to  treat  as  he  thinks  best.  Another 
plan  is  to  go  over  the  nursery  when  the  young  stock  is  about  two 
feet  high  and  pinch  back  the  laterals  part  way,  but  retaining  the 
leaves  nearest  the  stem  to  shade  the  stem.  This  pinching  back  is 
done  from  the  ground  up  to  a  height  of  one  to  one  and  a  half  feet,  and 
above  that  the  growth  is  left  to  take  its  natural  course,  to  be  cut  as 
desired  when  the  head  of  the  tree  is  formed.  Pinching  back  develops 
buds  near  the  stem  and  gives  the  planter  a  better  chance  to  head  the 
tree  lower  if  he  likes.  Another  practice  which  prevails  to  some  ex- 
tent, is  to  pinch  off  the  terminal  bud  when  the  young  tree  has  reached 


VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  NURSERY  TREES  79 

a  height  of  about  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  in  the  nursery.  This 
soon  forces  a  growth  of  lateral  branches,  which  are  in  turn  pinched 
after  they  have  grown  out  a  couple  of  feet.  The  result  is  the  forma- 
tion of  a  head  on  a  nursery  tree  the  first  year,  and  when  such  trees 
are  planted  in  orchard  they  are  merely  cut  back  on  the  laterals,  leav- 
ing the  head  as  formed  in  the  nursery.  Such  trees  are  difficult  to 
handle  in  packing,  and  take  much  room  in  shipment.  There  may, 
however,  be  an  advantage  in  such  practice  for  the  home  grower  if  he 
is  situated  in  parts  of  the  State  where  the  greatest  season's  growth 
is  attained.  Orchard  planters  generally,  however,  prefer  a  June  bud 
or  a  yearling  of  moderate  growth,  without  laterals. 


CLASSES  OF  NURSERY  STOCKS 

The  several  classes  of  stock  which  are  to  be  had  from  nurseries 
are  as  follows : 

Root  Grafts. — These  are  seedling  roots,  or  pieces  of  them,  on 
which  scions  of  the  desired  variety  have  been  grafted  on  the  bench 
and  the  junction  healed  over  in  the  cellar.  No  growth  has  yet  started 
in  the  scion.  If  the  tree  planter  wishes  this  kind  of  stock,  he  should 
plant  it  out  in  nursery  row  in  the  spring  and  remove  the  trees  to 
orchard  the  following  winter. 

June  Buds. — For  multiplying  varieties  very  fast,  buds  may  be 
kept  dormant  in  a  cool  place ;  and  put  into  seedling  stocks  as  early 
in  the  season  as  the  bark  slips  well,  as  already  described.  It  is  much 
more  common  to  use  early  buds  of  the  current  season's  growth  and 
their  readiness  may  be  hastened  by  pinching  tips  of  new  shoots  from 
which  they  are  to  be  taken,  which  forces  development  of  lateral  buds. 
After  budding,  the  top  of  the  stock  is  girdled  with  knife  or  cord,  or 
partly  cut  away,  and  growth  is  forced  on  the  bud  so  as  to  give  a  small 
tree  at  the  end  of  the  first  summer.  This  method  of  propagation  is 
most  popular  in  the  foothill  districts,  where  small  trees  are  preferred 
for  transplanting. 

Dormant  Buds. — Trees  are  sold  in  dormant  bud  when  they  are 
lifted  from  the  nursery  and  sent  out  before  any  growth  has  started 
on  the  inserted  bud.  The  bud  should  be  seen  to  be  the  color  of 
healthy  bark.  Such  trees  should  only  be  used  when  yearlings  are 
not  to  be  had  and  gain  in  time  is  very  important.  Care  must  be 
constantly  taken  that  growth  starts  from  the  right  bud,  and  that  it 
be  protected  from  breaking  off  by  wind  or  animals.  A  considerable 
percentage  of  loss  is  usual,  and  extra  dormant  buds  should  be 
planted  in  nursery  rows  to  fill  vacancies. 

Yearling  Trees. — These  are  trees  which  have  made  one  season's 
growth  from  the  bud  or  graft.  Two-year-olds  have  made  two  sea- 
sons' growth,  and  so  on.  The  proper  way  to  count  the  life  of  a  tree 
is  from  the  starting  of  growth  in  the  bud  or  graft,  for  this  point  is 
really  the  birth  of  the  visible  parts  of  the  tree. 


gO  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

WORKING  OVER  OLD  TREES 

Another  operation  which  may  be  properly  considered  as  a  branch 
of  propagation  is  the  working  over  of  old  trees.  There  is  much  of 
this  being  done  every  year  in  this  State.  Old  seedling  trees  are  made 
to  bear  improved  varieties ;  trees  of  varieties  ill  adapted  to  prevail- 
ing conditions  are  changed  into  strong  growing  and  productive 
sorts;  trees  are  changed  from  one  fruit  to  another,  when  affinity 
permits.  This  will  be  mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  the  different 
fruits.  Working  over  is  also  done  to  secure  more  valuable  and  mar- 
ketable varieties,  or  to  get  a  succession  of  varieties  to  secure  a 
longer  working  season  in  which  to  dispose  of  them.  For  all  of  these 
reasons,  and  others,  the  work  of  the  propagator  is  continually  going 
on  even  in  our  large  bearing  orchards.  As  with  young  trees,  so 
with  old,  transforming  the  character  of  the  tree  is  done  both  by 
budding  and  grafting. 

Budding  Old  Trees. — To  prepare  an  old  tree  for  budding,  cut 
back  the  branches  severely  during  the  latter  part  of  the  winter, 
which  forces  out  new  shoots  around  the  head  of  the  tree,  and  in  these 
the  buds  of  the  desired  variety  are  set  in  the  summer,  just  as  is  done 
in  building  nursery  stock,  except  that  the  budding  should  be  done 
rather  earlier  because  the  sap  does  not  run  as  late.  When  the  shoots 
are  budded,  those  being  selected  which  are  situated  so  as  to  give  the 
best  symmetry  to  the  new  head,  the  shoots  not  budded  are  broken 
a  foot  or  so  from  where  they  emerge  from  the  old  wood,  and  are 
allowed  to  hang  until  pruning  time.  At  the  winter  pruning  the 
budding  branches  are  topped  off  a  little  above  the  bud,  and  when 
the  new  shoot  starts  it  is  often  loosely  tied  to  the  stub  of  the  old 
branch  to  prevent  breaking  out  in  the  wind.  When  it  gets  strength, 
the  stub  is  cut  away  smoothly  to  allow  the  wound  to  heal  over. 

Another  way  is  to  insert  the  buds  in  the  old  bark  at  points  where 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  new  branches  start.  This  is  sometimes 
done  by  lifting  the  bark,  as  in  ordinary  shield  budding,  and  slipping 
the  bud  under,  sometimes  by  what  is  called  plate  budding,  which 
consists  in  removing  a  piece  of  the  old  bark  entirely  and  putting  in  its 
place  a  piece  of  bark  of  the  desired  variety,  having  upon  it  a  dor- 
mant bud.  With  plate  budding  it  is  necessary  to  be  careful  to 
have  the  inserted  bark  just  the  size  of  the  bared  spot,  and  to  wrap 
it  more  closely  than  when  the  bud  is  slipped  under  the  bark  of  the 
stock.  In  all  cases  in  budding  old  trees,  care  must  be  taken  to  get 
fully-matured  buds,  and  it  is  well  to  take  them  from  large  shoots, 
which  have  a  thicker  and  firmer  bark  than  may  be  used  in  budding 
nursery  stock.  It  is  also  desirable  to  be  very  sure  that  the  buds  are 
taken  not  only  from  a  tree  of  the  desired  variety,  but  from  a  healthy, 
vigorous  and  free-bearing  tree  of  that  variety. 

Grafting  Old  Trees. — Old  trees  are  also  renewed  by  grafting. 
Phis  is  most  generally  done  by  the  old  process  of  "top  grafting." 
The  main  stem  or  the  larger  branches  are  cut  square  off,  and  the 
scions,  usually  two,  but  four  or  more  if  in  the  trunk,  are  shaped  and 
set  into  clefts  in  the  stock  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  It  is  better 


CHANGING  VARIETIES  ON  OLD  TREES  gl 

to  use  limbs  above  the  main  fork,  or  head  of  the  tree,  than  to  graft 
in  the  trunk,  if  the  old  trees  are  of  good  size.  The  following  de- 
scription, which  the  writer  borrows  in  part  from  some  unknown 
source,  will  serve  to  guide  novices  in  the  matter : 

The  outfit  necessary  for  doing  the  work  consists  of  a  small,  fine  saw,  a 
regular  grafting  knife,  or  a  pocket-knife  with  a  long,  straight  sharp  blade, 
wax,  light  mallet,  and  a  hard-wood  narrow  wedge.  After  selecting  the 
limb  to  be  grafted,  saw  it  off — your  own  judgment  will  guide  you  as  to  the 
best  point,  but  before  the  saw  gets  quite  through  the  limb,  cut  the  bark  on 
the  under  side  of  the  limb  to  prevent  the  liability  of  peeling  down. 

Next  split  the  stub  with  knife  and  mallet  and  insert  the  wedge  in  the 
center  of  the  cleft  to  hold  it  open.  It  is  usual  to  cut  the  scion  with  two 
buds,  but  sometimes  better  results  are  had  by  using  scions  with  but  a  single 
bud.  Whittle  the  scion  wedge  sharp,  so  that  it  fits  nicely  down  into  the  cleft. 
To  do  this,  hold  it  in  the  left  hand  with  the  bud  at  the  ball  of  the  thumb, 
then  cut  the  side  toward  you;  as  will  be  natural,  turn  it  over,  and  cut  the 
opposite  side  in  the  same  way,  making  the  wedge  a  very  little  thinner  on  the 
edge  opposite  the  bud  than  on  the  other.  This  will  insure  a  firm  pressure  at 
the  points  where  the  bark  of  scion  and  stock  meet. 

When  set,  the  bud  of  the  scion  will  be  on  line  with  the  outer  long  portion 
of  the  graft,  the  point  to  be  closely  observed  in  adjustment  is  to  have  the 
inner  or  sap  bark  of  the  scion  connected  with  the  same  of  the  stock.  If  a 
trifle  too  far  in,  or  too  far  out,  the  work  will  be  a  failure.  Some  people  set 
the  graft  a  little  out  at  the  top  and  a  little  in  at  the  bottom,  so  as  to  be 
sure  of  a  connection  at  the  crossing  point,  but  there  will  be  firmer  hold 
if  there  is  a  union  the  whole  length.  Our  rule  has  been  to  have  the  wood 
of  the  scion  come  exactly  parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  stock,  and  we 
seldom  fail  in  getting  firm  adhesions  and  solid  limbs  after  years  of  growth. 

After  the  scions  are  set,  and  two  should  be  put  into  one  limb  if  large, 
carefully  withdraw  the  wedge  and  apply  the  wax,  so  that  every  part  of  the 
wood  and  bark  cut  and  split  is  well  coated.  In  doing  this  use  extreme 
care  not  to  move  the  scions  at  all  from  their  sittings.  If  the  pinch  of  the 
stock  is  seen  to  be  severe,  a  small  wedge  may  be  left  in  the  center  to  save 
the  scions  from  crushing.  If  there  is  a  large  cleft,  it  may  be  filled  with 
damp  clay  before  waxing  over. 

Most  grafting  over  of  old  trees  is  done  by  this  method,  using  one 
or  another  of  the  wax  preparations  described  upon  a  preceding 
page.  If  the  cut  surface  of  the  stock  and  the  split  is  thoroughly 
waxed  over  as  low  as  the  bark  is  split,  there  is  usually  little  trouble 
with  the  growth  of  the  scion  and  the  healing  over  of  the  stock.  In 
the  warmer  valleys  in  the  interior,  the  sun  is  often  hot  enough  to 
melt  the  wax  and  cause  it  to  run  and  bare  the  wood  surfaces.  This 
is  prevented  by  dusting  the  wax  thoroughly  with  brick  dust  well 
powdered ;  but,  by  a  little  experimenting  with  the  recipes  already 
given,  one  can  secure  a  wax  which  will  stand  any  heat  likely  to  be 
encountered. 

For  grafting  over  trees  by  working  upon  the  limbs,  good  work 
can  be  done  by  bark  grafting,  which  does  not  require  the  splitting 
of  the  stock.  There  are  various  ways  of  doing  this.  One  method  is 
shown  in  the  engraving  on  a  previous  page,  and  consists  of  cutting 
the  scion  as  shown,  and  inserting  it  beneath  the  raised  bark  and  then 
binding  well  with  waxed  bands,  the  preparation  of  which  has  already 
been  described. 

Another  method  is  an  application  of  what  the  French  call  oblique 
side  grafting.  It  consists  of  making  an  oblique  cut  downward 


g2  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

through  the  bark  of  the  stock  and  for  a  distance  into  the  wood,  using 
a  chisel  and  mallet  or  even  a  strong  knife.  A  saw  and  knife  are  also 
used  for  making  this  cut,  as  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  on  the 
peach.  A  small  form  of  side  graft  has  already  been  shown  earlier 
in  this  chapter.  In  it  the  scion  is  held  in  with  a  wax  band.  Some 
growers  remove  the  top  of  the  stock  with  a  sloping  cut  about  half 
an  inch  above  the  top  of  the  scion,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  and 
wrap  the  waxed  band  well  around  and  over  all  the  exposed  surfaces. 
Others  do  not  remove  the  whole  of  the  limb  until  the  scion  has 
started  well  into  growth,  and  then  they  cut  down  and  pare  the  stock 
and  cover  with  a  band  or  with  a  wax  that  will  not  run  in  the  sun. 

Several  ingenious  devices  have  been  patented  by  Californians  for 
securing  uniformity  in  the  incision  in  the  stock  and  in  shaping  the 
scion,  but  it  is  so  easy  to  succeed  with  ordinary  tools  that  such  in- 
ventions have  never  come  into  wide  use.  Machines  for  the  bench 
grafting  of  vines  have  been  employed  to  a  certain  extent,  but  not 
generally. 

Bridge  Grafting. — Trees  which  have  been  girdled  on  the  trunks 
by  gnawing  of  rodents  or  by  blight,  may  have  new  connection  be- 
tween root  and  top  by  bridge-grafting.  It  is  done  by  removing  the 
earth  so  as  to  expose  the  upper  surfaces  of  healthy  roots  and  spring- 
ing-in  long  scions  from  proper  places  on  the  roots  to  healthy  bark 
above  the  injury.  Cut  scions  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  longer 
than  the  space  to  bridge  over ;  sharpen  each  end  wedgelike ;  raise 
the  bark  below  and  above  at  the  edge  of  the  wound  and  insert  scions 
under  the  bark ;  put  plenty  of  scions  close  together ;  wax  well  with 
a  melted  wax ;  wrap  tightly  with  thin  cloth  and  give  it  another  good 
coat  of  wax  over  the  cloth,  and  prune  the  tree  back  well.  Watch  must 
be  kept  to  remove  shoots  which  may  start  on  the  scions,  and  keep 
them  carrying  sap  through  instead  of  using  it  on  their  own  growth. 
Such  bridge-scions  are  usually  less  than  a  foot  in  length,  but  have 
been  used  in  spanning  pear  blight  to  a  length  of  four  feet. 

Citrus  trees  have  been  kept  alive,  though  girdled  by  gum  disease, 
by  planting  seedlings  close  up  and  in  arching  their  stems  into  healthy 
bark  above  the  diseased  zone. 


TIMES  FOR  GRAFTING  IN  CALIFORNIA 

There  is  nothing  particularly  new  about  the  methods  or  means 
employed  for  grafting  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  California,  but  the 
time  at  which  the  operation  can  be  successfully  done  is  different 
from  that  held  to  be  necessary  in  other  climates.  It  is  not  at  all 
requisite  that  the  grafter  should  work  in  the  "spring  time."  Graft- 
ing is  possible  much  later  in  the  season  than  is  prescribed  elsewhere, 
and  it  is  also  possible  to  begin  earlier.  In  apple  and  pear  orchards 
it  is  common  to  graft  in  December.  The  absence  of  hard  freezing 
saves  the  graft  from  injury.  As  our  trees  start  their  flow  of  sap 
early,  and  often  when  the  ground  is  too  wet  for  comfortable  or- 
chard work,  it  is  the  practice  of  many  to  get  their  grafting  and  prun- 
ing done  before  the  heavy  midwinter  rains  begin.  Of  course  it 


CALIFORNIA'S  ADVANTAGES  IN  GRAFTING  g3 

should  be  understood  that  there  are  parts  of  the  State  where  the 
winter  conditions  are  more  nearly  like  those  at  the  East,  and  practice 
has  to  conform  to  them. 

As  to  whether  it  is  better  to  remove  the  whole  top  of  the  tree  and 
graft  all  the  limbs  in  one  year,  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion. 
The  prevailing  practice  is  to  graft  over  part  of  the  limbs  one  year 
and  the  balance  the  following  year ;  or  else  to  leave  part  of  the  top 
to  shade  the  bark  and  take  part  of  the  sap  flow  until  the  grafts  start 
out  well,  and  then  cut  it  away.  When  a  large  amount  of  grafting  is 
to  be  done,  the  limbs  may  be  cut  off  during  the  weeks  preceding 
grafting.  In  this  case,  the  cut  should  be  made  a  foot  or  two  above 
the  grafting  point  and  a  second  cut  be  made  at  this  point,  when 
ready  to  put  in  the  scions. 

Whenever  old  bark  is  exposed  by  cutting  back  for  grafting 
thorough  protection  against  sunburn  must  be  provided  with  good 
whitewash,  made  according  to  the  recipes  given  at  the  close  of 
Chapter  XI. 

Newly  set  grafts  should  be  frequently  looked  after  to  see  that 
the  wax  remains  perfect ;  also  to  remove  suckers  from  the  stock 
which  may  rob  the  grafts  of  sap  for  starting  and  growing.  Care 
should  also  be  taken  that  growth  on  grafts  is  not  so  rapid  as  to 
break  away  in  the  wind  before  the  union  becomes  strong.  Such 
rapid  growth  should  be  supported  by  fastening  a  lath  alongside  both 
stock  and  graft,  or  it  should  be  checked  by  pinching  or  cutting-back 
the  graft-growth  as  conditions  make  desirable. 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  relates  especially  to  the  working 
over  of  old  trees  of  common  deciduous  fruits.  Though  much  the 
same  method  will  succeed  with  some  of  the  semi-tropical  fruits  and 
with  nut  trees,  the  discussion  of  their  propagation  and  grafting  over 
will  be  deferred  to  the  chapters  devoted  to  them,  and  this  will  also 
give  opportunity  to  describe  methods  especially  adapted  to  these 
fruits. 


CHAPTER  X 

PREPARATION  FOR  ORCHARD  PLANTING 

The  two  essentials  in  preparing  land  for  trees  or  vines  are  deep 
and  thorough  cultivation,  and  provision  for  drainage,  unless  the  sit- 
uation is  naturally  well  drained.  Drainage  will  be  considered  in 
connection  with  irrigation  in  another  chapter.  In  this  place,  how- 
ever, by  way  of  emphasis,  it  may  be  remarked  that  high  land  is  not 
necessarily  well  drained,  although  the  general  feature  of  the  sur- 
face may  be  an  incline,  nor  is  low  land  necessarily  wet,  although  the 
surface  may  be  apparently  level.  For  horticultural  purposes  the 
drainage  of  the  land  must  be  considered  on  the  hillside  as  well  as  in 
the  valley,  for  reasons  which  Avill  be  more  fully  set  forth  in  the 
chapter  on  drainage. 

The  preparation  of  land  for  fruit  planting  should  begin  with 
grading.  In  irrigated  orchards  this  is  essential  for  the  equal  dis- 
tribution of  water.  Even  where  irrigation  is  not  anticipated,  it  is 
of  decided  advantage  to  smooth  down  hummocks  and  fill  sags  which 
are  likely  to  collect  water  in  the  rainy  season.  As  has  been  shown 
in  Chapter  III,  this  can  usually  be  done  on  most  California  soils 
without  danger  of  uncovering  a  sterile  subsoil.  Some  intimation  of 
the  method  of  grading  is  given  at  the  close  of  Chapter  VII.  In  prep- 
aration for  the  irrigated  orchard,  and  irrigation  is  now  widely  em- 
ployed even  in  regions  where  formerly  rainfall  was  the  sole  reli- 
ance, it  is  important  that  accurate  grading  should  be  done  and  the 
use  of  the  surveyor's  level  and  grade  stakes  will  be  found  very  de- 
sirable. All  moving  of  soil  should  precede  the  general  plowing. 

For  the  planting  of  orchard  or  vineyard  the  land  must  be  put  in 
as  good  tilth  as  possible,  and  extra  expenditure  to  secure  this  will 
be  amply  repaid  in  the  after-growth  of  the  trees  and  vines.  If  prac- 
ticable, it  will  be  all  the  better  to  have  the  process  of  preparation 
begin  a  year  before  the  trees  or  vines  are  to  be  set.  This  is  true 
either  with  newly-cleared  land,  as  has  been  described,  or  with  old 
grain  or  pasture  land  which  is  to  be  used ;  leaving  the  surface  rough 
during  the  winter,  facilitates  the  access  of  air  to  the  lower  layers 
of  the  soil,  and  in  a  certain  sense  may  be  said  to  sweeten  and  enliven 
it.  Following  in  the  furrow  with  a  subsoil  plow  is  very  desirable, 
either  at  the  first  plowing  or  later.  Such  treatment  of  old  grain 
land  breaks  up  the  old  hardpan,*  which  has  probably  been  formed 
by  years  of  shallow  culture.  The  preparation  should  continue 
during  the  following  summer,  and  can  often  be  made  both  thorough 
and  profitable  by  the  growth  of  a  summer  "hoed  crop,"  the  culture 
of  which  will  kill  out  many  weeds  and  secure  good  pulverization  of 
the  soil.  If  no  summer  crop  is  grown,  the  land  should  be  kept  in 
cultivation  by  plowing  the  weeds  under  as  long  as  the  surface  soil 

*In  this  connection  the  term  means  "plow-sole."  Treatment  of  true  hardpan  will  be 
described  in  the  next  chapter. 


PREPARATION  FOR  ORCHARD  PLANTING  85 

retains  moisture  enough  to  start  them.  A  special  advantage  of  such 
summer-fallow  in  regions  where  rainfall  is  apt  to  be  short  is  that  by 
prevention  of  evaporation,  the  trees  or  vines  set  the  following  winter 
will  have  a  good  part  of  the  rainfall  of  two  seasons  to  grow  with, 
and  the  result  will  often  be  very  noticeable.  If  there  are  supplies  of 
manure  available,  as  are  often  found  in  old  corrals  on  our  grain  or 
stock  farms,  it  is  better  to  gather  and  apply  this  the  winter  before 
the  planting  of  the  trees.  If  this  is  not  done,  it  should  be  left  until 
after  the  trees  are  planted,  and  then  be  spread  upon  the  surface 
during  the  winter,  and  plowed  in  after  it  has  been  in  part  leached 
into  the  soil  by  the  rains.  Application  should  be  made  evenly  all 
over  the  surface,  and  not  massed  around  the  roots  of  the  trees,  un- 
less it  is  to  be  applied  as  a  mulch  to  the  surface  after  the  spring 
cultivation  is  over,  as  will  be  considered  later. 

If  it  is  thought  desirable  to  plant  the  land  immediately  after 
breaking  up,  put  in  the  plows  as  early  in  the  fall  as  it  is  possible  to 
do  deep  work,  that  is,  to  plow  to  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  inches,  or 
more.  Harrow  thoroughly.  If  it  is  still  early,  cross-plow.  Thor- 
ough and  deep  breaking  up  as  soon  as  practicable  to  plow  in  the 
fall,  and  following  in  the  furrow  with  the  subsoil  plow,  working  to 
a  depth  of  fourteen  inches  or  more,  is  a  good  preparation  for  fruit 
planting.  For  this  kind  of  work  tractors  are  now  largely  used,  but, 
if  not  available,  good  teams  are  needed  and  the  plow  should  be 
sharp  and  bright.  If  the  work  is  hard  for  the  team,  set  the  plow  so 
as  to  take  less  land,  but  do  not  sacrifice  the  depth.  Harrow  again 
thoroughly,  and  the  land  is  ready  for  the  trees  or  vines. 

In  breaking  up  alfalfa  for  fruit  planting,  it  has  been  found  de- 
sirable to  plow  at  first  only  about  four  inches  deep  to  cut  off  the 
plants  with  short  stubs,  and  then  to  replow  deeply  somewhat  later. 
Plants  cut  with  long  stub  roots,  as  in  deep  plowing,  are  more  likely 
to  start  again  than  are  the  short-stub  plants. 

Avoiding  Dead  Furrows. — Unless  dead  furrows  can  be  used  to 
advantage  for  surface  drainage  in  case  of  heavy  rain-storms,  it  will 
be  of  decided  convenience  in  laying  off  to  have  the  field  free  from 
them.  This  can,  of  course,  be  secured  by  beginning  the  final  plow- 
ing at  a  line  in  the  center  of  the  field,  turning  all  furrows  inwards. 
In  this  case,  too,  if  a  right-hand  plow  is  used,  the  team  will  always 
turn  on  unplowed  land,  and  thus  avoid  trampling  upon  and  packing 
the  loose  soil.  The  slight  ridge  in  the  center  of  the  field  formed  by 
the  first  two  furrows  can  be  easily  leveled  by  a  couple  of  back  fur- 
rows, and  when  properly  harrowed  the  field  will  be  found  smooth  as 
a  floor  for  staking  out  for  planting. 


LAYING  OUT   FOR   PLANTING  IN   SQUARES 

It  is  very  desirable,  both  for  convenience  in  cultivation  and  for 
the  beauty  of  the  orchard,  that  the  trees  should  stand  in  straight 
lines,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  attain  that  end.  Most  orchards 
and  vineyards  in  this  State  are  laid  out  in  squares ;  that  is,  the  rows 


g5  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

of  trees  or  vines  are  all  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as  shown  in 
the  accompanying  sketch.  This  is  the  simplest  arrangement;  and 
by  some  of  our  largest  planters  is  held  to  be  the  best.  It  is  true  that 
the  trees  are  not  equidistant  from  each  other  in  all  directions,  and 
that,  theoretically  at  least,  there  is  a  portion  of  the  ground  unused — 
supposing  that  the  roots  occupy  a  circle,  as  do  the  branches.  Prac- 
tically, however,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  hungry  roots  of 
well-grown  trees  or  vines  leave  any  portion  of  the  soil  unvisited. 

There  are  also  forms  of  double  squares  and  alternating  squares 
available  for  planting  at  long  distances,  with  growths  between, 
which  are  ultimately  to  be  cut  out,  or  for  vines  between  fruit  trees. 
Such  mixed  planting  is,  however,  but  little  practiced  in  California. 


VARIOUS    WAYS  OF  MARKING  FOR  SQUARES 

Marking  With  a  Plow. — This  method  was  used  in  laying  off  some 
of  the  old  orchards  in  the  Sacramento  Valley.  A  common  two-horse 
turning  plow  is  rigged  with  a  "marker" — a  light  wooden  bar  ex- 
tending at  right  angles  from  the  beam,  the  bar  being  as  long  as  the 
desired  distance  between  the  rows  of  trees.  On  the  end  of  this  bar  a 
crosspiece  is  fastened  perpendicularly,  so  that  it  scratches  along  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  line  of  the  first  furrow  has  to  be 
designated  by  a  flag  stake,  to  which  the  plowman  proceeds.  When 
this  is  done,  the  team  is  turned  and  sent  back  along  the  next  row, 
the  location  of  which  has  been  fixed  by  the  marker,  and  so  on  for 
the  length  of  the  field,  the  marker  being  turned  each  time  to, indi- 
cate the  next  furrow.  Following  the  same  course  the  other  way  of 
the  field  leaves  the  trees  to  be  planted  at  the  intersection  of  the  fur- 
rows. In  early  days  trees  were  planted  nearer  together  than  is  now 
considered  desirable  and,  obviously,  the  operations  of  a  marker  be- 
come more  difficult  as  the  distances  increase. 

Measure  and  Sight. — Another  method  which  is  quite  commonly 
used  and  answers  a  good  purpose  in  small  plantings  is  the  combina- 
tion of  measure  and  sight.  The  sighting  stakes  are  usually  plaster- 
ers' laths,  pointed  at  one  end  and  whitewashed  to  make  them  more 
visible  to  the  eye.  In  the  use  of  these  it  is  necessary  to  measure  the 
distances  and  locate  the  laths  to  mark  the  ends  of  the  rows  all 
around  the  field.  Then  locate  a  line  of  laths  across  the  field  each 
way  through  the  center,  these  laths  occupying  places  which  the  trees 
of  these  two  central  rows  will  fill.  After  these  are  in  place,  meas- 
urement can  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  job  can  be  finished  by  sight- 
ing through.  The  man  on  the  ends  of  the  rows  has  three  laths  to 
sight  by  in  each  row,  and  the  stake  driver  places  the  stakes  as  di- 
rected by  the  sighter.  Good  location  can  be  done  this  way  if  a  man 
has  a  good  eye  and  patience  enough. 

Marking  Off  With  a  Wire. — A  measuring  wire  or  chain  is,  per- 
haps, the  best  means  for  getting  accurate  location  of  trees  or  vines. 
It  is  used  either  for  setting  in  squares  or  in  other  arrangement,  as 
will  be  described  presently.  Measuring  wires  are  made  of  annealed 


LAYING  OFF  FOR  PLANTING  87 

steel  wire  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  length  varies 
according  to  the  wishes  of  the  user.  If  it  is  desired  to  lay  off  the 
plantation  in  blocks  of  one  acre,  the  wire  should  be  two  hundred  and 
eight  feet  nine  inches  long,  for  that  is  approximately  the  length  of 
one  side  of  a  square  inclosing  an  acre  of  ground.  But  some  use  a 
wire  as  long  as  three  hundred  feet,  when  the  acre  measure  is  of  no 
consequence;  and  others,  in  smaller  plantings,  make  the  wire  just 
the  length  of  the  piece  they  have  in  hand.  At  each  end  of  the 
wire  is  fixed  a  strong  iron  ring  about  one  and  a  half  inches  in  diam- 
eter, to  be  slipped  over  stakes ;  some  use  a  larger  ring,  say  three 
inches  in  diameter,  because  it  is  easier  to  handle  in  pulling  taut. 
Along  this  wire,  patches  of  solder  are  placed  exactly  at  the  distances 
desired  between  the  rows  of  trees  or  vines,  and  to  these  places  pieces 
o^  red  cloth  are  sometimes  fastened  so  that  the  points  may  be  easily 
seen.  Another  style  of  measuring  wire  is  made  of  small  wire  cable 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  made  of  several  strands  of 
small  wire.  It  is  more  flexible  and  less  likely  to  become  kinked  than 
the  large  wire,  and  can  be  easily  marked  off  to  represent  the  dis- 
tances, at  which  rows  of  different  kinds  of  trees  should  be  placed, 
by  separating  the  strands  a  little  at  the  desired  points  and  inserting 
a  little  piece  of  red  cloth,  pressing  the  wires  together  again  and  tying 
firmly  with  a  waxed  thread  to  prevent  slipping.  In  this  way  the 
same  wire  can  be  easily  arranged  for  planting  vines  or  for  trees  re- 
quiring the  greatest  distances  between  the  rows.  Another  advantage 
of  the  cable  is  that  any  stretching  can  be  taken  up  by  retwisting, 
which  cannot  be  done  with  the  stretching  of  a  single  wire.  Another 
good  style  of  planting  wire  is  made  of  2,  4  or  6-  foot  links  of  No.  12 
steel  wire  (including  the  diameters  of  the  small  rings  turned  at  each 
end  of  the  link  pieces).  As  all  planting  will  probably  be  at  multiple 
distances  of  these  link-lengths,  the  Cloth  tags  can  be  changed  and 
the  chain  thus  be  marked  for  any  desired  distances. 

Some  of  the  largest  recent  orchard  plantings  have  been  made  by 
the  use  of  the  planting-wires  described.  Guide  stakes  are  placed  by 
surveyors  two  or  three  hundred  feet  apart  in  lines  which  accurately 
represent  the  distance  between  the  rows.  The  trees  are  placed  in 
these  rows  by  the  use  of  the  wire  between  the  guide  stakes.  If  the 
foreman  of  the  planting  gang  keeps  his  eye  on  the  work,  quite  ac- 
curate lining  of  the  trees  in  all  directions  can  be  secured. 

Finding  a  True  Corner. — To  use  the  measuring  wire  for  laying 
out  trees  on  the  square,  it  is  necessary  first  to  get  one  corner  true, 
and  then  a  field  of  any  size  can  be  marked  out  accurately.  Select 
the  side  of  the  field  which  is  to  serve  as  the  base  of  the  square  and 
stretch  the  wire  along  that,  say  fifteen  feet  from  the  fence,  which 
will  give  room  enough  to  turn  with  the  team  in  cultivation  or  to 
drive  along  in  picking-time.  When  the  wire  is  thus  stretched  par- 
allel with  the  boundary  of  the  field,  place  a  stake  at  each  of  the  dis- 
tance tags  on  the  wire,  and  these  stakes  will  represent  the  first  row 
of  trees  or  vines.  To  find  a  square  corner,  begin  at  the  starting  point 
and  measure  off  sixty  feet  along  this  row  with  a  tape  line,  and  put  a 
temporary  stake,  then  from  the  starting  point  measure  off  eighty 


88 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


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U. ii_iJ 


"•••t  I'H 


.-,1. 


.    4.    $~    *. 
*.    4.    4L 

4.    *.    %-    *- 


The  Triangular  or  Alternate  system. 


The  Quincunx  system. 


PLANTING  ON  HILLSIDES  89 

feet  as  nearly  at  a  right  angle  with  the  first  line  as  can  be  judged 
with  the  eye,  and  run  diagonally  from  this  point  to  the  temporary 
sixty-foot  stake.  If  the  distance  between  these  stakes  is  one  hun- 
dred feet,  then  the  corner  is  a  right  angle.  Now,  having  the  outside 
lines  started  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  one  can  proceed  with  the 
measuring  wire  and  lay  off  as  large  an  area  as  he  desires,  if  care  is 
taken  to  have  each  line  drawn  parallel  with  the  last,  and  all  stakes 
accurately  placed  with  the  tags  on  the  wire — providing  the  land  is 
nearly  level  or  on  a  uniform  grade.  In  locating  trees  over  uneven 
ground,  the  measurements  will  have  to  be  made  from  tree  to  tree, 
with  the  tape  line  held  as  nearly  to  a  level  as  possible. 

Rows  on  Hillsides. — Laying  off  orchard  or  vineyard  on  hillside 
too  steep  to  plow  both  ways,  there  is  advantage  sometimes  in  placing 
the  rows  up  and  down  the  hill  nearly  twice  as  far  apart  as  the  rows 
along  the  face  of  the  hill.  In  planting  trees  thus  the  advantage  to 
be  gained  is  by  enabling  you  to  keep  the  team  well  up  the  hill; 
thereby  you  are  able  to  plow  or  cultivate  the  trees  close  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  rows.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  cultivating  the  upper  side 
of  the  rows,  for  the  plow  or  harrow  is  always  below  the  team.  If 
trees  are  planted  as  recommended,  the  team  can  be  guided  up  the 
hill  a  little  between  the  rows,  then  allowed  to  drop  downhill  one  step, 
and  thus  one  can  cultivate  the  trees  close  on  the  lower  side.  The 
same  rule  will  apply  to  vines. 


QUINCUNX  PLANTING 

There  is  much  confusion  in  the  use  of  this  term  in  this  State.  It 
is,  in  fact,  made  to  cover  almost  every  kind  of  arrangement  which  is 
not  on  the  square.  Webster  defines  the  term  to  mean  "the  arrange- 
ment of  things,  especially  of  trees,  by  five  in  a  square,  one  being 
placed  in  the  middle  of  a  square."  Trees  set  in  quincunx  would 
stand  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  To  locate  them  in 
this  form  it  is  only  necessary  to  proceed  as  already  described  for 
planting  in  squares,  by  fixing  upon  the  base  line  and  locating  two 
side  lines  to  it  at  right  angles.  Place  the  stakes  on  these  two  lines 
just  half  the  distance  desired  between  the  trees,  and  have  the  meas- 
uring wire  long  enough  to  reach  across  from  one  line  to  the  other. 
Near  one  end  of  the  wire  place  another  mark  just  half  way  between 
the  end  and  the  first  tree  marked;  that  is,  if  the  trees  are  to  be 
twenty-four  feet  apart  in  the  squares,  this  additional  mark  should 
be  twelve  feet  from  the  end  of  the  wire.  Now  set  the  first  row  with 
thq  end  of  the  wire  at  the  corner  stake,  and  set  stakes  at  each 
twenty-four  foot  mark. 

Proceed  now  to  the  first  half-way  stake,  and  instead  of  putting 
the  end  of  the  wire  at  this  stake,  put  the  twelve-foot  mark  there. 
Put  stakes  now  at  each  twenty-four  foot  mark  again  to  locate  the 
trees  in  that  row.  In  the  next  row  put  the  end  of  the  wire  at  the 
first  stake  and  proceed  as  in  the  first  row.  Thereafter  using  the  end 
of  the  wire  and  the  twelve-foot  marks  alternately,  the  stakes  will  be 
set  in  quincunx  all  over  the  field.  If  the  midway  stakes  are  now 


90  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

pulled  out  along  the  two  side  lines,  the  remaining  stakes  show  where 
the  trees  are  to  be  placed.  This  way  of  planting  locates  about  78 
per  cent  more  trees  upon  any  given  area,  but  it  brings  the  trees  at 
irregular  distances  from  each  other,  and  except  in  furnishing  a  way 
to  arrange  an  orchard  with  permanent  and  temporary  trees,  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  advantage  in  it. 

PLANTING   IN   EQUILATERAL   TRIANGLES 

This  is  the  arrangement  generally  implied  when  the  term  "quin- 
cunx" is  wrongly  employed.  By  it  the  trees  are  all  equally  distant 
from  each  other,  and  thus  the  ground  divided  as  equally  as  possible. 

Hexagonal  planting  places  the  trees  as  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing sketch. 

It  is  termed  hexagonal  because,  as  the  figure  consists  of  six  trees 
inclosing  a  seventh,  a  line  drawn  through  the  encompassing  trees 
makes  a  hexagon.  It  is  also  called  septuple  planting,  because  seven 
trees  enter  into  its  figure. 

An  orchard  can  be  laid  out  in  hexagonals  by  using  the  measuring 
wire  as  described  for  quincunx  planting  with  the  distance  and  half- 
distance  marks,  except  that  the  guide  stakes  in  the  side  rows  must 
be  placed  at  different  distances  apart.  The  following  table  shows 
the  distance  for  side  stakes  to  reach  desired  distance  between  the 
trees,  and  the  method  of  calculating  the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre 
by  the  square  and  hexagonal  or  sextuple  arrangement: 

Trees  set  Septuple  Check-stakes  should  be 

10  feet  apart 8  feet  8  inches 

12  feet  apart 10  feet  4  2-5  inches. 

14  feet  apart 12  feet  %  inches. 

16  feet  apart 13  feet  10^  inches. 

18  feet  apart 15  feet  7  inches. 

20  feet  apart 17  feet  4  inches. 

21  feet  apart 18  feet  2y2  inches. 

22  feet  apart 19  feet  %  inches. 

24  feet  apart 20  feet  9l/2  inches. 

After  the  field  is  staked,  each  alternate  stake  in  the  check  rows  should 
be  removed.  The  following  table  will  show  the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre 
by  the  square  and  septuple  system: 

Square  Septuple 

10  feet  apart 435 500 

12  feet  apart 302 347 

14  feet  apart 222 255 

16  feet  apart 170  .   .          195 

18  feet  apart 134 .  .154 

20  feet  apart 109 125 

21  feet  apart 99  114 

22  feet  apart 90. ..  .'.103 

24  feet  apart 75 86 

For  any  distance  not  given  in  the  above  table,  calculate  the  number  of 
trees  to  the  acre  by  the  square  system,  and  add  fifteen  per  cent.  This  will 
give  the  number  if  planted  septuple. 

The  arrangement  admits  15  per  cent  more  trees  to  the  acre  than 
the  setting  in  squares,  and  the  ground  can  be  worked  in  three  dif- 


PLANTING  AT  UNIFORM  DISTANCES 


91 


ferent  directions.  This  arrangement  also  gives  better  facilities  for 
irrigation.  Objections  are  urged  to  it,  however,  in  that  it  does  not 
admit  of  thinning  trees  by  removal  of  alternate  rows,  as  is  some- 
times desirable,  and  that  one  has  to  take  a  zigzag  course  in  driving 
through  the  orchard.  It  is,  in  fact,  much  less  in  use  than  formerly. 

Laying  Out  Hexagonals  With  a  Triangle. — It  is  possible  to  lay 
out  an  orchard  in  hexagonal  form  by  working  from  stake  to  stake 
with  an  equilateral  triangle  of  dimensions  equaling  the  distance  re- 
quired between  the  trees. 


One  corner  of  triangle — all  being  made  alike. 


Take  three  strips  of  one-by-two-inch  dry  pine  or  redwood,  and  as  long 
as  you  wish  the  distance  between  the  trees.  Cut  the  strips  the  same  length, 
and  fasten  the  corners  of  the  triangle  firmly  together  by  nailing  two  pieces 
of  pine  board  six  by  six  inches. 

If  the  long  strips  are  set  up  edgewise,  the  triangle  will  be  much  stiffer 
and  better  to  carry.  Through  the  corner  boards  bore  an  inch  hole,  making 
sure  that  the  three  sides  of  the  triangle  measure  exactly  the  same.  If  they 
do,  the  triangle  must  necessarily  be  perfect.  Then  brace  it  a  little  by  nailing 
a  lath  across  each  corner,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Now  split  out  some  three-quarter-inch  pins,  one  foot  long,  from  good, 
straight-grained  redwood.  Make  one  hundred  pins  for  each  acre  you  have 
to  lay  off. 

Three  persons  must  now  carry  the  triangle,  beginning  on  one  side  of 
the  field,  say  eight  feet  from  the  fence,  and  guided  the  first  time  through 
by  a  line  of  stakes.  Carry  the  triangle  with  its  side  to  the  line  of  guide 
stakes  and  its  point  in.  The  head  man  and  the  inside  man  will  stick  pins, 
while  the  rear  man  will  slip  his  corner  each  time  upon  the  pin  set  by  the 
head  man. 

After  the  first  time  across,  the  man  at  the  inside  point  of  the  triangle 
alone  will  set  pins,  while  the  other  two  fit  their  corners  upon  the  pins  in 
the  last  row  set.  Thus  one  row  of  pins  only  is  set  each  time  you  go  across 
the  field. 

If  the  triangle  is  exact,  and  the  first  row  of  pins  is  set  perfectly  straight, 
and  the  pins  are  always  set  perpendicularly,  everything  will  now  work  like 


92 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THF-M 


a  charm  and  the  job  will  be  perfect;  and  it  is  so  simple  and  easy  that  a 
man  and  two  small  boys  can  lay  off  from  five  to  ten  acres  in  one  day.  Re- 
member that  no  guide  stakes  are  used  anywhere  after  the  first  time  through. 

The  Triangle  on  Hillside. — The  use  of  the  triangle  requires  a 
little  nicety  in  "leveling  up"  where  the  piece  is  hilly.  By  using  a 
plumb-line  at  two  corners  of  the  triangle,  the  third  corner  resting 
on  one  of  the  stakes,  leveling  the  triangle  and  bringing  one  of  the 
plumb-lines  over  another  stake  already  set,  the  position  of  the  other 
line  would  determine  the  position  of  the  next  stake.  This  method 
has  worked  fairly  well,  even  in  places  where  the  slope  was  sufficient 
to  give  a  fall  of  six  feet  between  the  trees,  which  were  set  twenty 
feet  apart. 

Locating  in  Triangles  With  a  Chain. — Instead  of  a  wooden  tri- 
angle, a  chain  has  been  used  in  this  way : 

First  stretch  a  chain  along  one  side  of  the  ground,  setting  by  it  the  first 
row  of  stakes.  This  forms  the  base  line.  Have  a  piece  of  chain  just  twice 
the  length  of  the  established  distance  between  trees,  with  ample  rings  on 
the  ends  and  a  joint  in  the  middle.  Put  one  of  the  rings  over  the  first  stake 
and  the  other  over  the  second  stake.  Then  take  the  joint  in  the  middle  of 
the  chain  and  stretch  it  out  reasonably  tight.  The  wire  forms  a  letter  V, 
at  the  focus  of  which  stick  a  stake.  The  point  is  indicated  with  precision 
by  the  joint  in  the  middle  of  the  chain.  Then  take  the  ring  off  the  first  stake 
and  put  it  over  the  third  stake,  leaving  the  one  on  the  second  stake  where 
it  is.  Tighten  the  chain  again,  and  another  point  is  fixed.  Thus  continue 
alll  the  base  line,  shifting  the  rings  alternately,  turning  over  the  chain  as 
one  turns  a  pair  of  draughtsman's  compasses  in  his  hand  when  spacing  off 
a  line.  The  second  row  of  stakes  being  set,  set  the  third  row,  and  so  on 
through  the  ground. 

The  suggestions  given  in  this  chapter  should  indicate  ways 
enough  to  lay  off  orchard  and  vineyard  ground  to  answer  all  needs, 
though  there  are  other  good  ways  not  mentioned.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  instructions  will  not  be  regarded  as  too  explicit.  They  are  in- 
tended for  the  guidance  of  the  inexperienced  planter,  and  wjill 
naturally  seem  laden  with  detail  to  those  who  have  become  familiar 
with  the  operations  by  repeated  practice. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PLANTING   THE   TREES 

After  the  field  has  been  graded,  thoroughly  tilled  and  carefully 
laid  off  as  has  been  described,  the  next  step  is  digging  the  holes  for 
the  trees.  "How  large  shall  the  holes  be?"  He  was  a  wise  fruit 
grower  who,  when  asked  this  question,  replied,  "As  large  as  the 
field."  That  is  to  say,  it  is  much  better  to  work  the  whole  ground 
over  deeply  than  to  trust  to  deep  holes  and  shallow  working  else- 
where. Where  this  is  done,  the  tree  holes  need  only  be  large  enough 
and  deep  enough  to  receive  the  roots  without  folding  them  in  or 
cramping  them  up.  In  loose,  deep  soil,  however,  one  can  dig  extra 
dfeep  and  broad  holes  if  he  desires,  and  will  be  repaid  by  extra 
growth  of  the  tree;  but  in  a  close,  tenacious  soil  a  deep  hole  is  not 
only  undesirable,  but  often  positively  a  danger  to  the  tree  unless 
drainage  of  the  holes  is  provided  artificially.  Such  holes  hold  water 
like  a  tub,  and  the  loosening  of  the  soil  deeply  facilitates  its  gather- 
ing in  the  hole.  Many  have  found  their  trees  in  such  places  dwind- 
ling and  dying  because  their  roots  were  soaking  in  water. 

Planting  on  Some  Shallow  Soils. — As  a  rule,  trees  should  have 
a  deep  soil,  and  for  these  deep,  free  loams,  California  is  famous,  but 
there  are  situations  where  very  satisfactory  growth  and  production 
can  be  had,  even  when  the  hardpan  is  near  the  surface  and  the  soil 
would  be  called  shallow.  In  such  places  it  is  the  character  of  the 
subsoil  which  warrants  the  tree  and  vine  planter  in  making  use  of 
them.  Sometimes  the  hardpan  is  so  thin  and  near  the  surface  that 
it  can  be  broken  through  with  a  pick  in  digging  the  tree  hole. 
Otherwise  boring  is  done.  It  was  about  1875  that  Mr.  James  Rutter, 
of  Florin  (on  the  "bedrock"  lands  near  Sacramento),  first  noticed 
that  there  were  vines  here  and  there  which  grew  exceptionally  well 
and  bore  large  crops  of  fine  fruit.  He  found  by  investigation  that 
under  these  vines  there  were  crevices  in  the  "bedrock,"  and  from  this 
he  took  the  hint  to  bore  through  this  hardpan  in  the  bottom  of  the 
hole  where  he  placed  the  tree,  and  in  this  way  he  gained  access  for 
the  roots  to  the  subsoil  and  egress  for  the  water  through  the  per- 
meable substratum.  He  bored  a  hole  two  inches  in  diameter  into  or 
through  the  bedrock  and  rammed  well  into  it  one  and  a  half  pounds 
of  black  blasting  powder.  After  exploding  this,  he  sometimes  bored 
a  three-inch  hole  about  four  feet  below  the  blast.  Instead  of  blast- 
ing in  the  hole  where  the  tree  is  to  be  planted,  some  bore  and  blast 
in  the  hardpan  midway  between  the  rows,  placing  the  holes  at 
"quincunx"  with  the  trees.  The  shattering  of  the  hardpan  between 
the  trees  is  said  to  be  practicable  after  the  trees  are  growing  and 
may  in  certain  soils  relieve  trees  which  are  suffering  for  lack  of 
drainage.  A  half-pound  cartridge  of  dynamite  has  been  successfully 
used  for  subsoil  blasting,  and  some  have  reported  in  favor  of  ex- 


94 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


ploding  a  quarter-pound  cartridge  quite  near  to  a  tree  suffering 
from  standing  water,  putting  in  the  charge  during  the  dry  season. 

There  are  many  situations  where  such  practice  would  be  bene- 
ficial, and  in  some  cases  mere  digging  or  boring  through  the  im- 
pervious stratum  avails  much.  There  are  spots  where  "lava  crusts" 
overlie  gravel,  and  trees  have  been  well  grown  by  cutting  holes 
through  the  lava  to  the  gravel,  filling  with  good  soil  and  planting  the 
trees  in  these  holes.  Their  roots  penetrate  to  the  gravel  stratum 
and  obtain  abundant  moisture  and  nutriment.  In  certain  situations 
where  a  shallow  layer  of  soil  overlies  a  heavy  clay,  trees  have  been 
blown  over,  but  when  a  cut  has  been  made  through  the  clay,  the 
trees  have  rooted  deeply  and  have  withstood  the  winds. 

Shooting  Holes  For  Trees. — Upon  the  basis  of  these  pioneer  de- 
monstrations, California  claims  priority  in  the  now  widely  prevalent 
"dynamite  farming."  The  most  minute  descriptions  of  approved 
methods  are  now  available  in  the  publications  of  the  powder  manu- 
facturers and  their  traveling  demonstrators  give  field  instructions 
in  materials  and  appliances  to  those  who  ask  for  them.  It  is  very 
important  to  proceed  wisely,  for  if  the  subsoil  is  not  in  the  right 
condition  or  the  charge  of  powder  not  properly  chosen  for  the  pur- 
pose, there  is  danger  of  making  a  pot-hole  in  which  water  will  stand 
and  kill  the  tree.  It  is  also  important  to  do  the  blasting  some  time 
in  advance  of  planting  so  that  irrigation  or  an  adequate  rainfall  can 
settle  the  disturbed  subsoil.  The  trees  planted  on  a  fresh  blasting 
have  sometimes  sunk  a  foot  by  settling  after  planting  and  have  been 
ruined  thereby. 

Digging  the  Holes. — Holes  for  tree  planting  may  be  dug  at  a 
leisure  time  after  the  laying  off  of  the  field,  even  though  it  is  not 
designed  to  plant  the  trees  immediately,  but  our  largest  planters 
do  not  approve  the  practice.  In  such  cases  the  sides  of  the  holes 
should  always  be  freshly  pared  off  before  the  trees  are  put  in,  be- 
cause the  rain  and  sunshine  are  apt  to  cement  the  sides.  In  digging 
holes  the  surface  earth  should  always  be  thrown  to  one  side  and  the 
lower  soil  on  another.  The  object  of  this  is  to  have  the  top  soil  to 
place  in  direct  contact  with  the  roots  when  the  tree  is  planted,  the 
lower  soil  being  used  to  fill  up  the  hole. 


TREE   SETTERS 

No  matter  how  carefully  the  stakes  are  placed  in  laying  off  the 
orchard,  the  trees  will  not  easily  come  in  line  unless  some  handy 
device  is  used  for  bringing  the  stem  just  in  the  place  occupied  by 
the  stake  which  was  thrown  out  in  digging.  These  devices  are  called 
"tree-setters,"  and  there  are  a  number  of  designs.  Two  are  given, 
either  of  which  will  give  good  results.  Take  a  piece  of  board  one 
inch  thick,  four  inches  wide,  and  five  feet  long;  bore  an  inch  hole 
in  the  center,  and  one  at  each  end  at  equal  distance  from  the  center ; 
then  cut  a  piece  from  one  side  of  the  board,  marked  by  a  square, 
the  corner  resting  in  the  middle  of  the  center  hole.  Make  two  stakes, 
each  one  foot  long,  that  will  easily  pass  through  the  end  holes.  Place 


TREE-SETTERS   AND   THEIR   USE  95 

the  center  of  this  board  against  the  stake,  where  the  tree  is  to  be 
planted ;  push  the  stakes  into  the  ground  through  the  holes  in  the 
ends,  then  lift  the  board  from  position  and  proceed  to  dig  the  hole. 


2J 


Bar  for  tree  setting. 

When  dug,  replace  the  board  over  the  end  stakes  in  its  former  posi- 
tion, then  plant  the  tree  with  its  trunk  resting  against  the  center 
notch  in  the  board,  and  you  have  it  in  just  the  right  place. 

Another  setter  is  in  the  form  of  a  triangle :  Take  three  pieces  of 
plain  one-inch  stuff  three  to  four  inches  wide  and  four  feet  long, 
and  nail  them  together,  forming  a  three-cornered  frame,  letting  the 
ends  project  sufficiently  to  form  a  corner,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
Next  make  a  couple  of  smooth,  hard  stakes,  well  sharpened,  and 
about  a  foot  or  sixteen  inches  in  length.  When  you  are  ready  to 
set  your  trees,  place  the  frame  flat  upon  the  ground  with  one  corner 
firmly  and  fairly  against  the  stake  which  marks  the  place  where  the 
tree  is  to  stand.  Now  in  the  other  two  corners  stick  the  stakes 
already  prepared  for  the  purpose.  This  done,  pull  up  the  stake 


Triangular  tree  setter 

against  which  the  frame  was  first  placed — the  one  indicating  a  place 
for  a  tree — remove  the  frame,  being  careful  in  doing  so  not  to  move 
the  other  two  stakes,  which  must  be  left  to  be  used  while  setting  the 
tree.  After  the  hole  is  dug  and  everything  ready  for  setting  the 
tree,  again  place  the  frame  against  the  two  standing  stakes,  let 
the  tree  drop  into  the  other  corner,  which  will  help  support  it 
while  the  dirt  is  being  placed  about  the  roots ;  and  this  will  bring  the 
tree  exactly  where  the  stake  was  originally.  If  the  stakes  are  prop- 
erly put  in  line,  so  will  be  the  trees. 

These  setters  are  described  as  they  are  used  when  the  hole  is  dug 
and  the  tree  set  at  the  same  time.    Such  is  the  ordinary  practice  in 


96  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

planting.  If  one  wishes  to  dig  the  holes  beforehand,  it  is  necessary 
to  furnish  more  stakes,  as  two  have  to  be  left  beside  each  hole  to 
mark  the  position  of  the  setter  when  the  planting  is  done.  Besides 
its  use  in  bringing  a  tree  into  line,  the  tree  setter  enables  one  to 
judge  of  the  depth  of  setting  as  compared  with  the  surface  of  the 
surrounding  ground.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  this  with  the  eye 
if  the  hole  be  a  large  one.  Where  the  measuring  wire  is  used  to  set 
the  stakes,  it  is  sometimes  stretched  across  again  after  the  holes  are 
dug,  the  tags  on  the  wire  thus  indicating  the  places  for  the  trees  of 
the  whole  row.  The  trouble  with  this  practice  is  the  bother  of  hav- 
ing the  wire  in  the  way  while  filling  and  tramping  the  earth  around 
the  roots. 


SELECTING  TREES 

In  the  purchase  of  trees  it  is  well  to  patronize  nurserymen  in 
your  own  district,  providing  they  are  honest  and  intelligent  men, 
who  keep  themselves  informed  as  they  should  about  their  business. 
The  advice  of  such  a  local  nurseryman  is  often  of  great  value  to  the 
newcomer,  for  he  will  know  by  his  experience  and  observation  much 
about  the  adaptations  of  fruits  and  varieties  thereof  to  the  region. 
If,  for  any  reason,  local  nurseries  do  not  meet  your  needs,  seek  some 
well-established  nursery  at  a  distance.  It  is  much  safer  to  deal 
directly  with  the  grower  of  the  trees  than  to  patronize  traveling 
agents.  Where,  however,  these  agents  are  the  accredited  represent- 
atives of  well-known  establishments,  they  may  save  the  planter 
time  and  trouble  by  taking  his  order  for  him.  So-called  "tree- 
peddlers,"  who  are  jobbers  in  trees  and  in  too  many  cases  send  you 
refuse  trees  which  they  pick  up  cheap  wherever  they  can,  and  label 
them  to  suit,  without  respect  to  truth  or  honesty,  should  be  reso- 
lutely avoided,  no  matter  what  inducements  or  blandishments  they 
may  offer. 

The  California  legislature  of  1907  passed  a  law  making  it  unlaw- 
ful to  sell  fruit  trees  representing  them  to  be  a  certain  kind  and 
afterwards  to  deliver  trees  of  a  different  kind.  To  do  this  is  a  mis- 
demeanor punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  Action  may  be 
begun  at  any  time  within  seven  years  after  the  date  of  delivery  of 
such  trees.* 

The  State  of  California  also  endeavors  to  protect  planters  by 
enabling  them  to  ascertain  responsibility  of  nurserymen.  The  law  of 
1917  requires  that  any  person  who  handles  nursery  stock  for  plant- 
ing or  propagation  within  this  State  shall  register  with  the  State 
Commissioner  of  Horticulture,  and  all  shipments  by  such  licensee 
shall  have  his  license  number  affixed  to  the  package.  Planters 
should  preserve  all  such  evidence  of  responsibility  in  case  occasion 
should  arise  for  reference  to  it. 

It  is  desirable,  if  possible,  to  visit  the  nursery  and  see  the  stock 
which  is  to  be  furnished.  The  trees  should  have  a  good  healthy  look, 
with  clean  bark,  and  of  size  enough  to  indicate  a  good,  free  growth. 

•Statutes  and  amendments  to  the   Codes,    1907;  chapter  229. 


TAKING  TREES  FROM  NURSERY  97 

The  matter  of  size  is  not  the  only  point  to  consider,  for  size  of  the 
top  is  not  so  desirable  as  well-matured  wood  and  plenty  of  roots. 
Stunted  trees  are  not,  as  a  rule,  worth  planting.  There  are  cases, 
however,  in  which,  by  extra  cultivation  in  good  soil,  fine  trees  have 
been  grown  even  from  "culls"  from  the  nursery.  The  best  rule  is 
to  select  trees  of  good  medium  size,  straight  and  healthy.  During 
the  digging  season,  ask  to  see  samples  of  the  roots  as  well  as  the 
tops,  and  do  not  purchase  trees  unless  the  roots  are  healthy  looking 
and  free  from  knots  or  excrescences.  Gnarly  and  knotty  roots  in 
the  young  tree  are  a  sure  sign  of  insect  pests  or  of  unhealthy  growth, 
and  planting  such  trees  has  occasioned  immense  loss.  Many  have 
been  led  into  purchasing  poor  trees  because  they  may  be  had  cheap. 
A  tree  selected  merely  because  it  is  cheap  may  prove  the  most  ex- 
pensive thing  a  man  can  put  in  the  ground. 

Guarding  Against  Insects. — The  top  of  the  tree  should  be  care- 
fully examined  to  discover  scale  insects  if  there  be  any.  For  this 
purpose  a  hand-magnifier  should  be  used.  Such  a  glass  should 
always  be  in  the  fruit  grower's  pocket.  One  can  be  bought  at  any 
optician's  for  a  dollar  or  two,  which  will  fold  into  its  case  so  as  to 
be  carried  without  scratching.  Our  nurserymen  by  forsaking  old 
infested  locations  and  obtaining  new  ground,  now  sell  much  cleaner 
trees  than  they  did  years  ago.  But  still  it  is  well  to  be  always  on  the 
watch  for  pests.  Disinfection  of  nursery  stock  is  now  officially  pro- 
vided. Details  of  treatment  will  be  given  in  the  chapter  on  injurious 
insects. 

TAKING   TREES   FROM   THE    NURSERY 

Trees  should  be  carefully  taken  from  the  nursery  rows,  so  as  to 
obtain  a  good  amount  of  small  branching  roots.  In  lifting  from  the 
home  nursery,  digging  with  well-sharpened  spades,  which  will  sever 
the  long  roots  cleanly,  is  perhaps  the  best  method.  In  the  large 
nurseries  tree  diggers  are  generally  used.  They  have  two  revolving 
coulters  which  cut  through  the  surface  soil  each  side  of  the  trees, 
and  a  sharp-curved  blade,  which  is  drawn  through  the  ground  under 
tlie  trees,  loosening  the  soil  and  severing  the  long  roots  cleanly.  The 
tree  is  then  easily  lifted,  and  has  generally  a  much  better  root  sys- 
tem than  by  the  old  style  of  "plowing  out,"  which  broke  off  so 
many  of  the  small  roots  and  lacerated  the  larger  ones.  Whether  the 
tap  root  should  be  retained  or  not  is  not  worth  discussing  on  theo- 
retical grounds.  As  a  matter  of  fact  and  practice,  the  tap  root  cuts 
no  figure  at  all  in  California  orchard  planting,  although  the  discus- 
sion of  the  question  was  formerly  very  warm  in  this  State,  and  is 
still  occasionally  heard.  It  is  important,  howevtr,  that  the  planter 
should  have  as  many  small  lateral  roots  as  he  can  get.  The  small 
fibrous  roots  are  usually  of  little  account,  as  they  seldom  survive 
transplanting,  and  it  is  better  to  clip  them  away,  if  the  time  can  be 
afforded,  as  they  often  prevent  the  proper  close  contact  of  the  soil 
with  the  larger  roots.  Cutting  back  all  roots  to  short  stubs  at  the 
base  of  the  stem  has  succeeded  in  some  instances  in  California  on 


98 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 


moist  lowlands,  but  longer  roots  are  far  safer  in  the  deep  drying  of 
the  surface  layer  which  is  to  be  expected  in  this  State. 

The  roots,  after  lifting,  should  not  be  permitted  to  dry.  Hence, 
in  hauling  from  the  nursery  to  the  farm,  the  trees  should  be  well 
covered  with  wet  straw  and  old  sacks,  or,  if  shipped  from  the  nur- 
sery to  distant  points,  should  be  well  packed.  The  best  way  to  pack 
trees  is,  undoubtedly,  to  box  them  in  with  wet  straw,  but  it  costs 
less  and  they  usually  carry  well  considerable  distances  if  carefully 
bundled  with  tules  (dry  reed  stems),  the  roots  packed  in  wet  straw, 
and  the  packing  and  covering  bound  down  tight  with  ropes  to  pre- 
vent drying  out. 

Attention  should  be  paid  to  hauling  away  trees  from  the  railway 
stations  as  soon  as  possible  after  arrival.  It  is  not  uncommon  for 
shipments  to  lie  on  the  station  platforms  for  days,  often  when  a  des- 
iccating north  wind  is  blowing.  Such  treatment  soon  takes  the  life 
out  of  'trees,  and  often,  no  doubt,  the  nurseryman  is  blamed  for 
failure  of  trees  which  have  suffered  some  such  neglect  as  this,  either 
from  transportation  companies  or  from  the  purchasers. 

Heeling-In. — On  arrival  at  the  farms,  trees  should  be  "heeled- 
in"  as  soon  as  possible ;  even  if  it  is  the  intention  to  plant  at  once, 
heel  them  in  just  the  same,  for  delays  arise  often  in  the  most  unex- 
pected manner.  To  heel-in,  dig  a  trench  or  plow  a  deep  furrow,  or 
a  double  furrow,  in  light,  moist,  but  well-drained  soil;  put  in  the 
trees  singly  side  by  side,  removing  all  the  packing  material  carefully 
from  the  roots,  laying  the  tops  all  one  way,  and  then  shovel  the  dirt 
over  the  roots  until  they  are  well  covered  with  loose  soil,  and  be  sure 
that  the  soil  sifts  down  well  between  the  roots.  Ordinarily  this 
treatment  will  hold  the  trees  in  good  condition  for  a  considerable 
time  if  need  be.  If,  however,  they  have  become  dry  before  arrival, 
the  bundles  should  be  thoroughly  drenched  with  water  before  heel- 
ing in.  In  extreme  cases,  where  the  top  shows  drying  by  shrinking 
and  shriveling  of  the  bark,  the  trees  should  be  drenched,  and  then 
they  should  be  covered  root  and  top  with  earth  for  two  or  three 
days,  when,  if  the  trouble  has  not  gone  too  far,  the  bark  will  recover 
its  smoothness  and  plumpness.  It  should  be  very  seldom,  however, 
that  a  lot  of  trees  is  allowed  to  get  into  such  condition  by  neglect. 
In  heeling-in  it  will  be  found  a  great  convenience  and  a  safeguard 
against  possible  confusion  by  loss  of  labels,  if  each  variety  as  taken 
from  the  packing  is  placed  by  itself  in  the  trench.  Nurserymen  gen- 
erally attach  a  label  to  each  small  bundle,  if  the  trees  are  of  several 
varieties,  and  the  novice  is  apt  to  lose  all  track  of  his  sorts  when 
heeling  in  the  trench,  unless  he  heels  in  each  kind  by  itself,  leaving 
the  nurseryman's  label  to  mark  the  whole  lot  of  each  kind. 

In  heeling-in,  the  trees  should  be  put  in  the  trench  on  the  slant 
and  not  upright.  First  it  is  easier  to  put  them  that  way,  because 
they  hold  themselves  in  place  for  covering  the  roots,  and  it  is  also 
easier  and  better  for  the  trees  to  lift  them  out  than  to  pull  them  out. 
Second,  when  putting  in  on  the  plant  the  tops  should  always  point 
to  the  southern  sky,  because  the  sun  is  low  down  and  its  rays  hit  the 
trees  on  the  ends  and  not  on  the  sides.  Activity  in  the  top  of  the 


DANGERS    TO   HEELED-IN    TREES  99 

tree  begins  from  sun  heat  on  the  bark  and  a  tree  slanting  to  the 
south  gets  less  of  it  than  if  straight  up  and  very  much  less  than  if 
the  slant  was  toward  the  north,  which  would  bring  the  sides  of  the 
trees  at  right  angles  to  the  sun's  rays.  Therefore  a  slant  to  the 
south  keeps  the  heeled-in  trees  dormant  longer. 

Some  planters  spray  the  trees  with  lime-sulphur  after  heeling-in, 
both  to  make  sure  of  disinfection  and  to  whiten  the  bark  against 
sun-heat. 

Fungus  Injury  to  Heeled-In  Trees. — Heeled-in  trees  are  par- 
ticularly liable  to  injury  from  soil  fungus  (pythiacystis),  which  may 
also  attack  them  in  the  nursery  rows.  Professor  E.  H.  Smith  of 
the  University  of  California  says : 

Practically  all  deciduous  fruit  trees  are  susceptible.  The  cankers  may 
occur  anywhere  on  the  trunk,  but  are  very  apt  to  start  about  the  bud  union. 
In  the  worst  cases  the  trees  are  girdled  and  the  bark  killed  and  blackened 
for  several  inches  up,  but  usually  for  less  than  an  inch  below  the  union. 
There  may  be  two  or  three  widely  separated  cankers  on  the  same  tree,  each 
canker  two  or  three  inches  long  and  starting  on  the  same  side  of  the  trunk, 
where  it  has  lain  in  contact  with  the  ground  or  dirt  washed  up  on  it  by  rain. 
The  most  important  thing  is  to  prevent  soaking  of  the  trees  for  any  length 
of  time  during  heeling-in.  It  often  occurs  merely  as  an  augmented  form  of 
water  injury. 

Heeled-in  trees  and  trees  during  transportation  are  subject  to 
injuries  by  frost  which  may  be  indicated  by  unnatural  colors  in 
the  tissues  of  the  stem  or  root,  revealed  by  cutting  into  them.  Such 
injury  may  usually  be  prevented  in  California  climates  by  good 
packing  in  transit  and  by  covering  with  straw  or  sacks  'after 
heeling-in. 

Cutting  Back  in  the  Nursery. — If  the  planter  has  his  own  ideas 
of  after-treatment  of  his  trees,  or  if  he  is  a  beginner  and  desires  to 
adopt  the  suggestions  which  will  be  laid  down  in  this  book,  he  should 
insist  that  the  nurseryman  shall  not  trim  up  or  cut  back  the  trees 
before  packing.  Have  the  trees  packed  just  as  they  are  lifted  from 
the  ground.  The  work  towards  the  shaping  of  the  tree  should  be 
done  when  it  is  planted  in  the  orchard. 


PLANTING  THE   ORCHARD 

The  young  deciduous  tree  should  be  dormant  before  being  re- 
moved from  the  nursery  row,  and  if  its  leaves  have  fallen  it  is  good 
evidence  of  its  dormancy.  Such,  however,  is  the  effect  of  the  climate 
of  California,  more  apparent  in  some  years  than  others,  and  with 
some  kinds  of  fruit  than  others,  that  the  young  tree  retains  a  small 
part  of  its  activity  very  late,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  not  practicable 
to  wait  for  the  complete  falling  of  the  leaves.  Sometimes  for  con- 
venience of  work,  the  trees  have  to  be  lifted  before  this  takes  place, 
and  in  such  case  it  is  desirable  to  remove  the  leaves  to  lessen  evap- 
oration. It  is  probably  better  to  transplant  in  this  condition  for  the 
sake  of  early  setting  in  its  new  position  than  to  wait  for  all  the 


100 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO   GROW  THEM 


leaves  to  drop.  This  statement  is  not  intended  to  include  nursery 
stock  which  may  be  kept  growing  late  in  the  season  by  late  irriga- 
tion. Such  trees  are  not  always  desirable. 

Time  to  Plant. — The  best  time  to  plant  deciduous  trees  in  Cali- 
fornia is  soon  after  the  early  rains  have  deeply  moistened  the 
ground.  It  is  not  desirable,  however,  to  have  a  stratum  of  dry  earth 
below.  This  can  be  removed  by  irrigation  when  available.  Early 
planting  of  common  orchard  fruits  is  of  advantage  for  several  rea- 
sons. First,  an  early-planted  tree  gets  the  full  benefit  of  the  season's 
rainfall,  whatever  it  may  be,  and  a  late-planted  tree,  in  a  year  with 
short  rainfall,  is  apt  to  suffer  during  its  first  season's  growth,  unless 
it  can  be  irrigated.  The  two  main  things  to  observe  are  the  dor- 
mancy of  the  tree  and  the  proper  condition  of  the  soil,  and  both  of 
these  are  most  apt  to  coincide  in  many  parts  of  California  about  the 
first  of  January,  but  in  heavy  loams  in  region  of  large  rainfall,  the 
soil  may  then  be  too  cold  and  wet.  There  will,  however,  be  some 
variation  from  year  to  year,  and  different  parts  of  the  State  dis- 
agree as  to  the  date.  Hence,  the  general  rule  must  be  based  on  con- 
ditions of  the  tree  and  of  the  soil.  If  the  novice  cannot  judge  these 
for  himself,  he  must  get  the  advice  of  some  one  of  experience  in 
the  locality. 

The  dormant  period  of  a  tree  in  California,  as  has  been  stated  in 
another  connection,  is  very  short.  As  many  cold-climate  annual 
plants  become  perennial  here,  so  our  deciduous  trees,  in  compara- 
tively frostless  portions  of  the  State,  evince  a  tendency  to  become 
evergreen.  The  period  of  dormancy  in  the  root  is  also  shorter  than 
the  inactivity  of  the  top.  Trees  transplanted  early  are  found  to  have 
their  root  wounds  calloused  over  and  new  rootlets  considerably  ad- 
vanced before  the  buds  swell.  Therefore,  by  early  planting  the  tree 
begins  soon  to  take  hold  upon  the  soil,  the  latter  being  well  settled 
around  it  by  the  rains,  which  often  follow  early  planting,  and  the 
high  winds,  which  are  apt  to  come  in  the  spring  in  some  parts  of  the 
State,  find  the  tree  well  anchored  and  ready  to  maintain  itself. 

Again,  the  proper  condition  of  soil,  if  not  seized  at  its  first  com- 
ing, may  not  recur  until  after  the  great  storms  of  the  winter  are 
over,  say  in  February  or  March  (in  most  parts  of  the  State),  and 
then  often  the  buds  are  bursting  into  bloom  and  leaf.  Planting  when 
trie  soil  is  water-soaked  and  cold  is  very  undesirable,  for  in  such 
condition  it  cannot  be  properly  disposed  about  the  roots,  the  inactive 
roots  may  begin  to  decay,  and  trees  moved  at  this  period  are  apt  to 
show  their  dislike  of  the  treatment.  If  the  work  has  been  delayed 
unavoidably,  so  that  early  planting  cannot  be  done,  it  is  better  to 
keep  the  trees  heeled-in  until  the  proper  soil  condition  returns,  even 
if  it  be  rather  late,  for  a  little  extra  attention  to  cultivation  for  re- 
tention of  moisture  may  pull  through  a  late-planted  tree. 

These  remarks  are  of  very  wide  application  in  this  State,  but 
there  are  exceptions.  In  our  high  altitudes,  where  the  climate  ap- 
proaches Eastern  conditions  in  cold  and  snowfall,  practice  in  plant- 
ing will  also  approximate  Eastern  methods.  In  regions  of  very 
heavy  rainfall  and  on  the  upper  coast  where  the  rainy  season  and 


HOW   TO   PLANT   TREES  101 

moisture  from  fogs  are  prolonged  late  in  the  spring,  late  planting 
is  safer  and  surer  than  in  the  warmer,  drier  parts  of  the  State. 

Another  consideration,  too,  is  the  slope  of  the  land  to  be  planted. 
Our  hillside  fruit  growers  in  regions  of  heavy  winter  storms  some- 
times plant  slopes,  which,  if  plowed  deep  in  the  fall,  are  apt  to  wash 
badly  during  the  heavy  winter  rains.  On  such  slopes  it  is  better  to 
plow  late  in  the  winter,  after  the  heavy  storms  are  over,  and  plant 
as  soon  as  the  soil  becomes  warm  and  mellow. 

Avoid  planting  during  the  prevalence  of  a  dry  wind,  if  possible. 
If,  however,  it  is  necessary  that  planting  be  done  during  such 
weather,  the  roots  may  be  covered  with  wet  sacks  until  each  tree 
can  be  planted  and  the  earth  well  placed  about  the  roots. 


THE  OPERATION  OF  PLANTING 

Tree  planting  should  be  carefully  and  well  done,  but  it  need  not 
necessarily  be  slowly  done.  With  a  kind  soil  deeply  worked  and 
just  in  the  right  condition  for  planting,  trees  may  be  put  in  well  and 
rapidly.  Two  men  work  together  at  a  decided  advantage.  Using 
the  straight  "tree-setter,"  which  has  already  been  described,  one 
takes  each  end,  and  as  soon  as  the  center  notch  encloses  the  tree 
stake,  the  setter  stakes  are  pushed  into  the  soil,  the  "setter"  is  laid 
aside,  and  the  two  men,  taking  up  their  shovels  or  spades,  begin  first 
around  the  outside  of  the  hole,  throwing  all  the  surface  dirt  on  the 
same  side  of  the  hole  and  leaving  the  tree  stake  to  be  thrown  out 
last,  because  its  remaining  serves  to  center  the  hole.  The  lower 
soil  is  now  thrown  to  the  other  side  of  the  hole,  and  when  depth 
enough  is  reached,  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  is  loosened  up 
to  a  depth  of  a  shovel  thrust,  without  removing  it  from  the  hole. 
A  shovelful  or  two  of  the  surface  soil  is  thrown  into  the  center 
of  the  hole,  being  allowed  to  remain  higher  in  the  center,  because 
this  generally  furnishes  a  cushion  about  the  natural  shape  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  root  system  of  the  tree.  Now  replace  the  tree- 
setter  upon  its  end  pegs,  let  one  man  hold  the  tree  with  its  stem  in 
the  central  notch  in  the  setter,  and  while  the  other  man  shovels  in 
the  surface  earth  rather  slowly  at  first,  the  man  who  holds  the  tree 
with  one  hand  will  spread  out  the  roots,  pulverize  and  pack  the 
earth  around  them,  being  sure  that  no  cavities  are  left  under  any 
of  the  roots,  but  that  their  surfaces  everywhere  come  into  contact 
with  the  soil,  and  that  they  spread  out  as  widely  as  possible.  The 
earth  is  being  continuously  put  in  by  the  shoveler,  and  when  the 
roots  are  covered  the  planter  steps  in  the  hole  and  carefully  firms 
the  soil  down  upon  the  roots  by  tramping  (especially  at  the  cut  ends 
of  the  roots  around  the  outer  side  of  the  hole),  at  the  same  time 
judging  of  the  perpendicularity  of  the  tree  with  his  eye.  When  this 
is  done,  both  men  use  their  shovels  and  fill  up  the  hole  with  the  earth 
taken  from  below,  being  sure  to  leave  the  last  few  inches  at  the  sur- 
face pulverized,  but  untramped,  unless  the  soil  be  very  light  so  that 
tramping  will  not  overpack  it.  Some  one  said  long  ago  that  one 
should  not  plant  a  tree  as  he  does  a  post,  ramming  down  the  earth 


ISA 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO   GROW  THEM 


to  the  very  top  of  the  hole.  Many  trees  are  doutless  ruined  by  over 
zeal  in  this  respect. 

The  shovel  has  been  mentioned  frequently  as  the  tool  to  be  used 
in  planting.  Where  the  soil  is  deeply  plowed,  well  worked,  and  free 
from  stone,  the  shovel  is  the  most  rapid  tool.  Under  other  condi- 
tions the  long-handled  spade,  and  in  some  cases  the  long-handled 
spading  fork,  serves  admirably  in  loosening  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of 
the  holes  and  in  breaking  up  lumps  while  filling  in.  One  man  with  a 
shovel  or  spade,  and  the  other  with  the  fork,  make  a  good  combina- 
tion in  this  respect. 

As  a  rule  the  young  tree  is  planted  so  as  to  stand  upright,  but 
it  is  reasonable  to  give  it  a  slight  slant  into  the  prevailing  wind  if 
older  trees  indicate  that  they  are  thrown  out  of  plumb  by  it. 

Planting  in  a  Furrow. — A  practice  which  has  been  largely  fol- 
lowed in  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  which  attains  greatest  speed 
and  cheapness  consists  in  laying  off  as  described  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  and  then  proceeding  with  a  heavy  listing  plow,  followed 
by  a  subsoil  plow  in  the  same  furrow.  The  trees  are  then  rapidly 
set  with  the  least  digging.  This  is  all  done  before  the  field  is  plowed. 
Plowing  immediately  follows  planting.  The  advantages  of  this 
method  are  ease  of  work  on  firm  ground  instead  of  a  plowed  surface, 
and  escape  of  injury  to  this  surface  by  men  and  teams  in  planting 
after  plowing.  It  does  not,  however,  prepare  the  land  so  well  as 
deep  working  before  laying  out. 


RANDOM   SUGGESTIONS 

The  roots  of  every  tree  should  be  examined  before  planting.  All 
large  root  ends  should  have  a  fresh,  clean  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  or 
shears.  Make  a  slanting  cut  with  the  cut  surface  on  the  underside 
of  the  root.  Where  a  root  is  mangled  or  bruised,  it  should  in  most 
cases  be  cut  back  to  a  sound  place. 

The  wound  made  by  the  cutting  away  of  the  seedling  stock  above 
the  bud  should  be  at  the  north  or  northeast,  in  order  that  this  weak 
point  may  be  shaded  as  much  as  possible  from  the  afternoon  sun. 

If  the  roots  of  young  trees  grow  more  to  one  side  than  the  other, 
place  the  strongest  roots  toward  the  prevailing  wind. 

The  use  of  water  to  settle  the  earth  around  the  roots  is  some- 
times desirable  in  sections  where  the  rainfall  is  light  or  uncertain. 
Pour  in  four  or  five  gallons  from  the  water  wagon  after  the  hand 
work  in  spreading  the  roots  and  in  pressing  the  soil  under  and 
around  them  has  been  done  and  the  hole  partly  filled.  When  the 
water  has  soaked  away,  fill  the  hole  with  fine  earth  without  tramp- 
ing. In  irrigated  districts  leading  the  water  along  the  line  of  trees 
in  a  furrow  to  settle  the  ground  at  planting  is  a  good  practice.  It 
is  almost  essential  in  the  planting  of  evergreen  trees,  which  are  best 
moved  during  the  dry  season.  In  early  planting  in  parts  of  the  State 
where  the  rainfall  is  abundant,  there  may  be  no  need  of  water- 
settling  ;  puddling  the  roots,  or  dipping  them  in  thin  mud  and  plant- 
ing them  with  this  mud  adhering,  is  governed  by  much  the  same 


USE    OF    MANURE    AT   PLANTING  \Q$ 

conditions  as  water-settling;  it  may  insure  growth  of  the  tree  when 
otherwise  it  might  be  seriously  injured  by  drouth.  With  puddled 
roots  especial  care  should  also  be  taken  to  leave  the  surface  loose  to 
prevent  evaporation.  In  making  puddle,  use  loamy  soil  and  never 
adobe,  for  in  dry  time  the  latter  will  bake  around  the  roots  and  may 
kill  the  tree. 

The  Use  of  Manure. — Never  put  manure  in  the  hole  with  the 
tree.  Sometimes  the  injunction  is,  Never  put  anything  but  well 
rotted  manure  in  the  hole.  It  is  better  to  put  in  none  of  any  kind. 
Manure  should  be  spread  upon  the  ground  after  planting.  The  rains 
then  leach  it  out  and  it  may  be  turned  under  in  the  spring  plowing. 
There  are,  however,  light  soils  in  the  drier  parts  of  the  State  where 
turning  under  manure  in  the  spring  is  a  disadvantage,  as  it  makes  the 
soil  too  porous  and  facilitates  evaporation.  On  such  soils,  extra  care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  manure  thoroughly  decomposed  by  com- 
posting, and  all  applications  should  be  made  either  late  in  the  spring 
to  act  as  a  mulch  in  the  summer,  or  if  a  mulch  is  not  thought  desir- 
able, apply  the  manure  in  the  fall  before  the  first  rains,  so  that  it  may 
be  turned  under  at  the  first  plowing  and  have  the  whole  winter  for 
disintegration.  In  this  dry  climate  there  is  often  misapprehension, 
especially  among  newcomers,  as  to  what  is  well-rotted  manure. 
They  take  the  scrapings  of  the  corral,  which  have  been  trampled 
and  pulverized,  but  which,  having  been  kept  dry,  have  never  rotted. 
When  this  is  put  in  the  holes  with  the  tree  and  then  moistened  by 
rainfall  or  irrigation,  it  will  burn  the  tree,  the  first  sign  of  injury 
being  the  drying  up  of  the  leaves.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  safest  and 
best  to  put  nothing  but  well-pulverized  surface  soil  around  the 
roots  of  the  young  tree.  This  injunction  applies  also  to  the  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers  in  pushing  the  growth  of  young  trees  and 
vines.  For  this  purpose  about  three  pounds  of  "complete  fertilizer" 
may  be  used.  It  should  be  scattered  over  a  few  feet  of  surface  around 
the  tree  after  growth  has  started  in  the  spring.  For  the  same  pur- 
pose also  one-half  to  one  pound  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia  instead  of  the  "complete  fertilizer'' — making  the  applica- 
tion in  the  same  way  and  being  particularly  careful  not  to  use  too 
much  and  to  scatter  it  well  over  the  space  designated.  A  young  tree 
which  is  growing  pretty  well  can  stand  more  nitrate  than  one  which 
is  on  the  point  of  dying — but  it  should  not  be  put  in  the  soil  around 
the  roots. 

Depth  of  Planting. — The  depth  to  which  trees  should  be  set  has 
always  been  a  matter  of  discord  among  the  planters.  The  safest  rule 
under  ordinary  circumstances  is  to  get  the  tree  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  same  depth  it  stood  in  the  nursery  row ;  that  is,  so  as  to  have  it 
stand  that  way  when  the  ground  has  settled,  or  the  surface  returned 
by  cultivation  to  its  normal  level.  In  planting  in  loose  soil  in  the 
drier!  parts  of  the  State,  it  is  often  desirable  to  plant  rather  low, 
because  several  inches  depth  of  the  surface  soil  become  dry,  and  the 
roots  should  be  well  in  the  moist  layer.  But  if  irrigation  is  to  be 
practised,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  water  level  will  rise  when 
the  soil  is  saturated  and  deep-planted  trees  are  apt  to  suffer.  The 


jQ4  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

experience  of  recent  years  is  decidedly  against  deep  planting,  which 
used  to  be  advised  because  of  our  dry  climate.  Thousands  of  trees 
have  been  ruined  by  planting  too  deep  except  in  light  sandy  soil. 

Speed  in  Planting. — On  good  soil,  well  prepared,  trees  can  be 
put  in  rapidly  and  the  job  still  be  well  done.  It  is  reported  that  on 
one  occasion,  in  planting  almonds,  tVenty  men  finished  sixty-four 
acres  from  Friday  noon  to  Wednesday  night,  placing  the  stakes,  dig- 
ging the  holes,  and  planting  the  trees.  This  would  be  almost  three- 
quarters  of  an  acre  per  day  per  man.  In  planting  peaches  and 
apricots  an  average  of  one  hundred  trees  per  day  to  the  man  has 
been  attained.  On  the  mellow  loam,  in  another  case,  the  average 
was  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  trees  to  the  man,  digging  holes 
two  feet  square  in  land  which  had  been  plowed  twelve  inches  deep. 
Such  work  is  only  possible  on  good  soil,  well  prepared,  and  by  men 
who  work  well  together. 

Mapping  and  Labeling. — Where  mixed  varieties  of  fruit  are 
planted,  the  orchard  should  be  mapped  as  soon  as  the  trees  are  set. 
A  good  durable  map  is  made  of  the  glazed  muslin,  such  as  carpenters 
and  architects  use  for  their  drawings.  The  map  can  be  easily  drawn 
to  a  scale  by  using  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  represent  a  foot.  After 
the  map  is  made,  it  can  be  rolled  on  a  broom  stick  and  easily  pre- 
served. With  such  a  record,  the  grower  need  not  care  what  becomes 
of  the  labels,  as  he  can  locate  a  variety  at  any  time  by  its  row  and 
tree  number.  If,  however,  one  desires  labels,  let  them  be  made  in 
this  way :  Take  a  piece  of  common  sheet  zinc  five  inches  wide. 
Across  this,  cut  pieces  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide  at  one  end  and 
tapering  to  a  point  at  the  other.  Near  t!he  wider  end  write  plainly 
with  a  common  lead-pencil  the  name  of  the  variety.  This  will  get 
brighter  by  exposure  to  the  weather.  The  small  end  may  be  coiled 
around  the  branch  of  the  tree;  it  will  yield  as  the  tree  grows  and 
will  do  no  injury.  Such  labels  will  last  for  a  long  time.  Labels 
attached  by  a  cord  or  wire  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  trees 
are  set,  for  they  are  apt  to  be  forgotten  and  the  tree  seriously  in- 
jured by  the  cutting  in  of  the  ligature.  Even  when  labels  are  used 
the  map  is  the  only  surety,  because  any  kind  of  a  label  is  apt  to  be 
lost  by  accident  or  through  malice  or  mischief  of  intruders. 

Mulching. — Although  early  planted  trees  on  deep  soils  in  regions 
of  sufficient  rainfall  need  only  good  cultivation,  after  planting,  there 
are  cases  in  which  mulching  is  desirable.^  Various  light  materials 
may  be  used  for  a  mulch,  but  nothing  is  better  than  well-rooted 
straw,  in  which  fermentation  has  killed  all  weed  seed.  Apply  it  to 
a  distance  of  two  feet  around  the  tree,  and  to  a  depth  of  not  less 
than  six  inches.  It  is  best  done  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  planted,  and 
is  to  be  especially  recommended  when  late  planting  is  practised. 
Even  in  localities  of  light  rainfall,  if  the  trees  are  well  mulched 
early  in  the  winter,  irrigation  may  be  unnecessary  for  the  young 
deciduous  tree.  Trees  planted  very  late  in  the  spring  may,  by  using 
great  care  and  mulching  well,  make  as  great  a  growth  as  those  set 
out  early  in  winter.  This  should  not  be  an  excuse  for  late  planting, 


PROTECTING   TREES   FROM   SUNBURN  1Q5 

but  where  late  planting  is  necessary,  mulching  will  help  the  trees 
to  pull  through.  It  is  a  far  easier  way  of  keeping  the  ground  moist 
than  by  irrigating,  but  is  not  a  substitute  for  it  where  systematic 
irrigation  is  necessary,  though  irrigation  may  often  be  lessened,  and 
in  some  cases  obviated,  by  extra  cultivation  or  mulching,  at  least 
until  the  trees  come  into  bearing. 

Guarding  Against  Sunburn. — Newly-set  trees  should  be  pro- 
tected against  sunburn.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  winding  strips 
of  burlap  from  old  grain  sacks  spirally  around  the  stems  beginning 
just  below  the  ground  surface  to  the  points  where  the  young  shoots 
will  appear.  When  these  start  the  strip  can  be  loosened  and  re- 
wound so  as  to  protect  the  bark  between  the  shoots.  The  top  can 
be  fastened  with  a  stitch  or  two  with  a  twine  needle.  Manufactured 
"tree  protectors"  of  paper  or  rushes  which  are  readily  adjusted 
around  the  trees  are  now  largely  sold. 

Whitewashing  is  the  most  widely  used  preventive  of  sun-burning 
not  only  for  young  trees,  but  for  old  trees  which  may  have  bark  ex- 
posed through  pruning,  grafting,  etc.  Sun-burning  is  not  confined 
to  summer  time,  therefore  whitewash  should  be  continually  in  place 
and  durable  whitewash  is  a  desideratum.  The  following  are  good 
preparations : 

First,  slake  62  pounds  (one  bushel)  of  quicklime  in  12  gallons  of 
hot  water.  Second,  dissolve  two  pounds  of  common  table  salt  and 
one  pound  of  zinc  sulphate  in  two  gallons  of  boiling  water.  Pour 
the  salt  and  zinc  mixture  into  the  lime  and  then  add  two  gallons  of 
skim-milk  and  mix  thoroughly.  If  skim-milk  is  not  handy,  four 
pounds  of  flour  boiled  in  four  gallons  of  water  may  be  substituted. 
For  use  thin  with  cold  water  to  flow  well. 

Another  recipe  is  this :  Dissolve  five  pounds  of  salt  in  six  gallons 
of  hot  water  and  use  this  to  slake  thirty  pounds  of  lime,  stirring  in 
four  pounds  of  cheap  tallow  (or  heavy  oil  or  any  other  old  grease) 
while  the  lime  is  still  hot  from  slaking.  Add  water  to  the  consistency 
desired. 

For  use  with  a  spray  pump  it  is  necessary  to  strain  through  bur- 
lap or  a  fine  wire  screen. 

The  use  of  white  lead  and  oil  paint  has  seriously  injured  young 
bark  and  is  dangerous. 

Cutting  Back  at  Planting. — Whatever  idea  the  grower  may  have 
as  to  shaping  his  tree,  it  must  be  cut  back  when  planted.  Lifting 
from  the  nursery  has  removed  a  considerable  part  of  the  root  system 
of  the  young  tree  and  the  top  must  be  reduced  accordingly.  The 
planter  who  dislikes  to  sacrifice  the  fine  top  will  sacrifice  future 
growth  and  vigor  by  retaining  it.  The  tree  may  struggle  through 
and  regain  strength,  but  it  will  for  years  be  smaller  than  if  it  had 
been  properly  cut  back  at  planting.  If  the  moisture  supply  should 
be  short  the  tree  may  die  the  first  summer  which  would  have  sur- 
vived if  differently  treated  at  planting.  The  manner  of  cutting 
back  depends  somewhat  upon  the  style  of  pruning  to  be  followed 
afterward,  as  will  be  considered  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XII 

PRUNING  TREES  AND  THINNING  FRUIT 

It  is  not  intended  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  general  theories 
of  pruning.  The  reader  desiring  to  pursue  them  is  referred  to  the 
abundant  literature  on  the  subject  in  Eastern  and  European  treatises. 
The  effort  to  approve  or  condemn  these  theories  by  considering  them 
in  the  light  of  California  experience  and  observation  might  lead  to 
interesting  conclusions,  but  it  has  no  place  in  a  work  aiming  merely 
at  an  exposition  of  what  appears  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  practice 
in  California  fruit  growing.  It  will  be  found  that  this  practice  varies 
somewhat  in  the  different  regions  of  California,  sometimes  in  degree, 
sometimes  in  kind,  because  of  different  local  conditions,  and  it  might 
be  found  that  nearly  all  reasonable  theories  of  pruning  could  be 
verified  in  California  experience. 

Pruning  in  California  is  chiefly  undertaken  as  a  shaping  process. 
Our  fruit  trees  are  naturally  so  prone  to  bear  fruit  that  pruning  to 
produce  fruitfulness  is  seldom  thought  of,  and  still  more  rarely 
practiced,  while  pruning  to  reduce  bearing  wood,  and  .thus  decrease 
the  burden  of  the  tree,  is  quite  widely  done,  to  take  the  place,  in 
part,  of  thinning  out  the  fruit.  Pruning  to  restore  vigor  to  the  tree 
as  in  cutting  it  back  to  induce  a  new  wood  growth,  is  also  rather  a 
rare  proceeding,  but  probably  could  be  much  more  widely  employed 
to  advantage.  We  prune,  then,  for  shape  and  for  the  many  practical 
advantages  which  inhere  in  the  form  now  prevailing  in  California 
orchards.  Some  of  these  advantages  are  peculiar  to  our  climate; 
others  we  share  with  those  who  advocate  a  similar  form  elsewhere. 
Our  best  orchards  of  the  same  fruits  in  adjacent  localities  are 
almost  identical  in  form  and  general  appearance  of  the  trees,  and 
those  more  distant  differ  chiefly  in  the  extent  to  which  the  same 
principles  are  applied.  And  this  is  not  because  the  trees  are  allowed 
to  follow  their  natural  inclination,  which  should  secure  resemblance, 
but  because  their  natural  bent  is  resolutely  conquered  by  agreement 
of  growers  that  they  know  what  is  good  for  the  tree ;  and  this  sub- 
stantial unanimity  is  the  result  of  the  experience  of  the  last  seventy 
years.  People  possessed  of  the  art  temperament  sometimes  com- 
plain of  the  depressing  uniformity  and  artificiality  of  orchard-tree 
shapes  in  California.  They  are  apt  to  lament  the  fact  that  systematic 
orcharding  destroys  the  picturesquesness  of  tree-growth.  They 
should  understand  that  a  picturesque  fruit  tree  has  no  place  in  com- 
mercial fruit  growing.  The  producing  tree  is  an  agency  to  serve 
certain  purposes.  The  orchardist  does  not  pursue  uniformity  for 
its  own  sake,  but  rather  for  the  purpose  it  serves,  and  the  fact  that 
many  thinking  men  have  practically  agreed  upon  a  certain  form  as 
an  ideal  of  producing  ability  is  demonstration  that  such  form  is,  at 
least,  approximately  correct.  There  is  an  industrial  conception  of  a 
tree,  which  is  necessarily  and  essentially  different  from  a  concetion 


WHY  TREES  SHOULD  BE  PRUNED 


of  picturesquesness  based  upon  the  wild  type.    The  wild  tree  is  rude 
and  crude  from  a  cultural  point  of 


PRACTICAL  PURPOSES  OF  PRUNING 

One  of  the  first  things  for  a  beginner  to  undertake  as  he  ap- 
proaches the  practice  of  pruning  trees  and  vines  is  to  form  a  good 
idea  of  the  purposes  to  be  served.  Imitation  is  not  the  foundation 
of  intelligent  pruning,  though  it  yields  many  valuable  suggestions. 
Satisfactory  work  rests  upon  a  correct  understanding  of  the  reasons 
for  each  act  and  to  the  attainment  of  this,  all  study,  observation  and 
experience  should  tend.  Possessing  this,  one  can  proceed  capably, 
modifying  method  to  meet  condition,  and  producing  desirable  re- 
sults. Receive  all  suggestions  and  then  go  quietly  to  the  tree  and 
study  your  problem  in  its  shade.  The  tree  is  the  best  revelator  of 
its  needs.  Some  of  the  best  pruners  in  California  are  men  who  were 
untrained  to  horticulture  before  they  entered  upon  their  orchard 
work.  Reading,  discussing,  systematic  instruction  are  all  valuable. 
They  save  much  time  and  many  errors,  but  recourse  to  the  tree 
affords  the  sovereign  test  of  attainment. 

These  may  be  counted  among  the  practical  purposes  to  be  at- 
tained by  pruning  in  California:  (a)  Convenience  of  the  grower; 
(b)  health  and  strength  of  the  tree  ;  (c)  regulation  of  heat  and  light; 
(d)  attainment  of  strong  bearing  wood  ;  (e)  attainment  of  size  in 
fruit;  (f)  promotion  of  regular  bearing.  Examine  trees  with  refer- 
ence to  their  embodiment  of  these  characters  and  one  can  hardly  fail 
to  secure  rays  of  light  upon  the  subject  of  pruning  which  seem  dark 
to  so  many. 

Convenience.  —  Trees  which  branch  near  the  ground  are  most 
quickly  and  cheaply  handled  in  all  the  operations  of  pruning,  spray- 
ing, fruit-thinning  and  picking.  Low  trees  with  obliquely-rising 
branches  are  more  easily  cultivated  than  any  form  with  horizontal 
branches,  unless  the  head  is  carried  so  high  that  the  animals  pass 
easily  under  the  tree.  To  do  this  sacrifices  all  the  other  conveniences 
and  economies  which  actually  determine  profit,  and  is  really  out  of 
the  question  from  a  commercial  point  of  view.  Sometimes  it  does 
not  pay  to  pick  some  of  the  smaller  fruits  like  cherries  and  olives 
at  a  certain  distance  above  the  ground,  when  picking  at  half  that 
distance  may  yield  a  profit. 

Health  and  Strength.  —  It  is  imperative  in  most  parts  of  this  State 
that  the  sunshine  be  not  allowed  to  touch  the  bark  during  the  heat 
of  the  day.  This  protection  is  secured  even  for  young  trees  by  low 
branching  and  encouragement  of  small,  low  laterals.  The  low  tree 
with  properly  spaced  main  branches  attains  superior  strength  by 
virtue  of  thick,  strongly  knit,  short  growth  between  lateral  branches, 
and  by  its  strong,  stiff,  obliquely-rising  growth  sustains  weight 
which  brings  horizontal  branches  to  the  ground,  and  thus  even  high- 
headed  trees  are  liable  to  continually  interfere  with  cultivation,  and 
the  desperate  grower  has  to  raise  the  head  of  his  tree  higher  into 
the  air  and  farther  above  the  profit  line,  while  at  the  same  time  he 


108 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


renders  it  more  liable  to  sunburn,  to  bark-binding  and  to  unthrift  by 
forcing  the  sap  to  flow  an  unnecessary  distance  and  through  wood 
and  bark  which  impede  its  movement.  Besides  a  low  tree  escapes 
stress  by  strong  winds  which  a  high  tree  invites  and  at  the  same  time 
is  less  able  to  withstand.  Pruning  for  health  and  strength  of  tree 
also  includes  the  removal  of  unthrifty  or  diseased  parts,  which  are 
not  only  an  incumbrance  to  the  tree,  but  may  communicate  to  other 
parts  the  causes  of  their  ill  condition. 

Heat  and  Light. — The  maintenance  of  strong  bearing  wood  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  tree  is  conditioned  upon  the  proper  pruning  of  the 
top  of  the  tree.  How  far  the  upper  levels  or  the  shade-layer  of  the 
tree  can  be  safely  opened,  depends  upon  the  local  climate  in  each 
fruit  region.  The  rule  must  be  the  higher  the  summer  heat  the 
denser  the  tree ;  the  lower  the  heat  the  thinner  the  tree ;  but  every- 
where the  proper  condition  of  openness  must  be  constantly  in  view 
in  pruning.  Not  alone  must  this  be  done  to  maintain  thrifty  growth 
below,  but  it  is  also  essential  to  the  best  growth  and  ripening  of  the 
fruit  in  the  lower  and  interior  parts  of  the  tree.  Fruit  inferior  in 
size,  color  and  quality  results,  in  part,  from  lack  of  pruning  to  regu- 
late the  admission  of  light  and  heat,  sometimes  one,  sometimes  both, 
to  the  shaded  portion  of  the  tree. 

Bearing  Wood. — Good  fruit  develops  on  good  bearing  wood  and 
good  bearing  wood  is  the  product  of  proper  degrees  of  light  and 
heat,  as  has  just  been  urged.  But  bearing  wood  in  the  case  of  some 
fruits  is  new  wood,  and  reduction  of  old  wood  for  the  purpose  of 
forcing  the  growth  of  new  wood  must  be  constantly  in  mind.  Re- 
newal is  more  or  less  a  consideration  with  all  trees,  and  especially  the 
securing  of  strong  new  wood.  This  is  a  point  upon  which  close 
study  of  the  bearing  tree  will  yield  most  satisfactory  suggestions. 

Size  of  Fruit. — The  size  of  fruit,  providing  the  tree  is  healthy 
and  vigorous,  depends  upon  the  character  and  amount  of  bearing 
wood  which  the  tree  is  allowed  to  carry.  Removal  of  part  of  the 
fruit  burden  is  done  by  thinning  after  it  is  well  set,  but  this  labor 
should  always  be  minimized  by  antecedent  pruning,  which  aims  to 
retain  more  or  less  bearing  wood  according  to  the  vigor,  size  and 
bearing  habit  of  the  tree.  Thinning  out  of  bearing  shoots  and  spurs, 
when  either  are  clearly  seen  to  be  in  excess,  should  be  the  constant 
study  of  the  pruner. 

Regular  Bearing. — This  point  is  largely  involved  in  the  preceding 
and  affords  an  additional  incentive.  Regulating  the  amount  of  fruit 
borne  in  one  year  may  involve  the  profit  of  two  years,  because  a  tree 
may  not  be  able  to  produce  an  excessive  amount  of  fruit  and  perfect 
good  fruit  buds  for  the  following  year.  It  may  generally  make  buds 
which  will  bloom,  but  not  always  that.  If  it  does  make  the  bloom, 
it  is  no  guaranty  that  the  bloom  will  be  strong  and  effective  for 
bearing.  Consequently,  pruning  for  reasonable  amount  of  bearing 
should  always  be  borne  in  view  and  should  be  practised  at  the  close 
of  the  year  of  non-bearing  with  particular  diligence,  if  the  alternate 
year  bearing-  habit  is  to  be  broken  up. 


FORMS  OF  TREES  FOR  CALIFORNIA  1Q9 

The  foregoing  are  among  the  practical  purposes  to  be  served  in 
pruning.  There  are  others,  but  these  will  suffice  to  emphasize  a 
single  point,  and  that  is,  that  pruning  can  not  be  compressed  into  a 
single  formula,  nor  can  one  learn  it  by  a  recipe.  There  are  various 
ends  to  attain ;  they  may  be  attained  in  different  ways,  although  it 
is  not  strange  that  substantial  agreement  in  methods  does  largely 
prevail.  It  is  better  to  try  to  understand  the  purposes  than  to  memo- 
rize the  formulae.  Get  the  tree  and  its  interest  clearly  in  the  mind ; 
have  an  ideal  toward  which  to  work ;  be  more  interested  in  why  a 
neighbor  prunes  in  a  certain  way  than  how  he  does  it.  Learn  con- 
stantly by  all  available  means,  and  at  the  same  time  study  the  visible 
forms  and  aim  to  understand  their  fullest  significance. 

FORMS  OF  TREE  BEST  SUITED  TO  CALIFORNIA 
CONDITIONS 

The  form  of  deciduous  fruit  tree  which  prevails  with  singular 
uniformity  all  over  the  State  is  the  "vase,"  or  "goblet,"  or  "wine- 
glass" form,  all  these  terms  signifying  a  similar  shape.  There  are 
different  ways  in  which  this  form  is  secured  and  maintained  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  State,  and  with  different  fruits,  which  will  be 
especially  noted  in  the  chapters  devoted  to  these  fruits. 

The  mainspring  of  success  in  California  is  to  grow  low  trees. 
Low  is  a  term  admitting  of  degrees,  it  is  true,  and  may  imply  a 
trunk  six  inches  up  to  one  or  two  feet,  in  the  clear.  In  addition  to 
the  convenience  of  low-trained  trees  which  has  been  mentioned, 
there  are  special  reasons  for  this  form  in  California.  Hundreds  of 
thousands  of  trees  have  been  destroyed  by  the  exposure  of  a  long, 
bare  trunk  to  the  rays  of  the  afternoon  sun.  The  sun-burned  sides 
have  given  the  conditions  desired  by  borers,  and  destruction  has 
quickly  followed.  Sometimes  young  trees  have  not  survived  their 
first  season  in  the  orchard,  because  of  burned  bark,  or  this,  with  the 
added  injury  by  the  borers.  It  is  also  found  by  California  experience 
that  growth  is  more  vigorous  in  the  branches  when  they  emerge  near 
the  ground.  Even  where  actual  burning  may  not  occur  the  travel 
of  the  sap  through  the  longer  distance  of  trunk  is  undesirable.  It  is 
believed,  also,  that  benefit  results  from  shading  of  the  ground  at  the 
base  of  the  trees,  by  reducing  evaporation,  and  by  maintaining  a 
temperature  of  soil  better  suited  to  vigorous  root-growth. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  reasons,  the  fact  is  indisputable,  the 
higher  the  prevailing  summer  temperature,  and  the  greater  the 
aridity,  the  lower  should  the  trees  be  headed.  Trees  which  may  do 
well  in  the  central  and  upper  coast  region  and  adjacent  to  the  bay  of 
San  Francisco,  with  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  of  clear  trunk, 
would  dwindle  and  probably  perish  in  the  heated  valleys  in  all  parts 
of  the  State.  In  such  situation,  both  north  and  south,  the  best  prac- 
tice is  to  head  the  tree  fifteen,  twelve,  and  even  some  hold  as  low 
as  six  inches  from  the  ground.  There  will  always  be  some  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  detail,  but  the  necessity  of  making  the  trunk  short 
enough  to  be  effectually  shaded  by  the  foliage  is  admitted  by  all 
growers. 


110 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Variations  of  the  Vase  Form. — There  are  several  variations  of 
the  vase  form  to  be  found  in  California  orchards.  The  prevalent  is  a 
vase  form  with  short-jointed  leaders  (secured  by  systematic  cutting- 
back)  which  will  be  described  in  detail  as  the  "common  vase  form." 
Another,  which  is  gaining  in  popularity,  aims  to  grow  leaders 
trained  along  in  directions  first  chosen  for  them  (without  cutting 
back  after  the  low  head  has  been  secured),  and  this  may  be  described 
as  the  "vase  form  with  continuous  leaders."  The  latter  method 
aims  to  secure  more  open  centers  and  to  produce  fruit  nearer  to  the 
leaders,  or,  as  one  may  call  them,  the  ribs  of  the  tree — the  figure 
having  a  rough  resemblance  to  the  ribs  of  an  inverted  umbrella. 
These  open-center  vase  forms  will  be  described  in  the  chapters  on 
the  apricot  and  peach,  to  which  fruits  they  have  been  chiefly  applied. 

Vase-Form  Without  Cutting  Back. — An  interesting  experiment 
in  the  development  and  retention  of  the  vase-form  without  cutting 
back  the  main  branches  after  the  first  year  in  the  orchard  has  been 
undertaken  on  the  University  Farm  at  Davis  under  the  direction  of 
Dr.  J.  C.  Whitten,  head  of  the  Division  of  Pomology  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  California.  The  shaping  of  the  tree  begins  by  cutting  back 
at  planting  to  get  a  low  head,  the  framework  of  the  tree  being 
secured  by  selection  of  three  main  branches  properly  placed  on  the 
short  stem.  These  branches  are  cut  back  during  the  first  winter  to 
16  to  24  inches  in  length  and  are  not  cut  back  afterwards — except 
in  the  case  of  excessive  extension,  when  they  may  be  shortened,  if 
necessary,  to  a  lateral  which  is  to  continue,  as  nearly  as  may  be, 
growth  in  the  same  direction.  Growth  on  these  continuous  leaders 


Forms  of  head  resulting  from  cutting  back 


£.£ 


of  head 


VASE  FORM  WITHOUT  CUTTING  BACK  m 

is  selected  the  following  summer  to  make  desirable  branchings — all 
other  shoots  being  tip-pinched  to  make  a  few  leaves.  After  the 
leaders  are  well  located  in  sufficient  number,  cutting  back  ceases  and 
these  main  branches  are  kept  properly  clothed  with  bearing  wood 
by  thinning  out  supernumerary  spurs  and  laterals  and  by  pinching 
undesirable  shoots  during  the  growing  season.* 

The  method  seems  to  be  an  improvement  and  extension  to  other 
deciduous  fruits  of  the  practice  which  has  long  been  roughly  fol- 
lowed in  this  State  with  apples,  cherries,  prunes  and  almonds  which 
have  for  many  years  not  been  cut  back  after  the  young  tree  was 
properly  headed  and  branched.  It  does  however  attach  more  im- 
portance to  the  dominance  of  main  branches  proceeding  continu- 
ously and  not  zigzagging  so  much  as  in  the  common  vase  form.  It 
also  aims  to  preserve  a  more  open  center  and  by  admitting  light  to 
the  interior  faces  of  the  main  branches  to  promote  the  growth  of 
fruiting  shoots  or  spurs  upon  them  with  good  foliage  which  will  not 
only  give  protection  from  sunburn,  but  will  serve  the  future  vigor 
and  bearing  of  the  tree  much  better  than  the  robber-growth  of 
multiple  sprouts  from  cut-back  branches.  Too  dense  new  growth 
is  eliminated  by  thinning  out  shoots  rather  than  by  cutting  back, 
and  the  growth  of  such  supernumerary  shoots  is  checked  by 
summer-pinching.  Dr.  Whitten's  belief  is  that  by  growing  such 
main  branches  with  such  development  of  foliage  there  will  be 
secured  not  only  more  and  better  fruit,  but  also  a  stronger  tree  to 
carry  it,  and  at  the  date  of  this  edition  (October,  1921,)  he  is  antici- 
pating from  many  orchard  trials  that  his  expectations,  which  are 
based  upon  protracted  research  both  in  plant  physiology  and  orchard 
practice,  will  be  realized.  In  due  time,  no  doubt,  the  results  of  his 
faith  and  works  will  be  published  by  the  University  of  California, 
of  which  he  heads  the  Division  of  Pomology.  The  current  danger 
seems  to  be  that  growers  of  trees  may  mistake  his  advocacy  of  not 
cutting-back  as  equivalent  to  non-pruning,  while  it  is,  in  fact,  a 
claim  for  more  elaborate,  careful  and  intelligent  pruning.  Among 
questions  to  be  decided  are  the  acceptance  by  the  tree  of  the  method 
as  best  ministering  to  its  requirements  under  cultural  bondage  and 
the  availability  of  the  method  to  the  comprehension  of  the  army  of 
employes  to  whom  the  pruning  of  our  vast  acreage  of  commercial 
orchards  must  be  entrusted.  Evidently  the  method  must  be  fol- 
lowed in  all  essential  details  of  its  principles  and  practices  to  secure 
the  results  claimed  for  it. 

Characteristic  of  the  Common  Vase  Form. — This  vase  form 
which  has  been  so  widely  and  uniformly  developed  in  this  State  that 
it  has  been  called  the  "California  Vase  Form"  is  a  product  of  French 
ingenuity  in  the  training  of  dwarf  trees,  but  it  has  undergone  very 
marked  modification  in  California,  losing  much  of  the  accuracy  of 
its  outline  and  gaining  vastly  in  speed  of  work  and  in  bearing 
capacity  of  tree  without  sacrificing  any  practical  value  which  in- 
heres in  the  design. 

*An  excellent  account,  with  details  and  illustrations,  of  starting  trees  toward  a  system 
of  "longer  pruning"  with  little  cutting  back  after  attainment  of  bearing  age,  is  given  in 
Bulletin  313,  University  of  California  Experiment  Station  by  Prof.  Warren  F.  Tufts. 


112 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


This  vase  form  dispenses  with  the  central  stem  or  trunk  at  a 
certain  short  distance  above  the  ground,  but  this  is  not  done  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  a  hollow  or  open-center  tree,  which  is  a  leading 
characteristic  of  the  old  European  vase  form.  The  few  branches 
which  are  desired  to  grow  from  the  short  stem  are  pruned  when  the 
tree  is  young  to  induce  successive  branching  with  short  interspaces. 
At  each  cutting  the  aim  is  to  get  two  branches  from  one,  and  nearly 
as  possible  of  equal  vigor,  so  the  California  tree  does  not,  except,  of 
course,  in  occasional  instances,  show  the  outline  of  a  leader  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top,  but  there  is  a  succession  of  branchings,  turned 
this  way  or  that  by  the  skillful  pruner,  occupying  available  air 
space,  distributing  the  weight  so  it  comes  more  nearly  over  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity  and  at  the  same  time  knitting  the  fibers  of  the  branch 
so  that  the  weight  of  the  fruit  is  well  sustained.  This  idea,  however, 
is  not  allowed  to  go  so  far  as  to  wholly  close  the  interior  of  the  tree, 
but  to  retain  such  degree  of  open  interior  as  is  found  desirable. 
When  the  tree  is  laden  with  fruit,  the  weight  naturally  expands 
the  top  quite  enough  to  admit  the  sunlight  without  exposing  either 
the  fruit  or  the  branches  to  danger  of  burning.  Thus  it  appears  that 
instead  of  the  true  vase  or  wine-glass,  with  hollow  interior  and  thin 
walls,  we  have  the  general  exterior  outline  of  this  model,  but  give 
a  good  part  of  the  central  area  of  the  figure  to  bearing  shoots,  and 
thus  secure  a  large  bearing  surface  with  well-strengthened  supports. 

It  has  been  believed  that  this  many-branching  form,  developed 
upon  a  few  main  branches  well  placed  upon  the  trunk,  gives  a 


Pruning  for  branch  spacing 

SsTSS^^^ 

from  each  beginning  marked  for  firs,  winter  pruntag. 


PRUNING  THE  TREE  AT  PLANTING  U3 

stronger  tree  than  can  be  had  by  growing  a  considerable  number  of 
leaders,  all  starting  from  near  the  point  where  the  tree  was  headed 
at  planting,  which  was  common  in  earlier  California  practice.  Such 
leaders  crowd  each  other  at  the  point  of  emergence  from  the  stem, 
and  when  laden  with  fruit,  sway  outward  and  break  out  at  this 
point.  A  vastly  stronger  tree  is  secured  by  starting  but  four  or 
five  branches  from  the  low  trunk  and  letting  them  emerge  from 
different  sides  of  the  stem,  and  at  different  levels,  as  will  be  described 
presently. 

HOW   TO   SECURE   THE   COMMON   VASE   FORM 

For  the  benefit  of  the  inexperienced  reader,  it  will  be  well  to 
illustrate  the  steps  by  which  the  form  of  tree  so  widely  prevailing 
in  this  State  is  attained. 

Cutting  Back  at  Planting. — This  has  been  already  mentioned  as 
essential  to  strong  growth  of  the  transplanted  tree.  It  is  also  the 
prime  act  in  securing  a  tree  with  a  low  head  and  strong  branches. 
Formerly  trees  were  cut  back  farther  than  desirable  and  the 
branches  allowed  to  crowd  each  other,  as  has  just  been  stated.  It 
is  better  to  attain  twenty-four  inches  of  stem  than  twelve  inches — 
providing  care  is  taken  during  the  first  summer  to  prevent,  by 
pinching,  the  growth  of  too  many  branches  near  together.  Allow 
those  to  grow  which  are  more  distant  from  each  other  on  the  stem 
and  pinch  the  intervening  shoots.  In  this  way  one  can  have  the 
lowest  branch  at  six  inches  from  the  ground  in  the  hot  valleys  if 
desired,  or  twelve  inches  in  the  coast  valleys,  and  the  highest  branch 
at  eighteen  or  twenty-four  inches.  This  gives  about  twice  the 
distance  between  the  main  branches  which  was  formerly  allowed,  and 
it  is  of  vast  advantage  to  the  strength  of  the  tree.  The  illustrations 
of  this  fact  on  preceding  pages  are  from  trees  planted  by  the  writer 
in  1887  to  test  the  matter.  At  this  date  they  are  large  trees  and 
show  the  forms  of  heads  resulting  from  different  spacing  of  branches 
on  the  young  trees  during  the  first  summer's  growth. 

First,  then,  cut  back  the  tree  just  after  planting,  as  shown  in  the 
engraving,  deciding  first  at  which  height  you  wish  trees  to  form 
heads,  and  cut  them  all  back  as  uniformly  as  possible  and  still  secure 
a  good  bud  just  below  the  point  of  cutting.  To  preserve  these  buds 
the  trees  should  be  handled  carefully  while  removing  from  the 
nursery  and  during  planting. 

If  the  tree  has  already  grown  laterals  in  the  nursery  where  the 
head  is  desired,  three  or  four  of  these  properly  placed  on  the  stem 
may  be  selected  to  form  the  main  branches,  shortened  in  to  the  sound 
bud  nearest  the  stem,  and  other  laterals,  not  desired  to  form  the 
head,  removed.  This  treatment  is  shown  in  the  engraving  of  a  young 
peach  tree  well  branched  in  the  nursery.  If  all  the  laterals  on  the 
young  tree  have  been  trimmed  up  above  where  the  head  is  desired,. 
as  is  sometimes  the  case,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  whole 
top,  and  usually  others  will  start  below  afterwards.  If  there  are  no 
buds  visible  on  the  stem  at  the  place  where  the  head  is  desired,  the 


jj4  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

choice  must  be  made  between  heading  the  tree  higher  up,  where  the 
buds  are,  or  cutting  back  without  regard  to  buds,  trusting  to  the 
development  of  latent  buds  at  the  right  place,  or  to  the  growth  of 
a  shoot  from  below,  which  can  be  cut  back  to  form  a  head  the  fol- 
lowing year.  It  is  for  this  reason,  among  others,  that  planters  prefer 
a  yearling  tree  which  has  not  branched,  but  has  good  buds  all  along 
the  stem.  Peaches  and  apricots  usually  branch  in  the  nursery,  but 
usually  have  dormant  buds  at  the  bases  of  such  branches  which  can 
be  employed  in  making  new  growth  where  it  is  desired. 

After  cutting  back  at  planting,  the  shoots  desired  to  form  the 
head  are  allowed  to  make  their  full  growth  without  interference. 
All  shoots  not  desired  for  branches  are  pinched  off  at  the  tips,  after 
growing  out  two  or  three  inches,  leaving  the  bunch  of  leaves  to  shade 
the  trunk  and  contribute  to  its  stouter  growth.  Constant  watchful- 
ness is  necessary  to  pinch  off  the  tips  of  undesirable  branches  all 
the  first  summer. 

First  Pruning. — In  the  winter  following  planting,  the  shoots  of 
the  previous  season's  growth  are  cut  back  to  about  ten  or  twelve 
inches  from  their  junction  with  the  stem.  Some  prefer  to  cut  shorter, 
but  this  is  apt  to  huddle  the  branches  too  close  together  when  they 
get  old  and  stout.  Growers,  however,  do  not  agree  on  the  exact 
length  which  these  future  main  branches  should  be  left  at  first 
pruning. 

If,  during  the  first  summer's  growth,  all  shoots  except  the  num- 
ber desired  to  form  the  head  have  been  pinched  back,  the  first  winter 
pruning  consists  only  in  cutting  back  the  main  branches.  If  laterals 
have  grown  on  the  parts  of  these  branches  which  are  to  be  left  on 
the  tree,  they  should  be  cut  back  to  a  bud  or  two.  Some  growers 
practice  cutting  away  all  such  laterals  cleanly  because  they  are  too 
young  to  bear  fruit,  but  it  is  better  to  shorten  and  retain  at  least  a 
part  of  them  and,  when  growth  starts,  pinch  the  tips  after  throwing 
out  a  few  leaves  to  shade  and  thicken  the  branches,  just  as  the  short 
growths  left  the  previous  summer  serve  the  main  stem.  These  leaf- 
bearing  stubs  on  young  trees  should  generally  be  cleanly  removed 
at  the  following  winter  pruning. 

Second  Pruning. — During  the  second  summer  it  is  usual  to  allow 
two  branches  to  grow  from  each  of  the  main  branches  cut  back  at 
the  previous  winter  pruning,  and  to  pinch  off  all  others,  as  described. 
These  branches  are  allowed  to  run  out  their  full  growth,  except 
where  excessive  growth  is  made,  and  then  it  is  repressed  by  summer 
pruning.  This  is  done  with  the  apricot  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
State,  as  will  be  considered  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  that  fruit. 
Usually,  however,  the  main  branches  are  untouched  during  the 
second  summer's  growth  unless  some  are  running  out  so  far  as  to 
make  the  tree  lop-sided.  During  the  following  winter  the  main 
branches  are  cut  back  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  growth 
they  have  made,  and  if  too  many  strong  laterals  have  grown  below 
this  point,  some  are  shortened,  others  are  removed  entirely  where 
they  are  apt  to  cross  or  crowd  each  other  or  to  interfere  with  culti- 
vation. It  is  not  desirable,  however,  that  all  small  growth  should 


PRUNING  BEARING  TREES  H5 

be  cleanly  removed.  Some  of  these  small  shoots  will  bear  a  little 
fruit  and  the  leaf  action  is  in  any  case  desirable  as  a  contributor  to 
the  strength  of  the  larger  branches  to  which  they  are  attached. 
Besides,  they  serve  to  shade  the  bark  from  sunburn. 

Third  Pruning. — When  the  tree  reaches  its  third  winter  pruning, 
its  form  is  well  outlined,  and  early-bearing  trees  like  the  peach, 
apricot,  almond,  Japanese  plum,  etc.,  will  give  the  grower  a  respect- 
able crop  the  next  season.  To  bear  this  crop  greater  care  should  be 
taken  at  the  third  winter  pruning  'to  leave  the  small  laterals  low 
down  on  the  main  branches,  for  on  them,  clustered  close  in  the  head 
of  the  tree,  most  of  the  first  crop  will  be  found.  Though  some  trees, 
as  stated,  do  bear  earlier  than  the  third  summer,  the  fruit  is  not 
usually  considered  of  commercial  account  until  the  third  summer. 
An  engraving  is  given  of  a  peach  tree  just  after  its  second  winter 
pruning.  It  is  a  very  good  representative  of  the  common  vase-form 
of  a  tree  as  grown  in  California.  It  has  four  main  branches,  each 
issuing  from  a  different  point  on  the  stem,  each  permitted  to  carry 
two  main  branches,  which  are  not  arranged  around  the  circumfer- 
ence, but  some  of  them  tending  toward  the  center.  At  the  third 
pruning  more  shoots  have  been  left  than  are  required  by  the  rule, 
for,  starting  with  four  main  branches,  there  are  usually  sixteen  left 
at  the  third  pruning. 

PRUNING  BEARING  TREES 

Three  winter  prunings  of  deciduous  trees  usually  establish  their 
permanent  form,  and  subsequent  pruning  is  chiefly  directed  toward 
the  retention  of  that  form;  for  strength  of  branch  and  stem;  for 
renewal  of  bearing  wood ;  for  regulation  of  amount  of  bearing  wood  ; 
for  relative  light  and  shade,  and  for  convenience  in  cultivation  and 
other  orchard  work.  Naturally,  these  ends  are  sought  according  to 
the  needs  and  habits  of  different  fruits,  and  the  methods  of  attaining 
them  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapters  treating  of  these  fruits.  There 
are,  however,  certain  general  considerations  which  are  proper  in  this 
connection : 

In  the  case  of  fruit  trees  in  vigorous  growth  pining  during  the 
active  period  or  allowing  the  wood  to  go  uncut  during  the  dormant 
period,  have  the  same  effect,  viz.,  the  promotion  of  fruiting.  Some 
trees,  like  apricots  and  peaches,  which  bear  upon  new  laterals,  will 
bear  fruit  even  though  heavily  winter-cut,  if  these  small  laterals  are 
retained  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  main  branches.  Some  other  trees, 
like  the  prune,  which  bears  on  spurs,  will  delay  the  formation  of 
spurs  if  heavily  winter-cut.  These  two  facts  suggest  two  diverse 
policies  in  pruning  bearing  trees :  A  peach  tree  unpruned  will  reduce 
its  crop  for  lack  or  weakness  of  new  laterals;  a  prune  tree  too 
severely  winter-pruned  will  reduce  its  crop  for  lack  of  old  spurs. 
Again,  some  fruits,  or  varieties  of  fruits,  bear  chiefly  upon  the  tips, 
others  chiefly  upon  the  lateral  spurs;  shortening  one  reduces  the 
crop  largely ;  shortening  the  other  may  increase  the  marketable  crop 
by  decreasing  the  aggregate  number.  These  and  other  similar  facts 


116 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


suggest  that  pruning  bearing  trees,  to  be  intelligently  pursued,  must 
be  accompanied  with  the  fullest  possible  knowledge  of  the  bearing 
habit  of  the  fruit  or  variety  thereof. 

Cutting  back  or  "shortening  in"  should  be  done  in  a  way  which 
will  reduce  the  burst  of  new  shoots  near  the  cut.  This  is  measurably 
secured  by  always  cutting  the  branch  at  a  strong  lateral,  because 
the  sap  flow  into  this  lateral  prevents  undue  pressure  and  forcing 
of  latent  buds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cut.  For  this  reason  the  cutting 
back  of  all  branches  to  a  certain  definite  height  is  wrong.  Trees 
shorn  across  at  a  certain  line  become  thick  as  a  brush  with  top 
shoots  which  require  extensive  thinning,  or  the  bearing  wood  will 
soon  be  all  at  that  level  through  failure  of  the  densely  shaded  bear- 
ing wood  below.  Cut  to  the  nearest  lateral  below  the  line  you  wish 
to  approximate,  and  shorten  the  lateral,  if  desirable,  and  the  result 
will  be  fewer  and  stronger  shoots  than  from  a  stub-cut. 

In  the  treatment  of  bearing  trees  the  main  effort  should  generally 
be  toward  thinning  or  reducing  the  number  of  bearing  shoots.  This 
is  related  to  the  important  work  of  thinning  the  fruit  to  reduce  the 
burden  of  the  tree,  and  will  be  mentioned  again  in  that  connection. 
The  work  has,  however,  a  bearing  beyond  the  size  of  the  individual 
fruit  specimens.  It  involves  the  whole  future  of  the  tree  as  a  profit- 
able affair.  An  unthinned  tree  becomes  a  thicket  of  small,  weak,  and 


Yearling  peach.    Cut  back  at  planting.  First  summer's  growth  in  the 

orchard. 


of 


PRUNING  FOR  FULL  FRUITING 


117 


dying  laterals  and  spurs.  An  attempt  to  cure  this  afterwards  by 
sawing  out  many  large  branches  is  only  partially  successful,  though 
perhaps  the  best  thing  that  can  be  done  after  such  condition  has 
been  allowed  to  exist.  The  only  way  to  keep  the  interior  of  the  tree 
full  enough  of  strong,  bearing  wood  is  to  resolutely  and  regularly 
thin  out  surplus  shoots  as  the  tree  advances  in  age  and  size.  This 
work  is  as  important  with  trees  which  are  not  regularly  cut  back  as 
with  those  which  are  thus  treated.  It  is  of  the  most  vital  as  well 
as  the  most  generally  neglected  item  in  orchard  practice. 


First  winter  pruning. 


Second  summer  growth  in  orchard. 


In  thinning  out  lateral  bearing  shoots  seldom  leave  more  than 
one  at  any  point ;  select  the  strongest ;  remove  the  rest  close  to  the 
branch.  When  a  new  shoot  springs  out  at  the  base  of  an  older  one 
remove  the  older  one ;  when  a  new  shoot  breaks  out  on  the  side  of 
an  older  one  cut  the  older  one  back  to  that  point.  In  thinning  always 
reject  the  older,  weaker  laterals  or  spurs.  This  does  not  apply  to 
the  outbreak  of  strong  suckers  or  water  sprouts ;  wherever  they 
appear  they  should  usually  be  cleanly  cut  away  unless  a  new  main 
branch  is  desirable. 

Pruning  of  bearing  trees  should  always  have  regard  to  the  re- 
moval of  branches  which  have  become  decrepit  through  sunburn, 


118 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Second  winter  pruning  in  orchard. 


Young  apple  and  peach  trees,  showing  branches  well  spaced  on  the  stems. 


PRUNING  AT  DIFFERENT  SEASONS  \\^ 

blight  of  disease  of  any  kind,  frost  injury,  or  in  any  form  die-back 
from  whatever  cause.  Such  wood  is  not  only  of  lessened  value,  but 
there  is  also  danger  of  extension  of  the  trouble.  Removing  such 
wood  and  training  new  wood  to  take  its  place  should  always  be 
in  mind. 

Where  cutting  of  large  branches  is  demanded  for  any  reason  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  wounds  are  most  quickly  healed  and 
least  injury  to  the  tree  is  to  be  apprehended  if  the  cutting  is  done 
near  the  beginning  of  the  growing  season,  and  not  at  the  beginning 
of  the  dormant  period. 


Weak  tree  from  ill-spaced  branches. 


TIMES  FOR  PRUNING 

Some  changes  of  views  have  lately  prevailed  as  to  the  times, 
within  the  dormant  period,  during  which  winter-pruning  can  be 
done  to  the  best  advantage.  Formerly  it  was  thought  to  be  a  vital 
matter  that  no  cutting  should  be  done  until  the  leaves  had  fallen, 
and  this  is  still  the  prevailing  practice,  and  may  prove  to  be  on  all 
accounts  the  best.  Recently,  however,  pruning  in  autumn  has  been 
quite  widely  practised. 

Fall  pruning. — There  is  a  time  near  the  end  of  the  active  season 
in  California  when  the  foliage  changes  its  aspect.  There  is  no 
marked  change  in  color,  perhaps,  but  there  is  a  certain  limpness  and 
drooping  which  betokens  decided  decline  in  activity.  It  comes  first 
to  the  early  fruits,  the  cherries  and  apricots,  for  instance,  and  upon 
old  trees  earlier  than  young  ones.  The  buds  are  well  formed ;  the 
season's  growth  apparently  complete.  There  are  no  frosts  to  hasten 
the  fall  of  the  leaf  and  it  remains  in  place.  Does  it  render  any  im- 
portant service?  On  the  conclusion  that  it  does  not,  many  growers 
begin  the  winter  pruning  while  the  days  are  longer  and  the  ground 
dry  and  firm,  rather  than  delay  pruning  until  the  short,  dark  days 
and  rain-soaked  soil  of  December  and  January  render  pruning  ex- 
pensive and  disagreeable.  Those  trees  are  first  pruned  which  first 
assume  the  appearance  described,  and  the  work  proceeds  with  other 
varieties  afterwards  until  the  winter  pruning  may  be  finished  by 
December  1 — about  the  time  when  it  commonly  began  under  the  old 


120 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


practice.  Not  only  is  more  thus  accomplished  in  the  same  number 
of  days'  work,  but  the  orchard  is  earlier  in  shape  for  the  winter 
spraying  and  cultivation,  and  the  grower  is  ahead  of  his  work  and 
not  behind  it  all  the  season  If  the  season  is  unusually  rainy.  Several 
years'  practice  of  this  method  discloses  no  bad  results  except  in  the 
one  item  of  increasing  danger  from  frost.  Vines  and  trees  pruned 
early  in  the  dormant  period  have  a  tendency  to  start  growth  earlier 
than  those  pruned  late  in  the  dormant  period.  In  places,  then,  where 
early  bloom  and  fruit-setting  are  particularly  threatened  by  frost, 
this  practice  may  be  undesirable. 

Spring  Pruning. — Resting  largely  upon  this  matter  of  retarding 
growth,  the  practice  of  pruning  very  late  in  the  dormant  period,  or, 
in  fact,  at  the  beginning  of  the  growing  season,  is  also  gaining  wider 
adoption  where  frost  injury  is  especially  feared.  It  is  not  actual 
freezing,  but  a  drop  of  two  or  three  degrees  below  the  freezing  point 
which  is  feared,  and  during  recent  years  such  a  temperature  has 
wrought  havoc  with  some  fruits,  in  early  valley  regions  particularly. 
Later  pruning,  even  after  the  bloom  and  foliage  have  appeared,  has 
worked  no  injury  to  the  trees,  but  it  is  less  conveniently  done  than 
when  the  trees  are  free  of  foliage. 

Summer  Pruning. — Summer  pruning,  to  induce  bearing,  is,  as  has 
been  previously  intimated,  but  little  employed  in  this  State,  for  the 
constant  tendency  of  our  trees  is  to  bear  early  and  to  overbear. 
Enough  has,  however,  been  done  in  individual  cases  to  show  that 
fruit-bearing  is  promoted  by  pruning  after  the  chief  growth  of  the 
season  has  been  attained.  If  the  pruning  results  in  forcing  out 
laterals  late  in  the  season  it  has  been  done  too  early.  What  is 
desirable  is  the  strengthening  or  development  of  fruit  buds,  and 
this  will  be  accomplished  after  the  energy  has  been  too  far  dissi- 
pated to  make  new  wood  growth.  Such  pruning  of  the  earlier  fruits 
like  cherries  and  apricots  is  done  as  soon  as  the  current  crop  of  fruit 
is  gathered. 

Summer  pruning  to  check  the  too  exuberant  wood  growth  of 
some  kinds  of  trees  is  employed  to  some  extent,  chiefly  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  State,  where  the  vegetative  process  in  some  trees  seems 
fairly  to  run  riot,  and  unless  checked  is  apt  to  ruin  the  tree  by 
breaking  to  pieces  when  the  wind  and  weight  of  fruit  test  its 
strength.  The  methods  of  summer  pruning  employed  in  different 
parts  of  the  State  for  different  fruits  will  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  the  special  chapters  on  these  fruits. 

Summer  pruning  to  preserve  form  is  another  matter,  and  relates 
in  the  main  to  pinching  in,  to  check  undesirable  extension  and  to 
direct  the  sap  toward  shoots  in  which  growth  is  desired.  This  prac- 
tice is  approved  by  most  of  our  orchardists,  and  is  employed  by  them 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  More  people  believe  in  it  than  practice 
it,  however,  because  the  summer  months,  with  their  long  succession 
of  fruits  to  be  gathered  and  shipped  or  dried,  and  the  additional 
consideration  that  there  is  always  a  scarcity  of  labor  at  this  time, 

five  the  orchardist  so  much  work  to  do  that  he  is  more  apt  to  con- 
ne  his  "pinching"  to  a  little  that  he  may  do  now  and  then  when  he 


CUTTING  TO  DIRECT  GROWTH  }21 

has  a  few  moments'  leisure  than  to  do  the  work  thoroughly  and 
systematically.  The  result  is  that  the  regular  winter  pruning  is  the 
main  operation  for  tree  shaping  in  this  State. 

There  is  such  a  great  difference  in  opinion  about  summer  pruning 
that  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  make  any  assertions  about  it  which 
will  not  be  disputed.  Much  of  this  difference  comes,  of  course,  from 
different  conditions  prevailing  in  different  trees  and  in  different 
parts  of  the  State,  and  some  of  these  will  be  met,  as  already  prom- 
ised, in  following  chapters.  Leaving  these  wholly  out  of  considera- 
tion at  this  time,  it  is  safe  to  advise  those  who  wish  to  secure 
symmetry  of  any  particular  form  in  any  kind  of  tree,  that  they  can 
resort  to  summer  pinching  with  advantage,  and  can  sometimes  to 
advantage  remove  wood  too  large  for  the  thumb  and  ringer  to  sever. 

Constant  watchfulness  should  be  maintained  for  adventitious 
shoots  starting  out  on  stem  on  limb  at  points  where  branches  are  not 
desired.  Wherever  they  start  out  strongly,  they  should  be  pinched, 
or  entirely  removed,  according  to  the  best  judgment  to  be  formed  in 
each  case.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  divert  the  sap  from  the 
fruiting  wood  to  make  the  generally  coarse  and  sterile  wood  which 
is  characteristic  of  them.  Suckers  which  properly,  according  to 
Downing,  are  "shoots  sent  up  from  the  root  or  from  parts  of  the 
stem  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,"  should  be  removed  whenever  dis- 
covered. In  common  California  parlance  the  term  "sucker"  is  used 
as  a  synonym  for  "water-sprout"  and  signifies  undesirable  shooting 
from  any  part  of  the  tree  or  vine.  Early  in  the  growth  of  these 
ghoots,  they  can  be  pulled  from  the  bark,  leaving  only  a  clean, 
round  hole.  Later  they  must  be  cut,  for  removal  by  pulling  will  tear 
the  bark  to  which  they  are  attached. 

CUTTING  TO  A  BUD 

Whatever  may  be  used  to  make  the  cut,  it  is  important  to  sever 
the  twig  or  skoot  at  that  distance  from  a  wood  bud  which  gives  that 
bud  the  best  chance  to  grow  well,  and  at  the  same  time  facilitates 
the  healing  and  complete  obliteration  of  the  scar.  Cutting  too  far 
from  the  bud  leaves  a  stub  which  dies  back,  and  is  likely  to  carry 
decay  into  the  pith  and  thence  down  into  the  limb.  Cutting  too  close 
to  the  bud  or  carrying  the  slope  down  too  far  behind  it,  does  not 
give  it  enough  live  wood  to  carry  it,  and  it  makes  a  weak  growth. 
In  cutting  to  a  bud  it  is  desirable  to  hold  the  shears  so  that  the  cut 
shall  be  from  the  sides  of  the  shoot  over  the  bud. 

Cutting  to  inside  buds  with  trees  of  spreading  habit,  and  to  out- 
side buds  with  upright  growers,  or  to  a  side  bud  when  lateral  exten- 
sion is  desired,  should  always  be  remembered  as  a  means  of  throw- 
ing new  growth  in  the  direction  demanded  by  symmetry  and  equal 
occupation  of  the  space  allotted  to  the  tree.  This  is  one  respect  in 
which  study  of  the  habit  of  the  tree  suggests  proper  practice. 

COVERING  WOUNDS 

Whenever  wood  is  cut  with  so  great  diameter  that  it  will  not 
grow  over  in  one  season,  the  wound  should  be  coated  with  some- 


j2?  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

thing  to  keep  the  wood  from  checking  and  decaying.  It  has  been 
amply  demonstrated  by  California  experience  that  smooth-paring  of 
the  cut  made  by  shears  or  saw  is  a  waste  of  time.  Large  wounds 
should,  however,  be  covered  to  prevent  checking  of  the  wood  and 
drying  back  of  bark  edges.  For  this  covering  lead  and  oil  paint 
may  be  used— a  little  thicker  than  for  ordinary  use,  and  applied 
sparingly,  so  that  it  will  not  run  down  the  bark.  Asphaltum, 
"Grade  D,"  applied  warm,  is  now  widely  approved.  It  can  be  very 
satisfactorily  applied  with  a  brush  made  by  cutting  up  baling  rope 
into  14-inch  lengths,  bundling  them  to  the  thickness  of  one  and  a 
half  inches,  and  winding  with  string  tightly  at  intervals  of  one  inch 
from  top  to  bottom,  only  one  end  being  frayed  out  to  form  a  brush. 
As  fast  as  this  end  wears  off,  one  of  the  strings  can  be  cut  to  give 
renewed  length  to  the  frayed  end. 

GATHERING  UP   PRUNINGS 

Gathering  up  prunings  for  burning  is  tedious  and  expensive,  and 
several  efforts  have  been  made  to  substitute  machinery  for  hand 
labor.  Anderson's  Brush  Rake,  invented  by  W.  C.  Anderson,  of  San 
Jose,  has  been  used  to  some  extent.  It  readily  gathers  all  kinds  of 
tree  and  vine  brush,  compresses  it  considerably  and  is  easily  dis- 
charged of  its  load  by  a  slight  lift  while  still  going  forward.  It  is 
said  to  save  about  one-half  the  cost  of  hand  raking.  Brush  is  often 
gathered  into  windrows  by  the  use  of  horse  rakes  borrowed  from 
the  hay  field. 

Baling  Prunings. — There  is  a  fuel  value  in  prunings  which  has 
become  more  clear  since  pumping  for  irrigation  is  so  widely  prac- 
ticed, but  loose  prunings  are  too  expensive  in  handling.  T.  G. 
Rogers,  of  Winters,  has  contrived  a  "brush  baler."  It  is  a  large 
strong  saw-horse  inverted,  to  which  is  bolted  a  long,  heavy  lever. 
Attached  to  a  cross  piece  on  the  lever  are  four  heavy  tines  bent  in  a 
semi-circle.  The  saw-horse  is  filled  with  brush,  the  lever  is  then 
pulled  down  and  fastened  by  a  ratchet  brake,  the  brush  is  forced 
into  a  small,  compact  bundle,  and  when  bound  with  wire  makes  a 
bundle  easily  handled  by  the  fireman. 

Prunings  for  Fertilizing. — Although  many  propositions  for  re- 
turning prunings  to  the  soil  and  several  machines  for  cutting  have 
been  used,  such  practice  has  never  widely  prevailed  because  of  cost 
of  labor  involved.  Several  growers  have,  however,  used  a  heavy 
feed  cutter,  run  by  a  gasoline  engine,  and  both  mounted  on  a 
wagon-bed,  and  run  through  the  orchard  after  pruning.  Two  men 
pick  up  prunings  and  feed  them  into  the  cutter  as  the  wagon  slowly 
proceeds.  This  waste  from  an  evergreen  tree  seems  to  decay  very 
readily  in  the  soil  as  it  is  covered  in  by  cultivation. 

PRUNING  TOOLS 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  comparative  value 
of  the  pruning  knife  and  the  pruning  shears.  The  knife,  if  sharp,  and 
well  used,  makes  a  smooth  cut,  with  no  bruising  of  the  bark,  and 


HOW   TO    RENEW   OLD   TREES  }23 

such  a  wound  heals  over  perfectly.  The  shears,  if  of  good  pattern 
and  sharp,  also  make  a  very  good  cut,  but  there  is  always  some  little 
injury  to  the  bark  on  the  side  opposite  the  entry  of  the  blade.  On 
small  cuts,  say  three-quarters  of  an  inch  or  less,  if  the  blade  is  kept 
very  sharp,  the  resistance  does  not  make  sufficient  injury  to  the  bark 
to  seriously  consider,  and  the  speed  with  which  the  shears  can  be 
used  renders  them  the  main  reliance  for  all  the  smaller  pruning. 
Nearly  all  styles  of  hand  shears  are  used  in  this  State. 

There  are,  also,  two-hand  shears,  which  are  very  powerful,  and 
enable  one  to  work  very  quickly.  When  kept  well  sharpened  they 
are  very  effective  tools.  There  are  a  number  of  styles  in  use,  both 
home-made  and  imported. 

Still  another  arrangement  of  shears  is  mounted  on  a  pole,  the 
cutting  blade  being  operated  by  a  cord,  and  having  a  spring  to  throw 
the  blade  back.  The  pole  is  jointed,  so  that  one  or  more  lengths  can 
be  used.  With  this  device  one  can  stand  on  the  ground  and  shorten 
in  the  top  shoots  of  a  tree  very  handily. 

For  larger  cuts  than  can  be  made  with  the  pruning  knife  or  with 
hand  shears,  there  are  pruning  saws  of  different  styles,  of  which  two 
styles  are  chiefly  used.  One  has  a  frame  made  of  the  best  spring 
steel,  constructed  somewhat  on  the  plan  of  a  butcher's  saw,  except 
that  the  saw  blade  is  much  narrower ;  and  instead  of  being  station- 
ary, it  revolves  so  that  the  pruner  is  enabled  to  adjust  the  blade  to 
cut  at  any  angle,  as  is  often  necessary  to  do  when  cutting  where 
limbs  grow  close  together,  and  where  it  would  be  impossible  to  use 
an  ordinary  saw  of  a  wider  blade.  The  blade  is  only  one-fourth  to 
one-half  inch  wide,  and  therefore  not  liable  to  get  pinched  in  the  cut. 
Strength  is  imparted  by  a  tension  screw  under  the  handle,  which 
tightens  the  blade.  The  blade  is  easily  detached  by  slackening  the 
tension  screw,  and  lifting  the  blade  out  of  the  slot  in  the  clutches 
at  each  end.  The  blade  can  be  thus  reversed  and  made  to  cut  with 
a  push  or  a  pull,  as  may  be  desired. 

Another  popular  saw  is  the  curved  pruning  saw,  with  twelve  and 
fourteen-inch  blades,  which  cuts  with  a  pull. 

During  recent  years  it  has  been  possible  to  find  quite  full  assort- 
ments of  pruning  tools  at  the  hardware  and  general  merchandise 
stores  in  all  our  fruit  districts  where  these  devices  can  be  compared 
and  selection  made  according  to  individual  preference,  for  there  can 
be  no  best  tools  for  all  men  and  all  uses. 

RENEWING  OLD  TREES 

Improving  and  renewing  trees  by  cutting  back  and  grafting  has 
already  been  considered  under  the  head  of  propagation.  It  is  often 
desirable  to  renew  trees  of  a  satisfactory  variety,  and  this  is  done 
simply  by  cutting  back  when  the  tree  is  dormant.  Cutting  back  was 
formerly  done  early  in  the  winter,  before  the  rise  of  the  sap  begins, 
but  more  recently  it  has  been  seen  that  the  exposure  of  large  cut 
surfaces  for  weeks  or  months  before  growth  begins,  results  in  drying 
and  shrinkage  of  the  bark  and  checking  of  the  wood,  both  of  which 
are  avoided  by  amputation  later  in  the  dormant  period  or  during  the 


1?.  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

early  part  of  the  growing  season.  In  cutting  back,  of  course,  those 
stumps  should  be  left  to  support  new  branches  which  will  secure  the 
best  balance  and  symmetry  in  the  new  head.  When  the  new  growth 
starts  there  generally  appear  many  more  shoots  than  are  desirable, 
and  selection  of  the  best-placed  and  most  vigorous  should  be  made, 
the  others  either  being  rubbed  off  in  the  bud  or  pinched  back  when 
a  few  leaves  are  put  out.  In  cutting  back  trees,  the  exposed  trunk 
and  branch  stumps  should  be  wrapped  in  old  sacking,  or  carefully 
whitewashed  as  protection  from  sunburn. 

In  removing  large  limbs  it  is  desirable  that  the  cut  should  be 
made  in  the  right  place  so  as  to  secure  quick  covering  of  the  scar 
with  new  growth.  Cutting  so  as  to  leave  a  long  stub  results  in  an 
unsightly  piece  of  dead  wood  on  the  tree,  and  this,  in  decaying, 
carries  the  decay  deep  into  the  center  of  the  trunk  or  branch.  Cut- 
ting too  close  prevents  covering  with  the  new  bark,  and  also  results 
in  a  hole  in  the  trunk  or  branch.  Cutting  just  to  the  right  mark, 
which  is  the  outer  edge  of  the  little  collar  or  swelling  which  will  be 
found  at  the  base  of  all  branches,  enables  the  wound  to  grow  over 
quickly,  and  if  the  wound  is  properly  treated  when  cut,  there  will 
be  no  decay,  and  the  wound  will  soon  be  obliterated.  Old  cavities 
in  trunks  or  large  branches  should  be  excavated  of  all  decaying 
material  down  to  sound  wood  and  filled  with  Portland  cement,  if 
small,  and  with  concrete  made  of  one  part  of  cement  to  three  parts 
of  sharp  sand,  if  the  cavity  is  of  considerable  size.  The  filling  should 
be  firmly  tamped  into  place  and  when  it  has  hardened  should  be 
covered  with  hot  asphaltum. 

Renewal  of  an  old  tree  must  be  undertaken  with  a  careful  study 
of  its  present  form  and  character,  and  it  should  be  done  by  an  ex- 
perienced pruner  who  has  a  good  idea  of  what  good  form  and  thrift 
are  and  will  work  over  each  tree  to  meet  its  individual  needs  and 
possibilities.  Generally  speaking,  the  main  efforts  in  such  pruning 
are  four — (1)  to  saw  off  cleanly  all  stubs  from  broken  branches ;  (2) 
to  remove  branches  which  are  weak  or  dead  or  are  running  across 
others  which  are  better  to  keep  or  which  are  making  the  tree  too 
dense  and  brushy;  (3)  to  shorten  to  well  placed  laterals,  branches 
which  are  growing  downward  or  sidewise  so  as  to  interfere  with 
light  and  space  belong  to  other  branches  or  interfere  with  cultivation 
or  other  orchard  operations;  (4)  to  remove,  if  otherwise  possible, 
branches  which  are  throwing  the  tree  out  of  shape  and  likely  to 
induce  breakage  or  blowing  over. 

In  amputating  large  branches,  an  undercut  with  the  saw  should 
be  made  first  so  that  the  bark  shall  not  be  torn  as  the  branch  falls. 
Another  good  way  is  to  saw  off  first  at  a  distance  from  the  final  cut, 
and  then  saw  off  smoothly  at  the  right  place  when  the  weight  is 
removed. 

Trees  sometimes  become  "hide-bound,"  as  it  is  called.  The  bark 
gets  dry  and  tough,  and  apparently  cannot  expand  as  the  growth 
of  the  tree  demands.  Slitting  such  trees  here  and  there  up  and 
down  the  trunk  and  main  limbs  with  a  sharp  knife  seems  to  have 
good  effect,  for  often  in  three  months  the  cut  opens  half  an  inch, 
and  a  fine,  clear  bark,  with  an  increase  of  growth,  results.  Bark- 


WHY  FRUIT  MUST   BE  THINNED  125 

slitting,  however,  as  a  cure-all  for  tree  troubles  is  irrational  and 
probably  an  aggravation  of  ill-condition.  On  old  trees,  too,  there 
is  often  a  growth  of  moss  and  lichens  which  should  be  removed. 
This  can  be  done  by  scraping  off  the  rough,  loose  bark  and  spraying 
with  an  alkaline  wash,  composed  of  one  pound  of  caustic  soda  or 
potash  to  six  gallons  of  water.  If  scale  insects  are  present,  the  lime, 
salt,  and  sulphur  spray  should  be  used,  as  will  be  described  in  the 
chapter  on  injurious  insects.  This  will  remove  the  parasites,  give 
the  trees  a  clean,  bright  bark  and  contribute  to  their  vigor. 

But  the  renovation  of  neglected  fruit  trees  is  not  usually  a  mat- 
ter of  pruning  and  spraying  alone.  Generally,  also,  success  depends 
upon  good  cultivation  and  wise  use  of  fertilizers;  also  sometimes 
of  irrigation,  and  sometimes  of  drainage. 


SUPPORTS  FOR  BEARING  BRANCHES 

Props  of  1x3  lumber  or  of  light  poles  are  commonly  used.  A 
great  amount  of  ingenuity  has  been  displayed  by  growers  in  the 
use  of  galvanized  wire ;  wiring  from  opposite  branches  to  each 
other  through  the  tree ;  carrying  wires  from  all  branches  to  a  ring 
in  the  center  of  the  tree ;  carrying  a  wire  around  the  tree  and 
stapling  each  branch  to  it,  etc.  No  clear  preference  can  be  declared 
in  method  of  wiring,  for  each  grower  prefers  his  own  method  and 
condemns  all  others.  On  the  whole  but  little  wiring  is  done. 

Repairing  broken  trees  where  one  or  more  main  branches  has  split 
out  from  the  trunk  is  feasible  if  one  is  a  good  mechanic  and  has 
proper  outfit.  A  single  limb  can  be  drawn  back  to  place  with  a 
block  and  tackle  attached  to  remaining  limbs  and  bolted  to  the 
trunk.  Even  when  all  branches  have  split  down  a  pole  equipped 
with  block  and  tackle  is  set  beside  the  trees  so  the  limbs  may  be 
raised  all  at  once  to  their  former  positions.  Two  to  four  bolts  will 
tighten  all  together ;  and  the  limbs  additionally  supported  by  wires 
to  staples  in  limbs  on  opposite  sides.  The  cracks  should  be  painted, 
and  will  heal  over.  The  largest  washers  that  fit  should  be  used, 
and  washers,  bolts  and  staples  will  disappear  as  the  tree  grows  over 
them.  Trees  thus  repaired  are  still  serviceable  in  different  parts  of 
the  State  twenty  or  thirty  years  after  the  operation. 

Trees  which  blow  over  in  the  dormant  season  can  also  be  drawn 
back  to  place  with  team  or  tractor  with  block  and  tackle  from  proper 
anchorage  and  propped  in  place  with  scantlings,  etc.  Such  trees 
have  re-established  themselves  strongly. 


THINNING  FRUIT 

Intimately  connected  with  the  pruning  of  bearing  trees,  is  the 
thinning  of  the  fruit  or  proper  spacing  of  the  individual  fruits  so 
that  each  shall  have  space  and  sap  to  allow  its  attainment  of  satis- 
factory marketable  size.  It  has  been  fully  demonstrated  that  no 
demand  is  profitable  which  will  be  content  with  the  undersized  fruit 
from  an  overladen  tree.  The  superior  price  for  good-sized  fruit  for 


126 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


all  uses,  not  excluding  drying,  is  unquestionable ;  the  total  weight 
secured  may  be  variable  as  between  thinned  and  unthinned  trees, 
but  it  can  be  accepted  as  an  indisputable  fact  that  any  increase  of 
weight  there  may  be  upon  an  unthinned  tree  will  not  be  nearly  an 
equivalent  for  the  loss  in  value.  It  is  the  conclusion  of  our  largest 
and  most  successful  growers  that  large  as  is  the  expenditure  re- 
quired for  careful  and  systematic  thinning  of  fruit,  it  is  the  most 
directly  profitable  outlay  which  they  have  to  make  for  orchard 
maintenance. 

Objects  in  View  in  Fruit  Thinning. — But  thinning  fruit  has 
objects  beyond  the  value  of  the  visible  crop  which  it  makes  profit- 
able. No  overburdened  tree  can  discharge  the  two-fold  summer 
duty  of  every  cultivated  fruit-bearing  tree,  which  is  to  perfect  this 
season's  fruit  and  lay  a  good  strong  foundation  for  next  year's 
bearing.  If  the  tree,  after  fruit  gathering,  has  not  the  strong,  vig- 
orous foliage  to  complete  the  formation  of  fruit  buds  for  the  fol- 
lowing year,  there  will  either  be  a  lack  of  bloom  or  a  show  of  bloom 
unfit  to  set,  and  the  tree  will  work  for  itself  next  year,  and  not  for 
you,  because  this  year  you  would  not  work  for  it. 

When  to  Thin  Fruit. — Thinning  of  fruit  should  begin  with  the 
winter  pruning  of  bearing  trees,  as  has  been  already  urged  in  con- 
nection with  regulating  the  amount  of  bearing  wood  allotted  to  each 
tree.  After  this  is  carefully  done,  there  is  the  thinning  of  bloom, 
which  is  urged  on  the  ground  of  least  possible  loss  of  energy  by  the 
tree  in  the  partial  development  of  fruit  to  be  subsequently  removed. 
Hand-thinning  of  individual  blooms  is  impracticable  on  a  commer- 
cial scale,  but  the  removal  of  spurs  or  twigs,  or  shortening  of  them 
with  shears,  is  feasible  enough.  The  objection  must  lie  in  the 'fact 
that  profusion  of  bloom  does  not  necessarily  indicate  an  excessive 
set  of  fruit,  and  any  severe  reduction  of  bloom  is,  therefore,  ven- 
turesome unless  one  is  fully  assured  by  local  experience  of  the  habit 
of  the  variety  under  treatment.  Reduction  of  the  amount  of  fruit 
itself  is,  therefore,  the  only  safe  proceeding,  and  this  should  not,  as 
a  rule,  be  taken  until  the  first  drop,  though  lack  of  pollination,  has 
taken  place.  Even  at  greater  theoretical  loss  of  energy  to  the  tree, 
it  is  better  to  err  on  the  side  of  thinning  a  little  too  late  than  too 
early  in  order  to  secure  the  fullest  assurance  possible  of  the  perma- 
nent burden  which  the  tree  assumes.  Where  spring  frosts  are  likely 
to  occur  they  afford  additional  reason  for  delay.  If  surety  of  the 
local  conditions  comes  before  the  pits  harden  in  the  young  fruit  it 
is  fortunate  for  the  tree,  but  even  after  that  it  is  still  a  greater 
saving  to  the  tree  and  assurance  of  profit  to  the  grower  to  reduce 
the  fruit  to  a  proper  amount  than  to  permit  over-bearing. 

The  Practice  of  Thinning.— If  the  tree  has  not  been  sufficiently 
relieved  of  an  excess  of  bearing  wood  during  the  winter  pruning  and 
has  made  a  very  heavy  set  of  fruit,  thinning  with  the  shears  by  cut- 
ting out  whole  spurs  or  short  bearing  shoots,  or  even  shortening  in 
longer  limbs,  cutting  always  to  a  lateral  when  possible,  is  of  no 
appreciable  injury  to  the  tree.  After  all  the  shear-work  possible  is 


THE  PRACTICE  OF  THINNING   FRUIT  127 

done,  the  spacing  of  the  fruits  on  the  twigs  and  branches  must  be 
provided  for.  This  was  done  in  early  days  by  beating  the  tree  with 
a  pole,  and  some  still  maintain  that  they  can  use  the  pole  to  advan- 
tage. The  almost  universal  practice,  however,  is  to  use  the  hand  in 
plucking  or  pushing  off  the  small  fruit.  This  is  done  very  quickly 
by  experienced  workmen.  If  the  trees  are  low,  as  they  should  be, 
most  of  the  work  can  be  done  from  the  ground.  It  is  best  to  work 
in  vertical  spaces  and  take  all  that  can  be  reached  from  top  to 
bottom  without  changing  position ;  then  move  a  step  or  two  and 
take  another  vertical  strip,  and  so  on.  In  thinning  above  reach 
from  the  ground  ordinary  fruit-picking  ladders  are  used.  Some 
growers  mount  a  platform  above  a  wagon-bed,  working  around  the 
tree,  and  assurance  is  given  that  a  man  will  thin  off  as  much  fruit 
from  such  a  platform  as  two  can  from  ladders. 

The  distance  which  should  be  left  between  specimens  depends 
upon  conditions.  It  is  as  unsatisfactory  to  thin  by  rule  of  inches  as 
it  is  to  prune  by  such  a  rule.  The  space  to  each  fruit  depends  upon 
the  kind,  the  age,  vigor  and  strength  of  the  tree,  the  size  and  thrift 
of  the  lateral  or  spur,  which  carries  the  fruit,  the  moisture  supply, 
the  richness  of  the  soil,  etc.  It  also  depends  upon  what  use  is  to  be 
made  of  the  fruit,  because  it  is  possible  to  have  some  fruit  which  is 
too  large  for  certain  demands,  though  this  objection  does  not  often 
arise.  The  strength  of  the  shoot  is  perhaps  the  most  easily  appreci- 
able factor.  With  peaches,  for  instance,  a  shortened  lateral  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  should  only  carry  one  peach,  while  one 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter  might  mature  four  good  large 
fruits.  It  would  evidently  be  wrong  to  work  for  an  arbitrary  inch- 
distance  on  all  sorts  of  shoots,  and  it  will  be  seen  to  be  just  as 
irrational  if  it  be  applied  without  regard  to  the  other  conditions  of 
the  tree.  If,  however,  a  rule  must  be  had,  let  it  be  this,  that  the 
distance  between  the  fruit  shall  be  two  and  one-half  times  the 
diameter  desired  in  the  fruit.  This  would  fix  an  arbitrary  distance, 
then,  of  four  to  six  inches  for  apricots  and  six  to  eight  inches  for 
peaches — with  other  fruits  according  to  their  respective  sizes,  and 
the  late  varieties  with  greater  distance  than  early. 

Any  such  standard,  however,  considers  only  the  size  of  the  fruit, 
not  the  strength  of  the  tree,  and  therefore  stops  short  of  one  of  the 
important  ends  of  thinning — to  conserve  the  strength  of  the  tree  for 
next  season's  fruiting.  Fruits  might  be  thus  spaced  and  still  the 
tree  be  overladen,  because  it  may  be  carrying  too  many  bearing 
shoots.  Calculate  the  burden  of  the  tree  in  this  way,  for  instance 
Peaches  which  weigh  three  to  the  pound  are  of  fair  marketable  size 
sixty  such  peaches  will  fill  an  ordinary  peach  box  of  twenty  pounds 
ten  to  twelve  such  boxes  is  fruit  enough  for  a  good  bearing  tree  six 
to  ten  years  of  age.  Now  count  the  little  peaches  you  have  left  on 
one  main  branch  and  its  laterals,  which  ought  to  be  about  one-tenth 
of  the  tree,  and  thin  down  to  about  sixty.  By  doing  a  few  trees  in 
this  way  and  thinking  of  the  relation  of  the  bearing  wood  to  the 
fruit,  one  will  soon  get  a  conception  of  the  proper  degree  of  thinning, 
and  proceed  to  realize  it  as  rapidly  as  the  fingers  can  fly  along  the 
branch. 


J28  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

It  is  seldom  desirable  to  divide  doubles  in  peaches ;  pull  both  off 
or  leave  both  on,  as  they  may  be  needed  or  not  to  make  the  load  of 
the  tree.  Clusters  of  apples  or  pears  should  often  be  reduced  to 
singles,  except  where  size  is  apt  to  be  too  great. 

All  kinds  of  fruit  are  clearly  subject  to  increase  of  size  by  thin- 
ning, but  it  is  with  only  the  larger  fruits  that  the  practice  prevails  at 
present.  The  dividing  line  seems  to  lie  upon  the  prune.  With  this 
fruit  thinning  is  only  done  by  pruning  the  tree  for  the  reduction  of 
the  number  of  bearing  branches,  while  with  some  shipping  plums 
hand  thinning  is  practised.  Growers  are  still  striving  for  a  prune 
naturally  of  larger  size  rather  than  to  have  recourse  to  thinning. 

The  practice  of  thinning  partially  at  first,  trusting  to  further 
removal  of  fruit  later  if  too  much  of  it  survives  the  natural  drop  and 
various  accidents,  is  followed  by  some  growers,  but  the  rule  is  to 
finish  at  one  operation. 

The  size  of  oranges  on  over-burdened  trees  can  be  increased  by 
thinning,  just  as  other  fruits  are  enlarged,  but  it  is  not  systematically 
undertaken,  because  it  is  not  so  necessary  and  because  it  is  perhaps 
easier  to  get  oranges  too  large  and  to  be  discounted  for  over-large 
and  coarse  fruit.  Removing  part  of  the  fruit  from  young  trees  is 
often  done — for  the  good  of  the  tree,  not  for  the  good  of  the  fruit. 


sg^lp 

'~&3&g^&ii£% 


CHAPTER   XTII 

CULTIVATION 

It  was  demonstrated  very  early  in  California  experience  in  fruit 
growing,  that  "clean  culture"  is  generally  the  proper  treatment  for 
trees  and  vines  during  the  growing  season,  at  least.  Though  the 
frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  and  eradication  of  grass  and  weeds  have 
been  advocated  by  certain  horticulturists  for  generations  and  have 
recently  been  demonstrated  to  be  desirable  by  careful  comparative 
experiments  it  has  nowhere  secured  such  wide  adherence  as  in  Cali- 
fornia. It  may  even  be  held  to  be  an  essential  to  successful  growth 
of  tree  and  vine  in  most  soils  and  situations  of  California,  and  the 
several  advantages  of  clean  culture  are  intensified  under  our  con- 
ditions. 

Chief  of  these  advantages  is  the  maintenance  of  the  soil  in  a  con- 
dition favoring  root  growth,  and  the  main  feature  of  this  condition 
is  the  retention  of  the  moisture,  though  aeration  and  regulation  of 
summer  temperature  in  the  soil  are  also  involved.  Where  moisture- 
retention  is  not  the  chief  concern,  because  of  ample  irrigation  facili- 
ties, and  the  moderation  of  soil  temperature  of  greater  moment,  a 
summer-growing  cover  crop  may  be  of  benefit  to  the  trees.  In  irri- 
gated districts  of  excessive  heat  and  dry  air  this  policy  is  successful, 
but  it  may  always  be  only  the  exception  to  the  rule  of  clean  culture 
for  the  greater  part  of  our  fruit-growing  areas. 

Retaining  Moisture  by  Cultivation. — It  is  a  familiar  fact  that 
water  will  rise  in  a  tube  of  exceedingly  small  diameter  very  much 
higher  than  the  surface  of  the  body  of  water  in  which  the  tube  is 
held  upright.  The  water  rises  by  capillary  attraction.  A  compact 
soil  has  extending  through  it,  minute  spaces,  formed  by  the  partial 
contact  of  its  particles,  which  facilitates  the  rise  of  water  from  moist 
layers  below,  in  accordance  with  the  same  principle  which  causes  the 
water  to  rise  in  the  capillary  tube.  This  movement  is  constantly 
going  on  in  firm  soil,  and  as  fast  as  the  top  layer  is  robbed  of  its 
moisture  by  evaporation,  the  water  rises  from  below  and  it  too  is 
evaporated.  During  the  long,  dry  summer,  the  water  rises  and  is 
evaporated  from  a  depth  of  several  feet  in  some  soils,  and  the  earth, 
beneath  the  baking  sun  heat,  becomes  "dry  as  a  brick." 

When  a  soil  is  broken  up  by  cultivation,  capillarity  is  temporarily 
destroyed  through  the  disturbed  layer,  because  the  particles  are  so 
separated  that  the  mutual  connection  of  the  minute  inter-spaces  no 
longer  exists.  But  if  it  be  only  roughly  broken  up,  so  that  the  dis- 
turbed layer  takes  the  form  of  coarse  clods,  the  air  has  free  access 
to  the  upper  surface  of  the  firm  soil  beneath  them,  in  which  the 
capillary  condition  still  exists,  and  evaporation  proceeds  in  the  same 
way,  though  in  a  somewhat  less  degree,  as  if  there  had  been  no  culti- 
vation. It  becomes  evident,  then,  that  the  pulverization  of  the  dis- 
turbed layer  must  be  so  complete  that  the  particles  are  separated 


130 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 


and  capillarity  destroyed,  and,  further,  that  the  free  access  of  air  to 
the  lower  point,  where  capillarity  exists,  must  be  prevented.  This 
is  accomplished  by  the  fine  loose  earth  which  acts  as  a  mulch.  When 
this  is  attained,  only  that  moisture  in  the  upper  surface  which  comes 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  air  is  evaporated,  and  the  balance  is 
largely  retained  for  the  use  of  the  plant.  Plants  growing,  then,  in  a 
well-cultivated  soil,  have  the  water  in  the  lower  soil  held  for  their 
use,  and  their  supply  is  replaced  from  the  firm  soil  below,  which  re- 
mains moist  and  permeable  by  roots  which  extend  freely,  seeking  the 
nourishment  they  need. 

Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  theory  which  explains  the  results 
gained  by  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil,  so  far,  at  least,  as  reten- 
tion of  moisture  is  concerned.  The  practical  demonstration  is  easy. 
Go  into  a  well-cultivated  orchard  or  vineyard,  push  aside  the  soil 
with  the  foot,  and  moisture  will  be  found  two  or  three  inches  from 
the  surface,  or  even  less  in  some  soils,  while  on  uncultivated  land 
adjacent,  digging  to  the  depth  of  several  feet  will  show  nothing  but 
hard  earth,  baked  and  arid.  In  such  hard-baked  earth,  moreover, 
the  sun  heat  is  conveyed  or  conducted  downward  very  rapidly  during 
a  hot  day,  so  that  in  some  cases  the  roots  are  seriously  injured. 
When  the  surface  is  well  tilled,  it  will  act  like  a  blanket,  preventing 
a  too  rapid  conveyance  of  heat  downward,  and  thus  also  diminishing 
the  intensity  of  evaporation. 

Accurate  demonstration  of  these  facts  has  been  secured  as  the 
result  of  many  moisture  determinations  in  cultivated  and  unculti- 
vated soil  by  the  University  of  California  Agricultrual  Experiment 
Station.*  The  exact  determination  of  moisture  present  at  various 
depths  of  the  soil  beneath  these  contrasted  orchards  in  the  month  of 
July  is  as  follows : 


Depth  in  soil. 

First  foot  

Cultivated. 
Per  cent 

6.4 

Tons  per  acre. 

128 

Uncultivated. 
Per  cent         Tons  per  acre. 

43                   86 

Second  foot   .    .  . 

58 

116 

44                   88 

Third  foot    .  . 

64 

128 

39                   78 

Fourth  foot 

65 

130 

5  1                 102 

Fifth  foot 

67 

134 

34                   68 

Sixth  foot   . 

6.0 

120 

4.5                   QO 

Totals,  six  feet  ..       6.3  756  4.2  512 

This  shows  a  gain  of  nearly  fifty  per  cent  of  soil  moisture  by 
cultivation. 

Rise  of  Water  from  Greater  Depths.— The  foregoing  facts  apply 
to  the  movement  of  moisture  from  the  stratum  which  the  roots  of 
fruit  trees  chiefly  occupy— estimated  to  be  to  a  depth  of  about  four 
feet  from  the  surface  when  the  soil  is  hospitable  to  them  to  that 
depth.  Formerly  it  was  generally  argued  that  moisture  would  rise 
by  capillarity  from  moist  subsoils  below  that  depth  to  replace  the 
exhaustion  of  moisture  from  the  upper  layer  and  therefore  surface 
cultivation  would  render  all  the  lower  water  ultimately  available  for 

•Bulletin  121. 


WHY   TREES    NEED    CULTIVATION  13  \ 

the  use  of  the  tree.  It  has  recently  been  shown,  however,  that  the 
rise  of  moisture  from  a  deep  moist  layer  to  a  drier  layer  above  is 
slow  and  limited,  and  the  practical  lesson  is  that  even  with  a  deep 
soil  and  the  best  of  cultivation,  irrigation  if  often  desirable  for  trees 
which  for  any  reason  are  not  inclined  to  root  very  deeply  and  help 
themselves  to  deep-lying  moisture. 

Necessity  of  Adequate  Cultivation. — It  has  been  very  fully  dem- 
onstrated by  California  experience  that  adequate  depth  of  tilth  must 
be  attained.  The  depth  of  cultivation,  or  the  thickness  of  the  dust- 
mulch,  as  some  like  to  call  it,  must  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  access 
of  the  dry  air  to  the  firm  soil  below.  At  the  East,  where  they  have  a 
moister  air,  a  thin  mulch  may  answer,  but  in  California,  with  a 
thirsty  air  for  such  a  protracted  period,  there  must  be  deeper  tilth. 
Two  or  three  inches  of  dust  spread  over  a  hardpan  layer  formed  in 
some  soils  by  cultivation,  will  not  retain  moisture  well  in  California. 
The  cultivator  should  go  twice  that  depth,  ordinarily,  and  then  the 
result  will  be  accomplished  if  it  is  done  frequently  enough  to  prevent 
the  re-firming  of  the  surface  by  atmospheric  moisture  or  by  the  rise 
of  moisture  from  below. 

Loss  of  Moisture  by  Weed  Growth. — One  of  the  most  active 
agencies  for  the  exhaustion  of  moisture  from  the  subsoil  is  the 
growth  of  weeds.  To  cultivate  the  soil  in  winter  and  spring,  and 
then  to  allow  a  summer  growth  of  weeds  to  "shade  the  soil"  is  a 
great  error.  Although  under  cover  of  rank  weeds  moisture  may 
appear  even  at  the  surface  and  convey  the  impression  of  moisture- 
saving,  the  fact  is,  as  fully  demonstrated  by  experience  and  actual 
experiment,  the  moisture  in  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil  is  reduced 
and  trees  are  thus  robbed  of  their  supply.  Weed  growth  must  be 
resolutely  suppressed  during  the  dry  season,  if  one  has  to  operate 
by  rainfall  or  desires  to  make  best  use  of  irrigation  water. 

Moisture  Storage  in  the  Soil. — Conservation  of  moisture  in  the 
soil  is  not  only  the  surety  of  the  current  season's  growth  and  fruit- 
fulness,  but  is  the  safeguard  against  injury  from  the  years  of  de- 
ficient rainfall  which  occur  now  and  then  in  California.  The  mois- 
ture supply  is  equalized  by  this  storage  of  the  soil,  and  a  surplus 
from  the  liberal  rainfall  of  one  year  is  held  over  to  supply  the  lack 
of  the  next.  Of  course,  the  well-cultivated  surface  is  also  well  calcu- 
lated to  catch  water.  While  from  a  hard  surface  much  of  a  heavy 
rainfall  flows  off  quickly  to  a  lower  level  before  it  can  penetrate,  a 
loose  soil,  if  sufficiently  deep,  retains  all  that  falls  upon  it,  except 
the  excess,  which  disappears  by  drainage. 

It  has  sometimes  been  held  by  California  orchardists  that  plant- 
ing some  tall-growing  crop,  like  corn,  so  as  to  shade  the  young  tree 
and  the  ground  around  it,  is  an  advantage.  This  is  a  great  mistake. 
Though  some  rich,  moist  soils  may  afford  moisture  enough  to  grow 
both  the  tree  and  the  corn,  it  is  a  fact  that  in  most  cases  the  growth 
of  the  corn  is  made  at  the  expense  of  the  tree,  and  sometimes  almost 
costs  its  life  and  thrift.  It  has  been  amply  shown  by  investigation 
that  though  shading  ground  by  a  leafy  growth  may  make  the  sur- 


132 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


face  layer  of  the  soil  moister,  the  lower  layers  are  invariably  made 
drier,  and  it  is  in  these  lower  layers,  to  a  depth  of  several  feet,  that 
the  tree  seeks  its  sustenance.  The  young  tree  should  be  shaded  by 
its  own  foliage  and  protected  from  sunburn  to  the  bark  by  white- 
washing, as  has  been  described  in  the  chapters  on  planting  and  prun- 
ing, and  not  by  a  growing  plant.  ^ 

GROWING  CROPS  BETWEEN  TREES  AND  VINES 

The  possible  advantage  of  a  cover  growth  of  clover  in  regions  of 
high  heat  and  ample  moisture  has  been  noted  at  the  opening  of  this 
chapter.  The  rule,  however,  must  be  to  grow  nothing  whatever  be- 
tween the  trees  if  you  desire  the  full  success  of  the  latter.  As  with 
all  rules,  this  one  may  admit  of  exceptions. 

Inter-cultures  in  orchard  or  vineyard  may  be  allowed  under 
certain  conditions  of  the  soil  and  the  purse  of  the  grower.  If  the 
soil  is  deep  and  moist  and  rich,  the  cost  of  planting  and  cultivation, 
and  sometimes  more,  may  be  made  by  growing  a  crop  among  your 
trees.  Of  course,  if  irrigation  is  available,  much  more  can  be  done 
in  this  direction  than  if  dependent  upon  natural  supplies  of  water. 

There  is  much  difference  as  to  crops  in  amount  of  injury  they  may 
do  to  the  trees.  Growing  alfalfa,  without  irrigation,  has  been  known 
to  kill  out  an  orchard,  and  yet  alfalfa  growing  in  an  orchard  under 
certain  conditions  may  be  a  great  advantage  in  some  ways,  as  de- 
scribed in  the  next  chapter.  Grain  is  less  dangerous,  but  still  is 
objectionable,  both  because  of  exhaustion  of  soil  and  moisture,  and 
because  of  danger  to  trees  from  heat  deflected  from  straw  and 
stubble.  The  crops  least  injurious,  because  of  their  requirements, 
and  because  the  constant  cultivation  of  them  checks  the  loss  of  mois- 
ture by  evaporation,  are  corn,  beans,  potatoes,  beets,  carrots,  etc., 
squashes,  and  other  members  of  the  melon  family,  onions,  and  other 
shallow-rooting  vegetables.  In  the  growth  of  these,  however,  there 
should  be  a  width  of  several  feet  of  well-cultivated  soil  on  all  sides 
of  the  tree,  unoccupied. 

In  soils  exceptionally  rich  and  deep,  and  where  rainfall  is  abun- 
dant, inter-cultures  of  small  fruits  or  vegetables  may  be  carried  on 
for  a  long  series  of  years  with  profit  both  from  the  trees  and  the 
inter-culture.  In  similar  deep,  rich  soils,  with  irrigation,  immense 
crops  of  small  fruits  and  vegetables,  even  as  high  as  twelve  to 
twenty-four  tons  of  tomatoes  per  acre,  have  been  taken  from  between 
orchard  rows,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  sacks  of  onions  per  acre 
from  between  the  rows  of  a  strawberry  plantation.  In  Ventura 
county  some  fields  of  lima  beans,  in  favorable  years,  have  paid  over 
$70  per  acre — grown  between  young  trees.  In  other  parts  of  the 
State  considerable  amounts  of  peas  for  sale  to  canners  ale  grown 
between  the  rows  in  young  orchards.  This  crop  is  especially  desir- 
able when  good  sale  is  assured,  because  the  plant  is  hardy  and  can 
make  a  good  part  of  its  growth  during  the  rainy  season  and  the 
ground  be  cleaned  up  and  well  cultivated  early  in  the  summer.  As 
beans  and  peas  are  legumes,  their  roots  enrich  the  soil,  as  will  be 
noted  in  the  chapter  on  fertilization. 


INTER-CROPPING  WITH   FRUITS  ^33 

How  Exhaustion  by  Ilnter-Culture  May  Be  Avoided. — But  all 

inter-cultures  are  a  loan  made  by  the  trees  to  the  orchardist.  The 
term  may  be  very  long  and  the  rate  of  interest  very  small  in  some 
cases,  but  sooner  or  later  the  trees  will  need  restitution  to  the  soil 
of  the  plant  food  removed  by  inter-cropping.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  fertilizers.  Still  the  rule  that  the  trees  or  vines 
should  have  all  the  ground  is  generally  true.  It  is  also  true  that  on 
merely  ordinary  soils,  trusting  to  rainfall,  or  on  shallow  soils,  trust- 
ing in  part  to  irrigation,  the  trees  or  vines  should  have  the  full 
strength  of  the  land  and  all  the  help  which  can  be  given  them  in  the 
shape  of  thorough  cultivation  and  intelligent  cover-cropping. 

METHODS  OF  TILLAGE 

In  general  terms  the  main  objects  of  tillage  of  orchard  and  vine- 
yard are  two :  Winter  cultivation  for  moisture  reception,  and  sum- 
mer cultivation  for  moisture  retention. 

Wherever  early  winter  plowing  can  be  done  without  too  great 
danger  of  soil  washing,  it  affords  the  best  available  means  of  admit- 
ting water  to  the  great  reservoir  in  the  lower  levels  of  a  deep  soil. 
Too  frequently  large  volumes  of  rain  water,  enriched  by  air-washing 
as  it  falls  and  by  fine  soil-particles  as  it  flows,  are  allowed  to  run  off 
into  the  country  drainage,  with  the  double  loss  of  fertility  and  mois- 
ture to  the  fruit  grower.  Deep  penetration  of  winter  rains  should 
be,  in  all  safe  ways,  promoted.  Cultivation  for  retention  has  already 
been  strongly  urged  and  is  quite  generally  recognized. 

To  serve  these  chief  purposes  there  are  two  main  divisions  of 
practice  in  this  State,  each  of  which  has  variations  of  greater  or  less 
importance. 

First :  Winter  plowing  followed  by  frequent  use  of  cultivator  and 
pulverizer  in  summer.  , 

Second :  Use  of  disk  or  other  cultivators  at  intervals  both  winter 
and  summer,  following,  if  needed,  with  pulverizer  in  the  summer. 

The  main  features  of  each  division  of  practice,  and  some  of  the 
claims  by  which  each  method  is  supported  by  its  advocates,  will  be 
noted. 

Plowing  Orchard  and  Vineyard. — There  is  considerable  variation 
in  the  practice  of  plowing  orchard  and  vineyard,  in  the  kinds  of 
plows  employed,  and  the  times  chosen  for  the  work.  Some  plow  but 
once,  toward  spring,  whenever  the  ground  is  in  suitable  condition ; 
and,  if  there  is  much  growth  of  weeds  and  clovers,  a  looped  chain  is 
run  from  the  plow  to  the  end  of  the  evener  to  aid  in  drawing  under 
the  tall  growth.  Sometimes,  however,  the  growth  gets  so  rank  be- 
fore the  soil  is  in  condition  to  plow  that  the  weeds  must  be  mown  be- 
fore plowing.  Where  but  one  plowing  is  done,  the  soil  is  usually 
thrown  away  from  the  trees  and  afterwards  is  leveled  back  by  har- 
rowing or  cultivating.  If  this  practice  is  adopted,  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  soil  is  properly  returned  about  the  tree  roots,  for 
injury  is  sometimes  done  by  bringing  the  roots  too  near  the  surface, 
which  is  soon  afterwards  intensely  heated  by  the  sunshine. 


|34  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

The  use  of  tractors,  which  has  recently  become  very  common,  has 
greatly  facilitated  orchard  and  vineyard  plowing  and  these  motors 
are  of  incalculable  advantage  in  promoting  thorough  tillage  of  fruit 
lands. 

It  is  undoubtedly  better  practice  to  plow  earlier,  when  the  green 
stuff  gets  a  good  start,  but  is  still  not  too  high  to  turn  under  handily. 
In  this  practice  the  weed  stems  are  less  woody,  and  they  easily  decay 
and  act  as  a  fertilizer.  Where  early  plowing  is  practised,  it  is  usual 
to  plow  again  when  the  second  growth  of  weeds  reaches  the  proper 
state  in  the  spring.  When  two  plowings  are  given,  the  earth  is 
usually  thrown  away  from  the  trees  in  the  first  plowing,  and  re- 
turned toward  the  trees  in  the  second  plowing.  But  this  order  is 
sometimes  reversed  in  situations  where  rainfall  is  heavy  and  the  soil 
retentive,  so  that  the  dead  furrow  between  the  rows  may  act  as  a 
surface  drain  to  carry  off  surplus  water,  which  is  thus  prevented 
from  standing  around  the  tree  roots.  Dead  furrows  and  hollow 
middles  may  be  avoided  by  plowing  around  a  row  until  within  two 
.  or  three  feet  of  the  next  row  on  each  side.  Then  plow  two  or  three 
furrows  around  those  rows  and  go  to  the  next  one  for  another  big 
land.  This  leaves  dead  furrows  close  to  alternate  rows.  Cross 
harrowing  levels  the  dirt  in  the  rows  by  dragging  it  into  the  dead 
furrows.  Next  year  these  rows  get  the  big  lands.  In  all  modes  of 
plowing  it  is  desirable  that  before  the  summer  heat  comes,  the  sur- 
face be  leveled  as  completely  as  possible. 

Too  much  stress  can  not  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  plowing 
when  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  and  not  otherwise.  To  disregard 
this  is  bad  enough  in  all  soils,  but  it  is  a  grevious  mistake  to  work 
any  of  the  clayey  soils  when  they  are  out  of  condition.  If  too  wet, 
they  are  puddled  by  the  plow  and  dry  down  in  hard  clods,  impene- 
trable by  air,  and  even  resist  water  itself  for  a  long  time.  When 
clods  are  thus  formed,  it  may  require  long  effort  to  bring  the  soil 
back  to  a  good  friable  condition.  The  cultivation  of  adobe  is  one  of 
the  problems  of  California  agriculture.  The  more  refractory  it  is, 
the  more  particular  care  is  needed  to  take  it  when  it  is  in  proper 
condition  to  work.  To  work  it  when  perfectly  dry  is  simply  im- 
possible, and  if  it  is  plowed  when  too  wet  and  sticky,  it  becomes 
hard,  lumpy,  and  altogether  unmanageable.  The  condition  which 
favors  best  results  by  tillage  must  be  learned  by  experience. 

Another  mistake  apt  to  be  made  when  the  orchard  or  vineyard 
is  but  one  of  the  branches  of  a  mixed  farm,  is  to  put  aside  the  plow- 
ing until  all  the  field  work  is  done,  and  in  some  seasons  the  soil  in 
the  orchard  has  become  so  dry  that  it  turns  up  in  large  clods  which 
are  afterwards  partially  reduced  by  the  harrow,  but  never  put  in 
the  fine  tilth  which  should  be  secured  for  the  retention  of  moisture 
and  otherwise  to  encourage  the  growth  and  productiveness  of  the 
tree. 

Breaking  up  Hardpan.—Those  who  advocate  the  use  of  the  plow, 

claim  several  advantages  for  it.    The  chief  is  that  more  thorough 

Ith  can  be  secured.    In  most,  but  not  all  soils,  there  is  formed  by 

cultivation  an  artificial  hardpan  at  whatever  depth  the  implement 


PLOWING  ORCHARD  AND  VINEYARD  135 

attains,  if  this  depth  can  be  kept  the  same  for  many  successive  culti- 
vations. This  hardpan,  in  some  soils  at  least,  becomes  impervious 
to  water  and  is  otherwise  an  injury  to  the  growth  of  the  trees.  It 
occurs  in  irrigated  and  unirrigated  land  alike,  but  is  more  quickly 
formed  by  irrigation.  When  continuous  summer  cultivation  is  prac- 
tised, the  hardpan  will  be  found  at  whatever  depth  the  teeth  uni- 
formly reach.  The  remedy  is  to  plow  in  winter  just  below  this  hard- 
pan  layer  and  thus  break  it  up,  and  then  by  the  action  of  the  air  and 
rains  it  is  reduced,  and  cultivation  may  proceed  as  before.  Where 
the  hardpan  is  formed  by  the  plow,  the  ground  should  be  plowed 
shallow  one  year  and  deeply  the  next,  thus  alternating  from  year  to 
year. 

Where  compact  layers  are  found  below  the  reach  of  ordinary 
plows  a  subsoil  plow  is  used,  and  in  some  cases  excellent  results  have 
followed  the  use  of  powder — with  the  charge  fitted  to  shatter  the 
soil  without  disturbing  the  trees. 

Green  Manuring. — Another  advantage  in  the  use  of  the  plow  and 
the  disk  is,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  the  turning  under  of  the 
growth  of  weeds,  grass,  and  clover  as  a  green  manure.  In  recent 
years  growers  have  learned  the  great  importance  of  this,  and  those 
who  had  orchards  in  which  winter  growth  had  been  killed  out  by 
long  cultivation,  are  now  growing  a  quickly-growing  crop  which 
they  can  sow  with  the  first  rains  and  secure  enough  to  turn  under 
with  the  winter  plowing.  This  consideration  will  be  further  pre- 
sented in  the  chapter  on  fertilization. 

Plowing  Hillside  to  Prevent  Washing. — Where  the  slope  of  the 
land  is  sharp,  there  is  much  danger  from  washing  during  the  rainy 
season,  if  the  hillside  is  not  terraced  or  furnished  with  ditches  care- 
fully laid  out  on  contour  lines  to  carry  the  water  down  on  a  gentle 
grade.  The  old  plan  of  plowing  furrows  one  above  another  around 
the  hill  to  check  the  flow  and  let  the  water  down  easily,  is  often 
found  treacherous  unless  one  is  able  to  strike  good  grades,  because 
of  the  liability  to  collection  of  water  at  certain  points  and  the  subse- 
quent breaking  away  and  washing.  Recently  some  of  the  foothill 
growers  have  adopted  the  plan  of  plowing  furrows  seven  or  eight 
feet  apart  straight  down  the  hill  in  the  direction  of  its  steepest 
descent.  The  rainfall  is  thus  distributed  over  the  ground  so  that  not 
much  water  is  collected  at  any  one  place  and  the  harm  done  by  wash- 
ing will  not  amount  to  much.  Hillside  work  differs  according  to 
character  of  soil  and  of  local  rainfall  and  conference  with  experi- 
enced men  in  the  region  will  usually  afford  the  beginner  the  best 
suggestions  of  method.  In  some  localities,  the  plowing  of  a  few 
furrows  at  intervals  to  assist  in  penetration  and  the  growth  of  a 
cover  crop  during  the  winter  to  assist  in  binding  the  soil,  will  be 
found  better  than  any  attempt  at  the  early  plowing,  which  may  work 
admirably  on  level  lands. 

The  Best  Plow. — For  plowing  orchards  and  vineyards  many 
kinds  of  plows  are  used,  including  the  ordinary  one-  and  two-horse 
walking  plows,  single  and  double  sulky  or  riding  plows,  and  gang 
plows  of  different  kinds — largely  operated  by  special  forms  of 


136 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 


orchard  tractors.  Recently  disk  plows  and  harrows  have  become 
very  popular.  In  several  of  the  leading  fruit  districts  there  are 
plows  made  in  the  local  shops  which  are  patterned  to  meet  the  differ- 
ent soils  prevailing.  Which  is  the  best  plow  is  a  question  which  can 
not  be  answered ;  it  must  be  determined  by  local  conditions,  and  the 
best  way  to  get  information  is  to  consult  the  experienced  cultivators 
of  the  locality  and  to  watch  the  effects  of  one's  own  operations. 

Avoiding  Injury  to  Trees  and  Vines. — The  great  problem  is  to 
use  the  plow  so  as  not  to  injure  the  trees  and  vines.  Injury  to  the 
roots  is  one  ground  on  which  those  who  advocated  the  banishment 
of  the  plow  from  the  orchard  and  vineyard  based  their  opposition, 
as  will  appear  more  fully  presently.  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  run 
the  plow  shallower  when  approaching  the  stem  of  the  tree  or  vine, 
and  this  is  easily  done  when  using  a  riding  plow  or  a  two-horse  walk- 
ing plow  or  a  tractor  outfit  between  the  rows  and  finishing  up  near 
the  trees  with  a  single-horse  walking  plow.  The  injury  to  the  bark 
of  the  tree  or  to  the  vine  stump  and  to  the  roots  is  thus  minimized. 

Makers  of  the  special  orchard  and  vineyard  plows  have  recently 
made  them  adjustable  so  that  the  plow  will  work  either  side  of  the 
central  line  of  draft,  and  these  improved  tools  have  rendered  obsolete 
the  early  contrivances  for  accomplishing  the  result  with  common 
field  plows. 

Extension  of  disks  and  of  spring-tooth  harrows  are  often  made 
by  attaching  the  parts  to  the  ends  of  a  central  piece  in  such  a  way 
that  the  horses  walk  in  the  centers  and  the  cultivators  work  under 
the  low  branches  and  very  near  to  the  stems  of  the  trees.  These  are 
chiefly  used  with  citrus  trees  whose  foliage  and  fruits  are  permitted 
to  grow  very  near  to  the  soil  surface. 

All  modern  implements  offered  for  work  in  the  orchard  or  vine- 
yard have  adjustments  to  enable  careful  cultivators  to  avoid  injuries 
to  the  bark  of  trees  or  vines,  and  home-made  devices  for  protection 
are  no  longer  required — still  intelligence  in  workmen  is  indispens- 
able. 

SUMMER  TREATMENT  OF  ORCHARD  AND 
VINEYARD 

Where  the  orchard  or  vineyard  is  plowed  twice  during  the  win- 
ter, the  land  should  remain  after  the  first  plowing  as  the  plow  leaves 
it.  The  moistening  and  aeration  during  the  winter  have  good  effect 
upon  the  soil  both  chemically  and  mechanically. 

If  but  one  plowing  is  done,  when  the  chief  rains  are  supposed  to 
be  over,  there  must  be  full  effort  put  forth  to  reduce  the  soil  to  good 
tilth  and  to  level  the  surface  as  much  as  possible.  This  is  done  by 
harrowing  with  one  of  the  several  improved  harrows  which  are  now 
generally  available  and  found  very  effective.  They  act  in  cultivat- 
ing, clod  crushing,  and  leveling,  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner.  They 
are  too  well  known  to  need  description.  Each  has  its  advocates  and 
its  adaptations  to  certain  soils.  As  with  plows,  so  with  harrows  and 
cultivators,  the  best  for  one  soil  may  not  be  the  best  for  another,  and 
local  inquiry  among  experienced  fruit  growers  will  be  the  best  guide 


CULTIVATORS  AS   SUBSTITUTE   FOR   PLOWS  137 

for  the  new-comer.  In  addition  to  the  excellent  implements  brought 
from  the  Eastern  States,  there  are  others  of  California  invention  and 
manufacture  which  have  very  marked  local  adaptations,  and  almost 
every  fruit  region  in  California  has  some  embodiment  of  local  in- 
ventive genius  in  the  form  of  implements  of  tillage. 

The  secret  of  success  in  handling  the  heavier  soils  in  spring  work- 
ing is  to  secure  as  perfect  surface  pulverization  as  possible  without 
compacting  the  soil.  Light  soils  need  a  certain  amount  of  firming 
after  plowing,  or  else  there  is  too  free  access  of  air  and  too  great 
drying  out.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  the  grower  has  to  study 
his  soil  and  learn  from  observation  the  methods  which  succeed  best 
with  it.  The  practice  which  gave  success  under  certain  conditions 
might  not  be  well  adapted  under  other  conditions.  The  use  of  the 
roller  is  a  striking  example  of  this  fact.  In  some  orchards  the  roller 
is  a  benefit,  in  others  a  decided  injury.  Its  chief  effect  is  compacting 
the  surface  layer,  which  is  only  desirable  on  very  coarse  open  soils. 
The  long-tooth  harrow  accomplishes  a  very  marked  compacting  of 
the  soil  to  the  depth  it  reaches,  and  often  settles  the  lower  layer  too 
closely  and  causes  it  to  run  together  too  solidly  if  rain  follows.  The 
modern  cultivators,  clod-crushers,  disk-harrows,  etc.,  are  superior  in 
effect,  each  in  the  soil  to  which  its  action  is  most  desirable. 

After  working  down  the  soil  after  plowing,  the  cultivator  is  relied 
upon  to  kill  the  weeds,  break  up  the  crust  which  may  form  after 
spring  rains  or  after  irrigation,  and  to  prevent  the  compacting  of 
the  surface  layer  of  the  soil  from  any  cause. 

CULTIVATION  WITHOUT  PLOWING 

There  are  some  orchards  in  California  which  have  not  been 
plowed  for  years — in  some  cases  the  plow  has  not  been  used  since 
the  trees  were  planted.  Instances  of  this  kind  are  to  be  found  both 
in  irrigated  and  unirrigated  land.  It  depends  largely  upon  the  me- 
chanical condition  and  disposition  of  the  soil  whether  the  practice 
will  give  satisfactory  results.  It  can  not  be  trusted  on  land  prone  to 
develop  hardpan,  as  has  already  been  considered,  and  yet  the  term 
"cultivation"  has  taken  such  a  wide  range  in  this  State,  and  the 
tools  have  reached  such  efficiency,  that  there  is  not  as  much  differ- 
ence as  formerly  between  the  plow  and  the  cultivator,  except  that 
the  former  turns  the  soil  and  the  latter  stirs  without  turning.  For 
some  who  oppose  the  use  of  the  plow,  use  a  chisel-tooth  cultivator, 
cutting  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches  in  the  spring,  but  at  other  times  of 
the  year  they  are  not  more  than  half  as  deep.  This  treatment  would 
tend  to  dispose  of  hardpan.  However  this  may  be,  and  whatever  the 
special  nature  of  their  soils,  there  are  fruit  growers,  both  in  northern 
and  southern  California,  who  have  for  years  trusted  almost  wholly 
to  the  cultivator,  cutting  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  inches,  and  keeping 
their  orchards  throughout  the  year  almost  in  the  same  state  of  tilth, 
never  allowing  a  weed  to  grow.  This  practice  is,  however,  becoming 
less  prevalent,  and  for  certain  soils  the  question  is  practically  settled 
in  the  minds  of  nearly  all  orchardists,  while  for  other  soils  there  is 
still  doubt.  For  the  heavier  soils,  which  continuous  shallow  cultiva- 


138 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 


tion  is  apt  to  render  too  compact,  it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to 
the  plow  to  open  the  land  for  proper  aeration  and  penetration  of 
moisture  which  otherwise  would  be  largely  lost  by  surface  run-off. 
The  lighter  soils  do  not  require  this  and  they  seem  to  do  well  with 
continuous  use  of  the  cultivator.  It  is  beginning  to  be  clearly  seen, 
however,  that  this  treatment  tends  toward  the  decrease  of  the  or- 
ganic matter  and  the  consequent  impoverishment  of  the  soil.  Its 
water-holding  capacity  is  also  lessened.  These  facts  have  induced 
some  growers  to  change  their  practice  and  to  take  up  the  plow  dur- 
ing late  winter  or  early  spring,  to  turn  under  a  winter  growth  of  a 
legume  sown  for  the  purpose  or  to  cover  in  the  growth  of  green  stuff 
which  they  allow  to  grow  instead  of  frequently  destroying  it  with  the 
winter  use  of  the  cultivator.  Either  the  fall  and  spring  plowing,  or 
both,  followed  by  the  summer  use  of  the  cultivator,  is  the  most  ra- 
tional and  satisfactory  practice  for  most  of  our  deciduous  orchards, 
though  there  are  local  conditions  and  circumstances  under  which 
different  procedure  is  preferable. 


SUMMER  CULTIVATION 

Whatever  the  winter  policy  may  be,  the  essential  point  in  sum- 
mer cultivation  is  to  preserve  the  surface  layer  of  pulverized  earth. 
It  will  not  do  to  have  a  few  inches  of  clods,  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to 
that  of  a  goose  egg,  resting  on  a  hard  surface.  The  finer  the  pulver- 
ization the  shallower  can  be  the  surface  layer,  and  vice  versa,  and 
this  is  probably  one  reason  why  in  practice  the  work  of  the  plow  is, 
in  so  many  situations,  found  the  best  foundation  upon  which  to  rest 
the  year's  cultivation. 

In  order  to  secure  this  finely-pulverized  layer,  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  use  what  is  called  a  "rubber,"  where  there  are  many 
clods  which  are  merely  displaced  by  the  harrow  or  cultivator.  There 
are  different  styles,  and  they  are  generally  home-made.  The  most 
common  form  is  made  of  two-inch  plank  in  lengths  of  three  or  four 
feet,  bolted  or  spiked  to  pieces  of  four-by-four-inch  scantling  running 
crosswise,  the  edges  of  the  planks  lapped  like  the  clapboards  which 
are  used  for  weather  boarding.  As  these  edges  are  drawn  over  the 
surface,  the  clods  are  rubbed  into  tilth  if  they  are  not  too  hard  and 
dry. 

But  this  rubbing  may  be  very  undesirable  if  it  leaves  the  surface 
smooth  and  polished.  It  may  reflect  the  sunheat  even  to  tree- 
burning,  and  is  apt  to  form  an  evaporating  surface,  which  is  almost 
to  be  avoided.  The  best  finish  for  the  land  is  that  produced  by  a 
light,  fine-toothed  harrow,  and  an  attachment  of  this  kind  is  provided 
with  various  clod  crushers  and  cultivators.  The  result  is  a  surface 
of  loose  earth,  flat  and  fine,  which  approaches  very  closely  an  ideal 
condition. 

There  is  less  difference  than  formerly  in  the  use  of  the  harrow 
or  cultivator  during  the  summer.  Still  some  are  content  to  use  the 
cultivator  only  as  a  weed-killer,  and  after  the  weeds  cease  to  grow 
and  the  spring  showers  are  over,  the  cultivator  is  laid  aside  and  the 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  CULTIVATION  139 

land  left  unstirred  until  the  following  winter.  This,  of  course,  refers 
to  unirrigated  ground,  for  wherever  irrigation  is  practised  a  culti- 
vator must  follow,  except  on  hillsides  where  the  surface  is  left  undis- 
turbed after  the  irrigation  furrows  are  made  for  the  season.  It  is 
a  fact,  however,  that  even  if  no  rain  falls,  the  soil  becomes  compacted 
to  a  certain  degree,  and  the  best  way  to  imprison  the  greatest  pos- 
sible amount  of  moisture  below  is  to  run  the  cultivator  at  intervals 
all  through  the  dry  season.  It  should  run  shallow  and  only  stir  the 
surface  layer.  The  experience  of  the  most  successful  growers  is  that 
frequent  stirring  without,  however,  bringing  new  soil  to  the  air,  is 
the  best-paying  practice. 


.     WHAT  IS  THOROUGH  CULTIVATION 

As  clean,  thorough  cultivation  has  been  approved,  it  may  be 
desirable  to  attempt  to  define  the  term.  It  can,  however,  only  be 
approximately  done,  because  of  the  great  difference  in  individual 
views  and  practices.  Some  indication  of  the  operations  which  are 
contemplated  may  be  had  in  the  following  specifications  upon  which 
contracts  have  been  let  for  care  of  orchard :  First,  plowing  away 
from  the  trees,  followed  by  harrowing ;  second,  plowing  toward  the 
trees,  followed  by  harrowing ;  ten  summer  workings  with  cultivator ; 
three  working  with  shallow  cultivator  or  weed-cutter;  five  hand 
hoeings  around  the  trees.  The  contract  intends  the  most  complete 
and  perfect  working  of  the  soil  and  specifies  the  above  merely  that 
there  may  be  no  difference  of  opinion  between  owner  and  contractor. 

With  the  best  team  and  implement  work  which  can  be  done  there 
always  remain  the  need  of  quick  hand  work  in  hoeing  around  the 
trees.  As  an  offset  to  the  cost  is  the  additional  moisture-conserva- 
tion, for  hard  ground  around  a  tree  sucks  out  and  evaporates  much 
moisture  and  draws  it  sidewise  from  far  beyond  its  own  area.  Hard 
soil  in  contact  with  the  bole  of  a  tree  is  apt  to  pinch  the  bark,  pre- 
vent expansion  and  perhaps  cause  gumming.  It  is  also  a  safe  refuge 
for  many  kinds  of  pests  which  a  good  stirring  may  destroy. 


CULTIVATION  FOR  WEED  KILLING 

Cultivation  for  weed  killing  is  a  minor  consideration  in  Cali- 
fornia, because  cultivation  for  moisture  conservation  effectually  dis- 
poses of  most  of  them,  and  weeds  do  not  start  readily  in  the  earth- 
mulch  during  the  dry  season.  There  are,  however,  a  few  most  per- 
sistent pests  which  require  heroic  measures.  Johnson  grass  and 
morning-glory  are  the  most  prominent  of  these.*  The  only  suc- 
cessful treatment  consists  in  cutting  constantly  with  a  weed-cutter 
(a  sharp  horizontal  knife),  operated  so  as  to  pass  under  the  whole 
surface  and  run  so  often  that  the  plant  is  never  allowed  to  show  a 
shoot  on  the  surface.  It  is  of  no  use  merely  to  cultivate  or  "weed- 
cut"  as  for  other  weeds.  This  spreads  the  pest  more  and  more ;  but 

'Special  publications  on  reduction  of  morning-glory  and  other  running  weeds  and 
grasses,  can  be  had  by  application  to  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Berkeley. 


140 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 


if  the  rising  shoots  are  continually  cut  under  the  surface,  and  never 
allowed  to  get  the  light,  it  will  kill  the  plant  surely,  but  it  may  take 
two  seasons  to  do  it.  Weed-cutting  knives  of  this  description  are 
often  contrived  by  local  smiths  and  are  attached  to  sleds  or  fitted 
with  plow  handles,  or  used  with  a  pair  of  thills  and  cultivator  handles 
or  other  rigging  as  the  operator  may  choose.  The  vital  point  is  a 
blade  of  sheet  steel,  very  sharp  and  rigged  to  run  just  under  the  sur- 
face. These  home-made  devices  are,  however,  largely  displaced  by 
implements  of  various  sizes  (for  team  or  tractor),  with  flat,  short 
teeth.  They  must  be  used  as  often  as  once  each  week  during  the 
growing  season  of  the  plant  to  be  destroyed. 

I        MULCHING  A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  CULTIVATION 

The  use  of  a  mulch  or  covering  of  the  ground  with  a  litter  of  light 
materials  to  prevent  evaporation,  is  practised  to  a  small  extent  in 
this  State.  Though  mainly  used  for  berries  of  different  kinds,  re- 
course has  also  been  had  to  mulching  by  vineyardists.  The  materials 
used  are  various,  such  as  partly-rotted  straw,  coarse  manure,  dam- 
aged hay,  corn-husks,  corn-stalks,  vine  prunings  and  leaves,  and 
even  fine  brush  from  adjacent  thickets.  The  practice  has  been  found 
of  greatest  value  on  hillsides  where  cultivation  is  difficult,  and  dan- 
ger of  washing  of  loose  soil  is  great.  There  are  cases  where  vines  have 
been  grown  several  years  in  this  way  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
owner.  The  danger  of  fire  in  our  dry  climate  when  the  surface  is 
covered  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  with  a  dry  mulch  is  considerable. 
As  a  rule,  the  mulch  employed  by  the  California  grower  is  a  per- 
fect pulverization  of  the  surface  soil. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

FERTILIZERS  FOR  TREES  AND  VINES 

It  was  a  popular  doctrine  among  early  Californians  that  Cali- 
fornia soils  would  never  need  fertilization,  and  that  there  is  some- 
thing in  our  soil  and  climate  which  would  release  us  forever  from 
repaying  anything  to  the  ground  for  the  wealth  of  produce  which 
we  take  from  it.  Such  a  view  was,  of  course,  without  foundation, 
and  yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  how  it  arose.  Early  attempts  to 
enrich  the  soil  by  the  turning  under  of  coarse  stable  manure,  as  is 
done  in  other  countries,  was  undertaken  here  on  light  soil  in  a  region 
rather  short  of  rainfall.  The  manure  did  not  decompose,  and  its 
coarse  materials  made  a  soil,  already  too  light  to  retain  moisture 
well,  so  open  and  porous  that  its  moisture  was  quickly  carried  away 
by  evaporation,  and  crops  did  not  grow  so  well  as  upon  adjacent 
land  which  had  not  been  manured.  So  the  fiat  went  forth  against 
manure.  The  corrals  became  undisturbed  guano  deposits,  and  ma- 
nure piles  were  fired  in  dry  weather  to  get  the  "soil  poison"  out  of 
the  way.  Innumerable  tons  of  bones  were  gathered  and  ground  in 
San  Francisco  and  shipped  away  to  countries  which  need  fertilizers ! 
Nature  did  much  to  foster  the  popular  delusion,  for  field  crops  were 
gloriously  large,  and  trees  and  vines  grew  rampantly  and  bore  fruit 
the  weight  of  which  they  were  unable  to  sustain.  How  could  there 
be  more  conclusive  evidence  that  manure  was  a  detriment  to  Cali- 
fornia soils? 

A  few  decades  of  experience  have  swept  away  such  fallacies  and 
now  California  growers,  especially  those  handling  citrus  fruits,  are 
not  only  freely  investing  in  commercial  fertilizers,  but  are  buying 
and  shipping  considerable  distances  all  available  animal  manures, 
having  cleaned  up  all  available  accumulations  during  the  pioneer 
period  of  non-fertilization.  They  are  also  untiring  students  of  the 
art  of  fertilization  and  the  sciences  underlying  it.  It  was  in  re- 
sponse to  that  demand  that  the  California  Legislature  in  1903  passed 
a  fertilizer  control  law.  All  dealers  are  required  to  register  and 
submit  samples  of  their  brands  and  there  is  constant  inspection  to 
detect  departures.  Semi-annual  reports  are  published  for  public  in- 
formation and  these,  with  special  instructions  for  taking  samples 
when  purchasers  desire  analyses  on  their  own  account,  can  be  had 
by  application  to  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Sacra- 
mento. The  total  amount  of  sales  reported  under  the  law  for  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1920,  was  58,636  tons. 

During  the  last  few  years  the  University  Experiment  Station 
chemists  and  bacteriologists  have  continued  studies  of  California 
soils  and  their  relation  to  fertilization  and  have  conducted  prolonged 
experimentation  toward  the  establishment  of  fundamental  facts  and 
the  interpretation  of  their  practical  significance.  In  the  course  of 
this  work  they  have  made  notable  contributions  to  the  science  of 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

soils  and  plants  which  may  be  described  as  revolutionary  in  their 
relation  to  older  tenets  and  points  of  view.  There  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that  the  progressive  effort  which  is  now  being  made  for  fuller 
understanding  of  facts  and  reasonableness  of  practice  will  reconcile 
the  conflicts  which  have  so  long  prevailed  both  in  scientific  doctrine 
and  in  horticultural  experience  and  point  the  way  to  more  efficient 
and  profitable  recourses  in  soil  restoration  and  plant  feeding.  For 
the  purpose  of  presenting  to  fruit  growers  in  popular  language  con- 
crete conclusions  involving  the  latest  results  of  thought  and  research 
on  these  subjects  Dr.  C.  B.  Lipman,  Professor  of  Soil  Chemistry  and 
Bacteriology  in  the  University  of  California,  who  is  a  leader  in  both 
philosophy  and  research,  has  kindly  written  for  this  work  all  which 
follows  in  this  chapter  and  merits  the  gratitude  of  the  reader  for  this 
generous  service. 

I  OLD  AND  NEW  VIEWS  OF  FERTILIZATION 

The  popular  conception  of  a  fertilizer,  held  both  by  the  manu- 
facturer and  consumer,  and  by  many  experts,  is  that  it  is  a  substance 
which  contains  some  chemical  element  or  elements  essential  to  plant 
growth,  and  which  by  application  to  the  soil  takes  the  place  of 
similar  material  extracted  from  the  soil  solution*  by  plant  roots  or 
lost  in  the  leaching  of  soil  by  rain  or  irrigation  water.  By  this 
conception,  fertilization  constitutes  a  method  for  the  so-called  main- 
tenance of  a  somewhat  mysterious  something  spoken  of  as  "soil 
fertility."  Like  most  popular  conceptions,  the  foregoing  contains 
a  germ  of  truth,  but  when  taken  literally,  it  is  more  mischivous  than 
useful  and  is  responsible  for  much  erroneous  and  unprofitable  farm 
practice,  and  an  endless  amount  of  loose  and  fallacious  thinking,  and 
expensive  and  wasteful  experimentation.  -If  the  purpose  of  fertil- 
izers were  merely  to  make  good  the  losses  of  certain  chemical  con- 
stituents in  the  soil  moisture  occasioned  as  above  explained,  the 
problem  would  be  indeed  a  simple  one  of  maintaining  the  crop- 
producing  power  of  any  soil  at  a  high  level  ;  and  the  very  simplicity 
of  the  idea  is  probably  what  constitutes  its  attractiveness,  and 
accounts  for  the  tenactiy  with  which  it  is  held.  Unfortunately 
for  the  man  on  the  land,  however,  the  matter  is  not  simple,  and 
recent  investigations  have  shown  conclusively  that  while  the  task 
just  mentioned  may  be  one  of  those  performed  by  fertilizers,  it 
is  probably  only  a  minor  one  in  most  cases  where  fertilizers  are  ' 
used,  and  in  many  cases  where  they  are  of  distinct  benefit  to  plant  \ 
growth,  they  may  not  function  in  that  way  at  all.  Thus,  this  very 
attractive  popular  theory  of  the  function  and  purpose  of  a  fertilizer 
must  be  largely  discarded.  We  are  not  dealing  with  a  simple  mat- 
ter of  subtraction  and  addition  of  certain  chemical  elements  to  soils,- 
but  with  a  very  complicated  series  of  phenomena  in  the  soil  and  in 
the  plant,  which,  despite  the  rapid  progress  of  our  knowledge  during 
the  last  five  years,  are  far  from  being  understood.  This  is  not  the 
place  to  discuss  these  important  considerations  which  will  form  the 


as  wVkSow^n™"™11  -Vhef  medifum,in  which  Plant  roots  and  soil  bacteria  grew  and,  so  far 

(nuTrien?  a^d  2™  SS?M      T-   °l  'K801'  [™oiai™e>  which  makes  a  solution  of  soil  salts 
nent      and  is  dtr 


(nurien    ad     ™  M      T-   °  801    ™oiai™e>  which  makes  a  solution  of  s 

nent),  and  is  distributed  around  and  between  the  soil  particles 


SUBSTANCES  REQUIRED  BY  PLANTS  143 

subjects  of  future  treatises  on  the  interrelationships  between  soils 
and  plants.  Nevertheless,  we  may,  with  profit,  consider  briefly  a 
few  essentials  to  a  more  rational  conception  of  the  fertilizer  and 
fertilization  problem  than  the  simple  and  attractive,  but  wholly  in- 
adequate, one  mentioned  above. 

THE  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  ESSENTIAL  TO  PLANT 

GROWTH 

Careful  investigation  has  shown  that  there  are  at  least  ten  of  the 
eighty-odd  chemical  elements  known,  without  any  one  of  which 
green  plants  cannot  live.  These  elements  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  sul- 
phur, and  iron.  The  first  three  of  these  are  supplied  from  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  of  the  air  (carbon  and  oxygen)  and  from  the  water 
in  the  soil  (hydrogen).  The  air  is  never  short  of  all  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  which  may  be  needed  by  plants.  A  proper  supply  of  water 
to  soils  can  be  readily  insured  in  most  cases.  The  problem  of  the 
supply  of  the  essential  elements  for  plant  growth  in  soils,  therefore, 
is  limited  to  the  other  seven  elements  named  above.  Nitrogen  is 
supplied  very  largely  from  the  soil's  organic  matter  supply  and  is 
transformed  from  the  organic,  insoluble,  and  complicated  form 
therein,  to  a  simple  soluble,  inorganic  form  (principally  nitrates), 
by  the  action  of  certain  micro-organisms  (bacteria  and  fungi)  which 
live  in  the  soil.  The  other  six  elements  are  to  some  degree  also 
furnished  by  the  decomposition  resulting  in  simplification  and 
mineralization  of  the  soil  organic  matter,  but  are  chiefly  derived 
from  the  mineral  particles  of  the  soil  which  take  their  origin  in  turn 
from  the  rocks  and  minerals  originally  disintegrated  by  weathering 
agencies  to  form  the  more  or  less  powdery  mass  making  up  a  primi- 
tive soil.  Even  the  small  amounts  of  minerals  contained  in  the  de- 
caying organic  matter  were  derived  originally  from  the  purely 
inorganic,  mineral  sources  upon  which  the  plants  initially  composing 
it  obtained  them.  This  is  also  true  of  nitrogen.  In  fact,  the  original 
rock  from  which  the  first  soils  were  formed  probably  contained  no 
organic  matter,  and  hence  the  primitive  plants  which  first  made  their 
appearance  on  the  rock  surfaces  of  the  earth  from  some  unknown 
source  must  have  subsisted,  as  do  our  green  plants  today,  on  the 
mineral  elements  from  which  they  synthesized  organic  compounds 
and,  on  their  death,  left  organic  residues  from  which  more  resistant 
portions  have  accumulated  such  organic  matter  supplies  as  we  find 
in  our  soils  today. 

Now,  while  all  of  the  ten  chemical  elements  named  above  are 
indispensable  to  the  life  and  normal  growth  of  our  green  plants, 
every  one  of  them  is  not  needed  in  the  same  quantity  as  every  other 
one  for  the  constitution  of  plant  tissue.  Very  nearly  the  entire 
weight  of  a  plant  consists  of  three  elements,  viz.,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  derived  as  above  explained,  from  an  ever  abundant 
supply  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water.  For  example  97.4%  of  the 
corn  kernel  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  in  timothy 
hay  the  same  three  elements  make  nearly  95%  of  the  total  substance. 


144 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 


Only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  weight  of  plant  substance,  there- 
fore, consists  of  the  other  seven  essential  elements.  The  amounts 
of  these  substances  contained  in  some  of  our  fruits  is  shown  approxi- 
mately in  the  following  table,  taken  from  analyses  made  by  Pro- 
fessor G.  E.  Colby,  formerly  of  the  California  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station :  y 

Quantities  of  Soil  Ingredients  Withdrawn  by  Various  Fruits 


Fresh  Fruit 
1000  pounds 

Total 
Ash  Ibs. 

Potash 
Pounds 

Lime 
Pounds 

Phosphoric 
Acid  Ibs. 

Nitrogen 
Pounds 

Almondsf   

...       17.29 

9.95 

1.04 

2.04 

7.01 

Apricots    

5.08 

3.01 

.16 

.66 

1.94 

Apples   

2.64 

1.40 

.11 

.33 

1.05 

Bananas    

10.78 

6.80 

.10 

.17 

.97 

Cherries    

4.82 

2.77 

.20 

.72 

2.29 

Chestnutsf   

9.52 

3.67 

1.20 

1.58 

6.40 

Figs    

7.81 

4.69 

.85 

.86 

2.38 

Grapes   

5.00 

2.55 

.25 

.11 

1.26 

Lemons   

5.26 

2.54 

1.55 

.58 

1.51 

Olives    

.  .  .       13.50 

9.11 

2.43 

1.25 

5.60 

Oranges    

4.32 

2.11 

.97 

.53 

1.83 

Peaches   

5.30 

3.94* 

.14* 

.85* 

1.20* 

Pears    

2.50 

1.34 

.19 

.34 

.90 

Prunes,  French  .... 

4.86 

3.10 

.22 

.68 

1.82 

Plums    

5.35 

3.41* 

.25* 

.75* 

1.81 

Walnutsf    

.  .  .       12.98 

8.18 

1.55 

1.47 

5.41 

tincluding  hulls.  *Estimated. 


Why  Such  Analyses  May  Not  Be  a  True  Guide  in  Fertilization. — 
A  little  calculation  on  the  basis  of  the  data  in  the  foregoing  table 
will  make  it  quite  clear  that  a  ten-ton  crop  of  fresh  grapes  would 
only  remove  from  the  soil  about  51  pounds  of  potash,  5  pounds  of 
lime,  2.2  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  25.2  pounds  of  nitrogen. 
A  very  large  crop  of  fresh  apricots  (about  ten  tons)  would  remove 
from  the  soil  about  60  pounds  of  potash,  3.20  pounds  of  lime,  13.20 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  38.80  pounds  of  nitrogen.  Now  even 
a  very  poor  soil  contains  in  the  upper  three  feet  per  acre,  which  are 
only  a  portion  of  the  plant  roots'  foraging  area,  about  12,000  pounds 
each  of  potash  and  lime,  about  6,000  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
about  3,000  pounds  of  nitrogen.  Moreover,  some  of  the  portions  of 
the  fruit  are  frequently  returned  to  the  soil,  and  irrigation  waters, 
where  such  are  used,  most  commonly  carry  in  solution  large  enough 
quantities  of  the  essential  elements  to  more  than  make  up  for  the 
losses  sustained  through  the  removal  of  the  fruit  crop.  This  kind 
of  reasoning,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  even  moderately  good  soils 
may  contain  ten  times  as  much  potash  and  lime,  twice  as  much 
phosphoric  acid,  and  three  times  as  much  nitrogen  as  the  poor  soil 
cited,  and  also  the  fact  that  much  more  than  three  feet  of  soil  in 
depth  are  frequently  available  for  root  development,  make  it  very 
clear  that  the  essential  elements  are  found  in  nearly  all  soils  in 
quantities  sufficient  to  last  for  centuries.  Of  course,  these  are 
definite  quantities  and  if  we  consider  our  obligations  to  posterity 
we  should  contemplate  ways  and  means  for  preventing  unusual  and 


WHAT   ARE   PLANT    FOODS?  145 

unnecessary  losses  of  the  essential  elements  from  our  soils,  but  there 
must  be  some  other  reason  or  reasons  than  that  for  the  good  effects 
obtained  by  fertilizer  applications  to  fruit  crops,  especially  on  new 
or  very  young  lands.  The  most  readily  advanced  reason,  of  course, 
is  that  while  the  soil  minerals  contain  the  essential  elements  in 
plenty,  they  are  not  "available."  Let  us  now  study  the  meaning  of 
this  term  "available"  and  see  if  the  consideration  of  "availability" 
is  adequate  to  the  explanation  of  the  condition  in  question. 

"PLANT  FOODS"  AND  "AVAILABLE  PLANT  FOODS" 

The  term  plant  food  is  a  misnomer.  It  is  intended  to  apply  to 
the  essential  chemical  elements  above  mentioned,  which  enter  into 
the  composition  of  plant  food,  and  which  is  a  term  that  should  apply 
only  to  the  starches,  sugars,  proteins,  and  fats  which  really  serve 
to  sustain  the  plant  and  which  are  products  of  the  plant's  own 
activity.  The  term  is,  therefore,  used  incorrectly  by  most  people 
and  should  be  supplanted  by  the  term  "essential  elements"  to  plant 
growth. 

With  this  idea  clearly  in  mind,  we  may  next  inquire  what  is 
meant  by  the  expression  "available  plant  food."  Here  again  the 
term  plant  food  is  used  erroneously,  as  already  explained.  But  the 
term  "available,"  as  commonly  used,  is  intended  to  mean  that  the 
substance  to  which  it  is  applied  is  soluble  in  the  water  of  the  soil 
when  introduced  there.  Recent  studies  in  the  chemistry  of  the  soil 
have  revealed  the  fact,  however,  that  availability  of  a  chemical 
element  or  compound  from  the  standpoint  of  the  plant,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  soil,  is  not  merely  the  simple  question  of  the  solubility 
of  that  substance  in  the  soil  water,  but  of  something  more.  A  sub- 
stance, to  be  available  to  the  plant's  roots,  must  not  only  be  soluble 
in  the  soil  water,  but  it  must  be  so  balanced  with  the  other  con- 
stituents of  the  soil  water  (soil  solution)  as  to  be  assimilable,  which 
is  by  no  means  always  true  under  soil  conditions.  Moreover,  a 
substance  to  be  "available"  in  the  broadest  sense  must  not  only 
possess  the  two  attributes  just  discussed,  but,  in  addition,  should 
not  be  poisonous  at  the  concentration  at  which  it  is  found  in  the 
soil  solution. 

It  follows  from  what  has  just  been  said  that  a  fertilizer  salt  or 
other  substance  does  not  necessarily  become  usable  and  available 
to  the  plant  merely  because  it  dissolves  in  the  soil  water.  It  may 
indeed  dissolve  in  the  soil  water  when  first  applied  to  the  soil,  but 
soon  thereafter  become  insoluble  by  reacting  with  some  soil  mineral 
and  from  such  reaction  a  new  soluble  substance  may  be  formed  and 
a  new  insoluble  substance,  which  latter  contains  in  it  the  essential 
element  which  it  is  desired  to  make  available.  This  leads  us  to 
conclude  that  the  application  to  a  soil  of  a  soluble  fertilizer  salt  like 
nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  potash  does  not  by  any  means  insure 
the  increased  supply  thereof  by  that  amount  in  the  soil  solution. 
On  the  contrary,  it  may  mean  no  increase  of  that  substance  at  all 
in  the  soil  solution  available  to  the  plant's  roots.  This  important 
fact  has  been  brought  out  by  an  investigation  recently  conducted  in 


146 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO   GROW  THEM 


the  writer's  laboratory,  which  proved  that  lime  and  gypsum  have 
very  different  effects  on  different  soils,  depending  on  the  kinds  of 
minerals  and  other  substances  which  are  contained  in  the  soil  origi- 
nally. The  addition  of  calcium  in  the  form  of  lime  increased  the 
amount  of  calcium  in  some  soils,  but  not  in  others.  This  disposes 
of  the  belief  so  tenaciously  held  by  nearly  all,  soil  and  fertilizer 
experts  included,  that  the  chief  and  only  function  of  a  fertilizer 
consists  in  its  furnishing  a  certain  one  or  more  plant  food  elements 
which  it  contains  to  the  soil  solution.  We  can  never  really  be  certain 
when  we  apply  any  fertilizer  element  to  a  soil  that  we  enrich  the 
solution  of  that  soil  with  respect  to  that  element.  That  may  occur 
in  many  soils,  but  may  not  occur  in  many  others.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  likewise  true  that  when  a  fertilizer  element  applied  to  a  soil  does 
not  enrich  the  soil  solution  with  respect  to  itself,  it  may  do  so  with 
respect  to  another  element  theretofore  insoluble.  For  example,  we 
may  apply  sulphate  of  potash  to  a  soil  without  enriching  the  soil 
solution  there  with  respect  to  potash,  but  we  may  enrich  it  with 
respect  to  calcium,  magnesium,  sodium  or  some  other  element  which 
may  or  may  not  be  needed  by  the  plant.  While  all  this  is  true,  how- 
ever, the  reader  will  doubtless  readily  grasp  the  significance  of  the 
general  situation,  which  may  briefly  be  put  in  another  way  for 
emphasis.  If  fertilizers  carrying  essential  elements  to  plant  growth 
when  applied  to  soils  do  not  necessarily  furnish  those  essential  ele- 
ments to  the  soil  solution  and  still  benefit  the  crop,  the  improvement 
may  be  due  to  the  increased  supply,  through  the  agency  of  the  fertil- 
izer, of  some  other  element  not  necessarily  essential,  or  an  essential 
element  heretofore  regarded  as  of  minor  importance  which  stimu- 
lates the  plant,  not  because  it  furnishes  a  lacking  element,  but  be- 
cause it  causes  increased  cell  growth  in  some  other  manner  not  now 
understood  by  us.  This  may  mean  that  we  shall  be  able  to  use  many 
cheap  salts  or  minerals  for  fertilizers  to  set  free  the  essential  ele- 
ments already  contained  in  the  soil  minerals  or  to  stimulate  plant 
growth  otherwise.  Certainly,  it  may  mean  that  in  many  soils  we 
shall  be  able  to  obtain  an  ample  supply  of  soluble  potassium  in  the 
soil  by  applying,  not  potash  fertilizers,  but  some  substance  which 
does  not  contain  potash,  but  which  will  set  it  free  from  its  combina- 
tions in  the  insoluble  soil  minerals.  The  reader  will  readily  see  that 
this  situation  may  effect  profoundly  the  economics  of  the  fertilizer 
situation.  The  question  that  naturally  arises  next  is  how  to  de- 
termine in  practice  the  proper  procedure  in  soil  treatment  by  fertil- 
izers. This  will  be  taken  up  in  detail  in  a  special  section  below,  after 
a  few  other  essential  matters  have  been  discussed. 

THE  "SPECIFIC"  EFFECTS  OF  THE  ESSENTIAL 
ELEMENTS  ON  PLANTS 

The  text  books  on  soils  and  those  on  plant  physiology  teach,  so 
far  as  I  know,  with  a  rare  exception  or  two,  that  the  so-called  plant 
food  elements  of  fertilizers— nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium- 
are  not  merely  essential  to  plant  growth  but  that  each  produces  a 
specific  effect  on  the  plant  which  is  outwardly  visible.  For  example, 


WHAT  FERTILIZERS  DO  FOR  PLANTS  147 

nitrogen  is  supposed  to  stimlate  leaf  and  stalk  development;  phos- 
phorus is  presumed  to  increase  seed  production  and  to  hasten 
maturity,  and  potassium  is  presumed  to  have  a  vital  connection  with 
early  maturation  of  a  crop,  and  with  sweetness  and  quality  in  fruit. 
Many  other  such  statements  have  been  made  in  the  literature  with 
respect  to  the  specific  effects  of  these  three  chemical  elements  in 
plant  growth.  Moreover,  some  authors  have  gone  so  far  as  to  say 
that  certain  colors,  textures,  or  other  characteristics  of  plants  in 
growth  indicate  a  lack  of  sufficiency  of  a  given  one  of  the  three 
elements  in  question. 

There  is  little  or  no  basis  for  all  such  statements  and  assump- 
tions, because  it  is  a  fact  that  color  of  foliage  may  in  most  cases  be  a 
guide  to  the  determination  of  whether  or  not  an  ample  or  a  deficient 
supply  of  available  nitrogen  is  present  in  the  soil  or  other  growing 
medium.  Thus,  a  deep  green  foilage  is  usually  an  indication  of  a 
plentiful  supply  of  available  nitrogen.  Yellow,  or  light  green  foliage 
is  frequently  an  evidence  of  a  defficiency  of  available  nitrogen.  But 
even  those  indications  are  not  always  correct  and  particularly  is  this 
true  of  the  yellow  color  of  leaves.  Likewise,  an  excess  of  nitrogen 
does  seem  to  encourage  rank  stalk  and  leaf  development,  resulting 
with  the  cereals  even  in  "lodging,"  but  this  too  might  be  taken  as 
evidence  of  a  badly  unbalanced  condition  of  the  nutrient  medium  of 
growth  (the  soil  solution)  rather  than  a  specific  effect  of  nitrogen. 
It  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  the  encouragement  of  heavy  stalk  and 
leaf  production  by  nitrogen  is  very  marked  with  some  plants  and 
comes  nearest  being  a  manifestation  of  a  specific  growth-producing 
effect  of  an  element  which  we  know  about.  As  for  the  idea  of  the 
specific  effects  mentioned  above  as  being  characteristic  of  phos- 
phorus and  potassium  and  others  found  in  the  literature  which  I 
have  not  mentioned,  there  is  aboslutely  no  unexceptionable  evidence 
to  support  it.  We  have  no  data  upon  which  to  base  the  common 
belief  that  phosphorus  hastens  maturity  of  plants;  or  that  a  lack 
thereof  manifests  itself  in  some  abnormal  appearance  of  the  plant 
which  has  been  definitely  recognized  and  correlated  with  it.  The 
same  statements  will  apply  to  the  potassium  question,  and  we  thus 
find  no  justification  for  the  idea  that  there  has  been  established  a 
certain  well-defined  correlation  between  the  appearances,  colors,  or 
other  qualities  of  plants  and  a  deficiency  of  any  one  of  the  essential 
elements  to  plant  growth,  unless,  possibly,  it  be  nitrogen.  This  does 
not  mean,  however,  that  each  of  the  mineral  elements  does  not  per- 
form a  specific  function  in  the  metabolism  of  the  plant,  for  there  is 
some  good  evidence  that  it  may.  It  does  not  even  mean  that  every 
one  of  the  elements  may  not  specifically  affect  the  plant  by  its 
sufficiency  or  by  its  inadequacy  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  indicated 
characteristically  in  the  appearance  or  quality  of  the  plant  which 
human  senses  can  discern.  It  does  mean  that  if  such  specific  effect 
or  effects  for  any  of  the  mineral  elements  except  nitrogen  exist,  we 
know  nothing  about  them  to  date. 

The  denials  of  the  common  beliefs  and  of  the  current  teachings 
in  our  text-books,  which  are  made  above,  are  not  intended,  however, 
as  disclaimers  of  the  existence  of  other  visible  effects  on  plants  which 


148 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 


a  deficiency  of  a  given  mineral  element  may  induce.  For  example, 
it  is  pretty  well  established  now  that  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  have 
the  nutrient  solution  of  a  plant  of  a  certain  concentration  but  also 
that  there  be  a  proper  balance  among  the  various  constituents  there- 
of. It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  a  plant  may  show  an  unthrifty  con- 
dition, due  to  too  low  a  concentration  of  its  nutrient  medium  or  to 
an  improper  balance  of  the  different  elements,  without  giving  us 
leave  to  correlate  the  unthrifty  condition  with  a  specific  effect  of  a 
given  element.  To  put  it  another  way,  for  emphasis,  we  may  assume 
that  a  plant  will  show  a  stunted  condition  or  an  abnormal  color 
which  will  be  removed  and  the  plant  brought  to  a  normal  condition 
by  the  application,  let  us  say,  of  phosphorus  or  of  potassium.  This 
does  not  argue  that  a  deficiency  of  the  element  applied  specifically 
and  characteristically  causes  the  abnormal  condition  in  question,  but 
may  merely  mean  that  a  deficiency  of  any  element  by  bringing  about 
an  unbalanced  condition  in  the  nutrient  solution  may  induce  ab- 
normal growth  and  development. 

This  statement  is  intended  not  merely  to  deny  and  disprove  the 
statements  on  the  subject  which  appear  in  text-books  but  also  those 
pernicious  assumptions  to  the  same  effect  which  constantly  appear 
in  the  literature  of  the  fertilizer  trade.  It  is  well  to  understand  the 
following  clearly : 

(1)  Certain  chemical  elements  in  the  soil  solution,  including  at 
least  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron  and 
potassium,  are  essential  to  normal  plant  growth. 

(2)  These  elements  must  be  present  in  sufficient  concentration 
and  the  whole  nutrient  solution  must  be  sufficiently  concentrated. 

(3)  Those  elements  must,  regardless  of  the  total  concentration  of 
the  solution,  be  in  a  proper  balance  among  themselves. 

Beyond  these  conditions,  we  know  little  about  the  soil  solution 
which  is  above  question.  This  is  particularly  pertinent  regarding 
the  specific  effects  of  the  individual  elements  or  the  characteristics 
of  plants  which  the  human  senses  can  discern. 

WHAT  ARE  FERTILIZERS  AND  WHAT  THEIR  SOURCES? 

The  problem  of  fertilizers  and  their  application  to  soils,  as  it 
stands  today,  is  essentially  a  practical  one.  The  truly  scientific 
phases  of  it  which  are  being  studied  have  not  yet  progressed  far 
enough  to  allow  of  much  application  of  their  results.  Of  necessity, 
therefore,  most  rules  and  standards  in  fertilizer  practice  and  in  the 
fertilizer  industry  must  be  more  or  less  arbitrary.  This  includes, 
of  course,  the  determination  of  what  constitutes  a  fertilizer  material. 
Nevertheless,  it  remains  true  beyond  a  peradventure  that  the  final 
decision  in  such  matters  must  remain  with  the  scientific  investigator 
of  soil-and-plant  problems.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  he  has  delved 
so  deeply  into  the  subject  as  to  be  cognizant  of  the  numerous  diffi- 
culties and  pitfalls  which  inhere  in  it,  and  thus  knowing  the  limita- 
tions of  it  can  prescribe  with  much  greater  precision  and  justice 
what  should  be  adopted  as  a  guide  or  guides.  In  accordance  with 


MATERIALS  FOR  FERTILIZERS  149 

this  conclusion  and  without  bias  or  prejudice,  let  it  be  attempted 
to  draw  up  a  statement  as  to  what  constitutes  a  fertilizer  and  what 
materials  may  be  included  under  that  head. 

A  fertilizer  is  any  substance,  subject  to  the  qualifications  given 
below,  which  furnishes  to  the  soil  any  one  or  more  of  the  following 
chemical  elements — nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  sulphur,  and 
calcium;  or  which  furnishes  organic  matter.  The  substances  con- 
taining the  chemical  elements  named  must,  in  addition,  possess  the 
following  qualifications : 

1.  They  must  contain,  if  they  are  largely  insoluble  in  water,  no 
less  than  the  following  percentages  of  their  respective  elements  or 
compounds:  3.0  per  cent  nitrogen,  20  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  20 
per  cent  potassium  oxide,  20  per  cent  sulphur,  and  35  per  cent 
calcium  oxide. 

2.  They  must  contain,  if  they  are  largely  soluble  in  water,  no 
less  than  1  per  cent  nitrogen  (as  nitrate  or  ammonia)  and  1  per  cent 
each  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potassium  oxide.    Sulphur  and  calcium 
materials  do  not  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  need  to  be 
delimited  in  accordance  with  solubility. 

3.  In  either  insoluble  or  soluble  form  a  material  to  be  a  fertilizer 
must  not  be  toxic  to  plants  even  when  applied  in  large  quantities, 
such  as  1000  pounds  per  acre  for  the  soluble  and  ten  tons  per  acre 
for  the  insoluble.    This  does  not  include  sulphur,  which  should  pref- 
erably not  be  applied  even  in  the  form  of  flowers  of  sulphur  at  rates 
exceeding  100  pounds  per  acre. 

4.  A  material  to  be  a  fertilizer  must,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing 
qualities,  possess  a  more  or  less  fine  or  powdery  consistency  so  as  to 
allow  of  facile  distribution  in  the  soil;  and  it  must  be  of  a  nature 
to  allow  free  handling  without  danger  to  man  or  animals. 

5.  An  organic  material  to  be  a  fertilizer  must  either  contain  the 
quantities  of  the  elements  above  indicated  in  either  soluble  or  in- 
soluble form,  or  must  be  of  a  nature  which  is  readily  decomposed 
in  the  soil  (four  to  eight  weeks  in  the  summer)  and  preferably  carry- 
ing a  large  bacterial  population.    Even  organic  substances  contain- 
ing 3  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  mostly  insoluble  in  water,  must  be  of  a 
nature  to  decompose  readily  as  above  indicated  if  they  are  to  be 
considered  as  fertilizer  material. 

In  accordance  with  these  definitions,  the  following  common  sub- 
stances can  properly  be  regarded  as  fertilizers  or  as  sources  of 
serviceable  organic  matter : 

NITROGENOUS    MATERIALS 

Sodium  nitrate  Fish  scrap  Guano 

Ammonium  sulphate  Castor  pomace  Rat  guano 

Ammonium  nitrate  Horn  meal  Slaughterhouse    tankage 

Ammonium  phosphate  Acidulated  leather  Garbage  tankage 

Calcium  nitrate  Linseed  meal  Meat  meal 

Cyanamidc  Fish  meal  Hoof  meal 

Cottonseed  meal  King  crab  Wood  and  hair  waste 

Dried  blood  Rape  meal 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO   GROW  THEM 

PHOSPHATIC  MATERIALS 
phosphate     iS£&  i 

Phosphatic  meal  Acid  phosphate  Dissolved  bone 

Raw  ground  bone  Double  acid  phosphate    Apatite 

Bone  black 

POTASH   MATERIALS 

Potassium  chloride  Cement  plant  potash  Kelp  ash 

Potassium  carbonate  Blast  furnace  potash  51ried  ke^P 

Kainite  Potassium  sulphate  Plant  ash 

Kieserite  Potassium  nitrate  Brine  residues 

Potassium-Magnesium  Double  manure  salts  Leucite    or    other    potash 

sulphate  Carnallite  minerals    containing    at 

Kelp  Char  Potassium  least      20%      potassium 

Wood  ashes  Magnesium  carbonate  oxide 
Manure  ash 

SULPHUR  MATERIALS 

Flowers  of  sulphur.  Magnesium  sulphate  Any  of  the  sulphates  men- 
Calcium  sulphate  Sulphide  minerals  tioned  in  the  other  lists 
Sodium  sulphate 

CALCIUM   MATERIALS 

Calcium  oxide  (quick      Calcium  hydrate  (water    -Calcium  carbonate  (ground 
lime)  slaked  lime)  limestone   or   air  slaked 

lime) 

SOLUBLE   CALCIUM    MATERIALS 
Gypsum  Calcium  nitrate  Calcium  cyanamide 

ORGANIC   MATERIALS 

Barnyard  manure  Legume  straws  Goat  manure 

Cow  manure  Horse  manure  Green  plant  tissue 

Sheep  manure  Hog  manure  Sewage  sludge 
Poultry  manure 

It  may  transpire  through  present  and  future  investigations  that 
the  carriers  of  other  elements  than  those  considered  may  have  to  be 
properly  included  among  fertilizer  materials  whether  those  elements 
be  essential  to  plant  growth  or  not,  but  thus  far,  there  seems  to  be 
no  warrant  for  going  farther  than  as  enumerated  above.  At  the 
same  time,  the  limitations  drawn  above  will  rule  out  such  fake 
materials  as  bacterized  peat,  dried  peat,  solutions  carrying  fertilizer 
elements,  cultures,  etc. 

THE   VARIABILITY   OF   SOILS 

Recent  studies  at  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
have  shown  that  we  must  modify  to  a  great  extent  our  ideas  relative 
to  all  matters  pertaining  to  soils  because  of  the  high  degree  of 
variability  of  the  latter.  Everybody  recognizes  that,  in  a  given 
field,  soils  may  show  considerable  variability,  which  is  evident  to 
the  eye  and  touch  of  the  inexperienced.  Few  people  appreciate  to- 
day, however,  that  even  in  a  soil  which  seems  entirely  uniform  there 
may  exist  an  enormous  variability  in  the  smallest  distances.  Such 
variability  may  concern  the  physical  properties  of  a  soil  such  as 
moisture-holding  power,  just  as  much  as  the  soil's  content  of  the 


FERTILIZATION  EXPERIMENTS  NECESSARY  l$\ 

essential  mineral  elements  discussed  above.  An  experiment  in  fer- 
tilization or  any  other  which  is  carried  out  on  a  few  trees  or  vines, 
therefore,  may  give  results  which  have  little  application  to  a  whole 
orchard  or  vineyard.  Much  fruitless  work  on  fertilization  and  soil 
management  generally,  as  well  as  laboratory  studies,  have  been 
carried  out  all  over  the  world  because  of  ignorance  of  this  funda- 
mental fact  and  it  behooves  us  to  take  cognizance  of  it  in  the  work 
of  the  future.  This  is  particularly  true  in  its  application  to  orchard 
and  vineyard  problems,  because  of  the  relatively  small  number  of 
plants  used  per  acre  and  hence  because  according  to  the  laws  of 
chance,  we  have  no  opportunity  of  averaging  the  effects  of  the  soil's 
variability. 

LONG-TERM   FERTILIZER   EXPERIMENTS 

One  would  naturally  expect  that  the  results  of  experiments  on 
the  fertilization  of  soils  which  have  been  in  progress  for  long  periods 
uninterruptedly  like  the  celebrated  ones  at  Rothamsted,  England, 
at  Wooster  and  Strongsville  in  Ohio,  and  at  State  College  in  Penn- 
sylvania, can  be  reckoned  on  as  reliable  guides  for  fertilizer  practice. 
Unfortunately,  however,  these  experiments  were  planned,  and  have 
been  carried  on  without  reference  to  the  important  principles  of  soil 
chemistry,  plant  physiology,  and  the  variability  of  soils  which  are 
discussed  above.  Their  results  may,  and  may  not,  possess,  therefore, 
the  requisite  cogency  and  utility  for  the  average  orchardist  and 
particularly  as  regards  California  conditions.  In  none  of  these  ex- 
periments, moreover,  has  there  been  ascertained  the  magnitude  of 
the  errors  attaching  to  the  work,  and  hence  increases  in  crop  sup- 
posedly due  to  fertilization  may,  and  may  not,  be  significant.  Then, 
too,  when  the  errors  are  properly  allowed  for  as  has  been  done  in  a 
series  of  studies  carried  on  at  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  and  which  will  soon  be  published,  the  question  as  to  whether 
or  not  the  increases  are  sufficiently  great  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  fer- 
tilization and  allow  a  good  profit,  still  remains  to  be  settled.  This  is 
all  true  in  addition  to  the  conclusion,  which  follows  from  the  dis- 
cussion above,  that  any  results  obtained  in  such  an  experiment  have 
no  necessary  application  on  any  other  tract  of  land  than  that  on 
which  the  experiment  is  conducted. 

LEARNING  TO   USE   FERTILIZERS 

It  follows  from  what  has  been  said  above  that  the  best  method 
available  to  us  now  of  determining  the  fertilizer  needs  of  an  orchard 
or  a  vineyard  soil  is  to  try  fertilization  wherever  the  question  arises. 
It  is  important,  moreover,  that  the  fertilizer  be  tried  on  a  large  tract, 
preferably  no  less  than  three  to  five  acres  in  size,  and  that  a  control 
or  check  lot  of  trees  or  vines  of  the  same  number  as  in  the  treated 
plot  be  left  untreated  as  a  means  of  determining  the  effects  exerted 
by  the  fertilizer.  It  is  the  writer's  judgment  that  this  is  the  only 
rational  method  yet  discovered  of  determining  the  fertilizer  needs 
of  a  given  orchard  or  vineyard.  The  fruit  produced  on  the  fertilized 


152 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


and  unfertilized  plots,  respectively,  should  be  carefully  measured 
and  the  results  calculated  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  cost  of  the 
fertilizer  and  its  application,  and  the  profit  accruing  from  its  use. 

Fertilizers  may  be  broadcasted  or  drilled  in.  In  any  case,  an 
attempt  should  be  made  to  incorporate  them  with  the  soil  thoroughly 
and  preferably  five  or  more  inches  beneath  the  surface.  If  this  is  not 
done,  there  is  danger,  especially  where  deep  and  constant  summer 
cultivation  is  practised,  that  the  fertilizer  will  remain  in  the  dry 
surface  soil  mulch,  which  is  not  accessible  to  the  feeding  roots.  If 
the  fertilizer  is  broadcasted,  it  may  be  cultivated,  plowed  or  disked 
in.  The  above  precaution  relative  to  thorough  and  deep  incorpora- 
tion of  fertilizers  is  particularly  pertinent  and  important  in  the  case 
of  the  insoluble  fertilizers  like  dried  blood,  high-grade  tankage,  rock 
phosphate  and  similar  materials. 

Choosing  the  Fertilizer  for  the  Test. — Based  on  practical  ex- 
perience and  observation  in  the  field,  the  writer  believes  that  under 
most  orchard  and  vineyard  conditions  in  California  and  especially  in 
the  Great  Valley  and  under  the  more  arid  conditions,  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  are  the  most  likely,  of  all  the  commercial  brands,  to  yield 
profitable  responses.  Among  these,  sulphate  of  ammonia  is,  in  gen- 
eral, to  be  preferred  to  nitrate  of  soda,  but  the  latter  may  be  used 
where  heavy  rainfall  and  a  tendency  to  soil  acidity  is  the  rule.  The 
organic  nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  all  suitable,  and  when  nitrogen 
in  that  form  can  be  purchased  more  cheaply  than  in  either  of  the 
forms  just  mentioned,  it  should  be  so  employed. 

If  it  is  desired  to  test  other  fertilizers,  then  phosphatic  fertilizers 
should  receive  second  consideration,  and  then  it  is  well  to  treat  a 
plot  of  five  acres  with  nitrogen  alone,  one  of  the  same  size  with 
superphosphate  alone,  and  one  with  a  combination  of  the  two, 
always  having  a  control  plot  in  addition,  as  above  explained.  Sim- 
ilarly, if  it  is  desired  to  test  potash  or  sulphur,  these  fertilizer 
materials  may  be  used  alone  or  together  with  the  others  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  described  for  nitrogen  and  phosphorous 
fertilizers. 

The  mixed  commercial  fertilizers  are  strongly  advised  against, 
because  much  more  is  paid  for  every  unit  of  the  necessary  elements 
in  that  form  than  in  the  form  of  the  so-called  simples  like  those 
listed  above.  Besides,  it  will  be  found  rare  under  California  orchard 
and  vineyard  conditions  that  potash  fertilization,  in  addition  to 
nitrogen  and  phosphorus,  can  be  made  to  pay,  and  yet  the  price  of 
potash  is  very  high. 

How  Much  Commercial  Fertilizer  to  Apply. — In  using  nitro- 
genous fertilizers,  a  fairly  safe  standard  for  amounts,  in  the  absence 
of  more  definite  information  than  we  have  now,  is  the  following, 
which  is  merely  furnished  as  an  example : 

Citrate  of  soda ISO  Ibs.  per  acre 

bulphate  of  ammonia 100 

Dried  blood  or  high  grade  tankage. ......  300 

Superphosphate    300 

Sulphate  or  chloride  of  potash 200 

Sulphur   100 


HOW   TO   BUY   FERTILIZERS  153 

In  mixing  these  they  should  be  combined  in  the  same  propor- 
tions, but  home  mixing,  as  already  explained,  is,  above  all,  desirable. 

Owing  to  their  cheapness,  lime  and  gypsum  are  not  ordinarily 
classed  with  the  commercial  fertilizers,  but  they  (especially  gyp- 
sum) may  exert  similar  effects  to  the  potash  and  sulphur  fertilizers, 
and  in  some  ways  to  the  other  fertilizers  in  accordance  with  the 
conceptions  explained  in  more  detail  in  the  opening  paragraphs  of 
this  chapter.* 

Time  to  Apply  Commercial  Fertilizers. — As  more  and  more  ex- 
perimental evidence  accumulates  regarding  the  responses  of  plants 
to  the  treatment  of  soils,  on  which  they  are  grown,  it  is  becoming 
increasingly  clear  that  the  time  of  application  of  certain  of  the  plant 
food  elements,  or  of  other  chemicals,  is  an  important  consideration. 
Unfortunately,  however,  the  evidence  which  we  have  does  not  per- 
mit, as  yet,  of  the  formulation  and  definition  of  an  accurate  plan 
for  the  time  of  fertilization  of  soils.  We  are  obliged,  therefore,  to 
fall  back  for  the  present  upon  the  best  observations  which  we  possess 
relative  to  that  question.  Summarizing  such  observations  under 
California  conditions,  it  seems  proper  to  say  that  the  months  of 
February  and  March  are  the  best  periods  of  the  year  to  make  fer- 
tilizer applications.  The  choice  of  those  months  usually  secures  the 
requisite  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil  for  the  solution  of  the  fertil- 
izers directly  or  indirectly.  Besides  the  low  temperature  of  the  soil 
at  those  periods  does  not  permit  of  the  energetic  bacterial  and  fun- 
gous action  which  will  insure  the  solution  of  enough  of  the  soil's 
own  supply  of  the  necessary  elements  to  supply  the  rapidly  feeding 
roots,  hence,  the  value  of  the  supplementary  materials  furnished  by 
the  fertilizers  at  that  time. 

Generally,  the  whole  fertilizer  application  may  be  made  at  once, 
though  there  is  no  objection  to  dividing  it  into  two  or  three  appli- 
cations made  three  or  four  weeks  apart.  There  are  no  results  of 
experimental  work  to  give  a  more  trustworthy  guide  than  this  for 
the  present. 

THE    PURCHASE   AND    COST    OF   COMMERCIAL 
FERTILIZERS 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  sold  exclusively  on  the  basis  of  their 
content  of  three  of  the  essential  elements  to  plant  growth,  viz.,  nitro- 
gen, phosphorus,  and  potassium.  The  adoption  of  this  arbitrary 
standard  has  something  to  commend  it,  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  purely 
arbitrary,  as  has  been  made  clear  above.  The  production  by  large 
syndicates  of  commercial  fertilizers  for  the  market,  and  especially 
the  mixed  fertilizers,  is  largely  responsible  for  the  standards  set  and 
the  prices  adopted.  Such  prices  are  usually  very  high  and  frequently 
render  the  use  of  fertilizers  on  some  crops  unprofitable,  even  where 
the  fertilizer  elements  may  be  needed.  It  is  incumbent  upon  the  pur- 

*Detailed  information  relative  to  the  use  of  lime  and  gypsum  on  California  soils  will 
be  found  in  Circular  III  of  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  which  will  be 
sent  free  to  anyone  on  request. 


154  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

chaser  to  choose  his  fertilizers  and  to  make  his  determination  to  use 
them  only  after  careful  deliberation  and  with  great  discrimination. 
The  advice  of  the  agricultural  experiment  station  should  always  be 
sought  in  such  matters,  since  their  experience  has  been  broad 
enough  even  without  definite  scientific  basis,  to  constitute  a  more 
reliable' guide  in  such  matters  than  the  experience  of  the  individual 
orchardist  or  vineyardist. 

The  elements  essential  to  plants  are  sold  in  fertilizers  on  what 
is  known  as  the  "unit  basis."  A  unit  in  this  connotation  is  the 
equivalence  of  one  per  cent  of  a  ton.  Thus,  if  nitrate  of  soda  is  sold, 
with  nitrogen,  at  a  $4  a  unit,  it  means  that  for  every  20  pounds  (or 
1  per  cent)  of  nitrogen  which  a  ton  contains,  we  pay  $4.  If  nitrate 
of  soda  contains  15  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  the  fertilizer  sells  at  4 
times  15  or  $60  per  ton.  Such  simple  calculation  will  readily  make 
clear  to  the  grower  the  basis  upon  which  he  purchases  his  fertilizers. 


DOES  IT  PAY  TO  USE  FERTILIZERS? 

It  should  be  clear  from  the  foregoing  discussion  that  this  ques- 
tion, which  is  so  frequently  asked,  cannot  be  answered  without  much 
reservation  and  qualification.  From  practical  experience  and  such 
excellent  evidence  as  that  furnished  by  Professor  Stewart  at  the 
Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  in  working  with  apple  orchards, 
there  can  be  no  question  that  fertilization  of  orchard  soils  is  profit- 
able under  some  conditions.  But  we  must  also  remember  that  under 
somewhat  similar  conditions  at  the  New  York  Experiment  Station 
at  Geneva,  Professor  Hedrick  was  unable  to  obtain  evidence  that 
fertilizers  pay,  while  under  the  totally  different  conditions  of  Cali- 
fornia, we  could  not  expect  either  set  of  results  to  apply.  Both  of 
the  investigators  just  named  are  doubtless  correct,  each  for  his  own 
set  of  conditions,  and  this  emphasizes  the  importance  of  the  testing 
of  fertilizers  in  every  orchard  and  vineyard  to  determine  the  best 
practice  for  it,  until  such  time  as  our  scientific  experiments  may 
yield  us  something  less  empirical.  The  only  orchard  experiment  in 
fertilization  which  we  have  in  California  which  is  at  all  usable  as 
a  guide  is  that  carried  on  at  the  Citrus  Experiment  Station  at  River- 
side for  the  past  ten  years  or  more.  That  teaches  us  that  nitro- 
genous fertilizers  on  that  piece  of  land  make  a  considerable  increase 
in  tree  growth  and  fruit  production,  but  has  not  demonstrated  that 
it  pays  to  fertilize  even  at  that.  It  shows  us  very  little,  if  any, 
effects  from  phosphatic  and  potassic  fertilizers,  and  it  has  proved 
the  injurious  effects  to  that  soil,  under  those  conditions,  of  nitrate  of 
soda.  But  the  results  obtained  there,  meager  as  they  are,  are  not 
even  applicable  to  any  other  piece  of  land  necessarily.  This  em- 
phasizes again  the  point  of  view  advanced  with  regard  to  the  neces- 
sity of  fertilizer  trials  in  every  vineyard  and  orchard. 

Above  and  in  addition  to  all,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  always, 
that  fertilizers  are  merely  supplementary  measures  for  eking  out 
directly  and  indirectly  the  necessary  supply  of  the  essential  plant 
food  elements  in  the  soil.  They  constitute  very  little  alone,  but  they 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ORGANIC  MANURES 


155 


may  be  markedly  effective  through  the  changes  which  they  cause  in 
the  chemical  equilibrium  of  soils,  both  directly  and  through  their 
effects  on  the  micro-organisms  of  the  soil. 

ORGANIC    MATTER    IN    FERTILIZATION 

Indissolubly  linked  with  the  question  of  fertilizers  on  soils  is  that 
of  organic  matter.  No  soil  can  be,  or  remain,  fertile  for  any  length 
of  time  without  organic  matter.  By  organic  matter  we  mean,  in  this 
connection,  residues  of  plants  like  the  tops,  roots,  or  stubble,  and 
the  excrements  of  animals.  The  reasons  for  the  importance  of 
organic  matter  to  soils  may  be  stated  popularly  as  follows : 

1st.  It  is  the  chief  source  of  the  soil  nitrogen  which  is  needed 
by  plants. 

2nd.  It  furnishes  the  element  carbon  as  a  source  of  energy,  as 
coal  serves  for  the  engine,  for  certain  important  bacteria  which 
alone  have  the  power  of  adding  nitrogen  from  the  air  to  the  soil; 
and  for  other  bacteria  and  fungi  which  are  concerned  in  changing 
essential  substances  in  the  soil  from  an  insoluble  and  otherwise  un- 
usable form  to  a  soluble  and  usable  one. 

3rd.  It  improves  the  water-holding  power  of  sandy  soils  by 
giving  them  more  water-holding  surface,  and,  incidentally,  prevents 
them  from  becoming  packed  and  hence  relatively  impervious  to 
roots  and  to  air. 

4th.  It  improves  the  heavy  clay  soils  by  giving  them  a  more 
crumb-like  and  porous  structure  and  hence  tends  to  prevent  water- 
logging and  allows  of  freer  movement  of  air  and  roots.  For  the 
same  reason  it  prevents  baking  of  the  soil  and  renders  tillage  much 
easier. 

The  foregoing  statements  must  render  clear  the  outstanding  im- 
portance of  keeping  soils  well  stocked  with  organic  matter  and  the 
question  naturally  arises,  how  can  this  best  be  done?  By  applying 
to  the  soil  and  incorporating  therewith  any  and  all  quantities  of  the 
following  materials  that  the  economic  conditions  in  a  given  orchard 
or  vineyard  will  permit: 

Horse,  cow,  sheep,  goat,  hog  and  chicken  manures. 

Green  manures,  meaning  the  plowing  under  in  spring  of  a  winter 
grown  crop,  preferably  a  leguminous  crop  like  melilotus,  burr  clover, 
or  vetch. 

Pruning  from  trees  and  vines. 

Apple,  grape,  and  other  fruit  pomace  and  cannery  waste. 

Grain  straws — preferably  composted,  and  similar  materials. 

How  to  Apply  Organic  Matter. — Animal  manures  should  be 
broadcasted,  or  put  on  the  soil  with  a  manure  spreader.  They 
should  then  be  plowed  under  or  thoroughly  cultivated  in.  Green 
manures  should  be  thoroughly  plowed  under.  Prunings  of  various 
kinds  should  be  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  spread  evenly  over  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  then  plowed  under.  Fruit  pomace  and 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

cannery  waste  may  be  applied  broadcast  or  by  means  of  irrigation 
water. 

Amount  of  Organic  Matter  to  Apply.— It  is  impossible  to  apply 
too  much  organic  matter  to  soils  and  still  maintain  economic  condi- 
tions on  a  farm.  The  relatively  high  cost  of  animal  manures  will 
render  it  unprofitable  to  apply  enough  to  injure  thev  soil.  For  that 
reason  the  thing  to  guard  against  is  not  too  large,  but  too  small  an 
application  of  organic  matter.  When  animal  manures  are  used,  the 
following  amount  should  be  considered  as  minima  per  annum  : 

Per  acre 

Horse  manure 10  tons 

Cow  manure   10 

Hog  manure   5 

Sheep  or  goat  manure 3 

Green  manure  crops,  of  course,  cannot  be  too  large  to  plow 
under.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  prepare  the  seed  bed  and 
irrigate  so  as  to  obtain  the  largest  possible  yield  of  green  matter.* 

Precautions  in  the  Use  of  Organic  Matter. — To  be  of  much  serv- 
ice to  the  soil,  organic  matter  must  decay  with  a  fair  degree  of 
rapidity.  Such  decay  cannot  occur  without  the  presence  in  the  soil 
of  an  ample  supply  of  moisture.  It  is,  therefore,  obvious  that  much 
organic  matter  should  not  be  applied  to  soil  in  the  absence  of  suf- 
ficient moisture.  Indeed,  such  practice  may  lead  to  distinct  injury 
to  the  soil,  owing  to  the  drying  out  of  the  soil  through  the  mechan- 
ical effects  of  the  organic  matter  above  discussed  and  to  the  use  of 
moisture  by  micro-organisms  attacking  it,  thus  setting  up  a  competi- 
tion with  the  plant.  It  is  essential  particularly  to  give  heed  to  this 
warning  in  connection  with  dry  and  not  easily  decayed  organic 
matter  like  grain  straws,  prunings  and  stable  manure  consisting 
chiefly  of  litter. 

Most  careful  attention  should  be  given  in  such  cases,  and  in  the 
case  of  cover  crops,  that  the  supply  of  water  is  ample,  the  soil  in 
good  tilth,  and  the  incorporation  of  the  organic  matter  thorough. 
After  such  incorporation,  the  surface  soil  should  be  harrowed  down 
to  a  fine  state  of  division. 

Legume  Straws. — A  source  of  organic  matter  and  additional 
nitrogen  which  deserves  attention  by  itself  is  that  of  the  legume 
straws.  The  most  feasible  ones  to  use  in  California  are  alfalfa  hay, 
bean  straw,  and  pea  straw,  the  first  two  being  most  important.  It 
is  not  sufficiently  appreciated  by  fruit  growers  how  valuable  these 
materials  are  to  their  soils.  Especially  where  they  are  to  be  ob- 
tained cheaply,  these  legume  straws  are  to  be  used  wlierever  possible 
in  liberal  dressings.  Four  to  five  tons  per  acre  of  any  of  these  straws 
plowed  under  every  year  for  periods  of  five  to  ten  years  will  exert 
markedly  beneficial  effects  on  any  orchard  or  vineyard  soil. 

•Further  information  regarding  cover  or  green  manure  crops  and  their  use  on  Cali- 
fornia soils  will  be  found  in  Circular  No.  110  and  Bulletin  No.  292  of  the  California 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley. 


CHAPTER  XV 

IRRIGATION    OF   FRUIT   TREES   AND    VINES 

Whether  fruit  shall  be  grown  with  irrigation  or  not  is  a  local  and 
specific  question,  and  it  must  be  answered  with  due  regard  for 
several  conditions,  among  which  are :  First,  the  minimum  local  rain- 
fall ;  second,  the  depth  and  character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil ;  third, 
the  situation  and  environment  of  the  ground  on  which  the  fruit  is 
to  be  grown  ;  fourth,  the  kind  of  fruit  which  it  is  desired  to  produce. 

These  conditions  are  all  correlated,  and  a  knowledge  of  them  all 
is  necessary  to  an  intelligent  decision  as  to  correct  practice  in  any 
given  locality.  For  example,  the  amount  of  rainfall  which  is  ade- 
quate in  one  locality,  or  in  one  situation,  even,  may  be  quite  in- 
sufficient in  another,  because,  first,  one  soil  may  be  deep  and  fairly 
retentive,  into  which  roots  can  penetrate  and  find  abundant  mois- 
ture ;  second,  another  soil  may  have  sufficient  depth,  but  be  so  porous 
as  to  lose  its  moisture  by  evaporation,  or  so  leachy  as  to  lose  it  by 
drainage ;  third,  still  another  may  be  shallow,  and  quickly  dried  out 
under  a  fervid  sun,  or  quickly  drained  by  reason  of  a  sloping  sub- 
stratum of  rock  or  hardpan,  while  another  similar  soil,  differently 
situated,  may  receive  abundant  moisture  from  the  drainage  of  the 
slope  above  it ;  fourth,  possibly  in  all  the  soils  cited  there  might  be 
adequate  moisture  for  deciduous  fruits,  but  citrus  fruits  would  re- 
quire irrigation ;  or  enough  for  young,  but  not  for  bearing  trees. 

Thus  it  appears  that  even  to  decide  whether  a  location  has  suffi- 
cient rainfall  for  the  growth  of  fruit  without  irrigation,  one  must 
pass  judgment  upon  all  conditions  first  mentioned.  It  is  hardly 
worth  while,  then,  to  discuss  such  a  topic  upon  theoretical  grounds, 
or  to  attempt  to  answer  the  general  question,  Shall  irrigation  be 
employed  in  the  growth  of  fruit?  The  true  guide  is  enlightened  local 
experience,  and  the  true  test  is  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  ex- 
cellence of  its  fruit.  So  long  as  the  grower  is  able  to  secure  every 
year  a  generous  amount  of  good-sized  and  excellent  fruit  by  natural 
rainfall,  he  need  concern  himself  very  little  about  irrigation ;  if  his 
tree  shows  distress,  and  his  fruit,  even  when  properly  thinned  out, 
is  not  up  to  market  standards  every  year,  he  may  do  well  to  provide 
himself  with  irrigation  facilities,  either  for  constant  use  or  to  supple- 
ment rainfall  when  it  is  occasionally  deficient. 

Of  course  it  is  not  commended  that  the  grower  wait  until  the  tree 
shows  signs  of  distress  before  applying  water.  This  is  a  very  bad 
plan  of  proceeding,  but  the  visible  language  of  the  tree  is  mentioned 
as  indicating  that  the  tree  needs  help,  either  at  regular  intervals  or 
occasionally,  and  after  such  a  warning  the  grower  should  be  able 
to  tell  by  examination  of  the  soil  and  by  study  of  the  local  rainfall 
record  when  this  need  will  occur,  and  apply  water  in  advance  of 
the  need. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Recent  experience  has  enabled  fruit  growers  in  all  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia to  arrive  at  a  truer  conception  of  the  relation  of  irrigation 
to  the  growth  of  fruits.  Many  who  long  scouted  the  suggestion  that 
irrigation  was  necessary  for  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  their  districts, 
have  found  that  water,  in  addition  to  the  rainfall,  was  very  profit- 
able, either  to  enable  large,  bearing  trees  to  produce  larger  fruit,  or 
to  maintain  in  full  vigor  their  later  summer  growth  and  to  make 
strong  fruit  buds,  which  insure  the  following  year's  production.  It 
has  also  been  widely  demonstrated  that  a  tree  which  is  adequately 
supplied  with  water,  no  matter  whether  it  be  directly  from  the  clouds 
or  through  the  irrigating  stream,  yields  fruit  of  better  size,  aroma, 
flavor  and  carrying  quality  than  a  tree  which,  from  any  cause,  falls 
even  a  little  short  of  an  adequate  supply.  It  is  clear  then  that  neither 
irrigation  nor  non-irrigation  are  in  themselves  principles,  but  are 
merely  methods  to  be  employed  when  conditions  demand  the  one  or 
the  other. 

Several  claims  against  irrigated  products  may  be  stated  and 
opposed  in  this  way : 

(1)  The  claim  that  nursery  trees  grown  by  irrigation  are,  from 
that  mere  fact,  inferior  is  based  upon  experience  in  transplanting 
trees  unduly  forced  by  over-irrigation.    Immense  growth  from  the 
bud  in  a  single  season  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter  and  ten  feet 
in  height  tempted  buyers  who  wanted  to  get  as  much  as  possible  for 
their  money.    The  result  of  setting  out  such  trees  created  a  strong 
prejudice  against  irrigated  nursery  stock.     It  is  now  clearly  seen 
that  moderate,  thrifty  growth  is  the  ideal  in  a  young  tree,  and  if  the 
soil  does  not  hold  rainfall  enough  to  secure  this,  water  enough  to 
secure  it  must  be  applied. 

(2)  The  claim  that  irrigated  fruit  lacks  aroma  and  flavor  is 
based  upon  observation  of  monstrous,  insipid  fruit  forced  into  such 
abnormal  character  by  excessive  irrigation.  Growers  who  concluded 
therefrom  that  irrigated  fruit  was  necessarily  inferior,  denied  water 
to  their  trees  and  gathered  small,  tough,  unmarketable  fruit,  because 
there  was  not  enough  rainfall  to  enable  the  trees  to  perform  their 
proper  function.     As  it  is  now  conceded  that  the  highest  quality, 
including  the  delicate  aromas  and  flavors,  can  be  secured  only  by 
adequate  moisture,  it  matters  not  how  long  since  it  fell  from  the 
clouds  nor  by  what  route  it  reaches  the  roots  of  the  trees. 

(3)  The  claim  that  irrigated  fruit  could  not  endure  shipment 
was  based  upon  the  bruising  and  collapse  of  fruit  which  was  unduly 
inflated  by  over-irrigation.  The  best  fruit  for  shipping  is  the  perfect 
fruit  and  that  is  secured  as  just  stated.    The  fact  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  fresh  fruit  shipped  across  the  continent  from  California 
has  been  more  or  less  irrigated,  according  to  the  needs  of  different 
localities,  has  settled  the  point  beyond  further  controversy. 

(4)  The  claim  that  canners  objected  to  irrigated  fruit  was  based 
upon  the  early  experience  with  over-irrigated  fruit,  which  lacked 
quality  and  consistency.    At  present  the  canners  encourage  irriga- 
tion and  all  other  arts  of  growing  which  bring  the  product  up  to  the 
standards  they  insist  upon. 


HOW   MUCH   WATER   TO   USE  159 

(5)  The  claim  that  irrigated  fruit  is  inferior  for  drying  has  the 
same  foundation  as  the  preceding  claims  and  is  just  as  clearly  based 
upon  misapprehension.  Watery  fruit  is  obviously  inferior  for  drying, 
but  such  fruit  is  the  fault  of  the  irrigator,  not  of  irrigation.  One 
of  the  plainest  deductions  from  experience  is  that  small,  tough  fruit 
makes  unprofitable  dried  fruit,  and  that  the  best  development  of  the 
fruit  is  essential  to  the  best  results  from  drying.  Many  comparative 
weighings  have  shown  that  the  greatest  yield  in  dried  form  has  been 
secured  from  trees  which  have  had  water  enough  to  produce  good, 
large  fruit.  Even  to  bear  fruit  for  drying,  then,  the  tree  must  have 
moisture  enough  to  develop  size  and  quality.  If  lacking  moisture, 
the  tree  serves  its  own  purpose  in  developing  pit  and  skin  and  re- 
duces the  pulp,  in  which  lie  the  desirability  and  value  of  dried  fruits. 

Of  course  the  water  should  be  applied  at  proper  times,  in  proper 
amount,  and  in  a  proper  way. 

HOW  MUCH  WATER  SHOULD  BE  USED? 

This  is  by  its  very  nature  an  elusive  question  and  any  attempt  to 
answer  it  by  a  definite  prescription  is  more  apt  to  produce  folly  than 
wisdom.  For  as  it  appears  that  whether  irrigation  is  at  all  needed 
or  not  depends  upon  several  conditions  which  must  be  ascertained 
in  each  place,  so  the  amount  of  water,  which  is  really  an  expression 
of  the  degree  of  that  need,  depends  also  upon  local  conditions  of 
rainfall,  of  soil  depth  and  retentiveness,  of  rate  of  waste  by  evapora- 
tion, of  the  particular  thirst  of  each  irrigated  crop,  etc.  The  result 
secured  by  the  use  of  water  is  really  the  ultimate  measure  of  the 
duty  of  water  in  each  instance.  In  the  case  of  fruit  trees  and  vines, 
then,  whatever  amount  of  water  secures  thrifty  and  adequate  wood 
growth  and  strong,  good-colored  foliage,  but  not  excessive  nor  rank 
growth ;  and  abundance  of  good-sized  and  rich,  but  not  monstrous 
and  watery  fruit,  is  the  proper  amount  for  that  place  and  that  prod- 
uct,— and  to  the  ascertainment  of  that  amount  by  local  experience 
of  himself  and  others,  the  grower  should  employ  his  most  earnest 
thought  and  his  keenest  insight. 

During  many  years  the  writer  has  continually  renewed  his  data 
of  the  irrigation  practice  of  California  fruit  growers  by  systematic 
inquiry  and  has  prepared  four  bulletins*  which  have  been  published 
by  the  Irrigation  Investigations  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

A  study  of  local  practice  shows  that  infinite  variety  exists  and  in 
the  nature  of  the  case  must  exist,  and  that  any  definite  prescription 
of  the  duty  of  water  under  various  conditions  is  impossible.  In  some 
cases  the  amount  of  water  at  each  irrigation  must  be  small,  and 
applications  frequent  because  the  soils  are  shallow,  overlying  bed- 
rock, and  a  small  amount  saturates  them.  In  other  places  an  acre- 
foot  of  water  is  readily  absorbed  and  retained  in  the  deep  soil.  The 

*Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  116,  "Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing';  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  138, 
"Irrigation  in  Garden  and  Field";  Bulletin  of  Experiment  Stations  No.  108,  "Irrigation 
Practice  Among  Fruit  Growers  of  the  Pacific  Coast";  annual  report  of  irrigation  and 
drainage  investigations,  1904.  "Relation  of  Irrigation  to  Yield.  Size,  Quality,  and  Com- 
mercial Suitability  of  Fruits." 


16Q  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

annual  rainfall  also  has  little  relation  to  the  amount  of  irrigation, 
because  neither  fine  shallow,  nor  deep  coarse  soils,  can  retain  the 
volume  of  water  which  falls  upon  them  during  the  rainy  season. 
Then  the  varying  rate  of  evaporation,  the  character  of  the  tilth,  etc., 
enter  as  factors  and  it  becomes  clear  that  he  is  fortunate  who  knows 
how  much  water  to  use  on  his  own  place. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  results  of  close  inquiry  by  the  Irriga- 
tion Investigations  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  to  ascer- 
tain the  amounts  of  water  used  by  measurement  of  water  running 
in  main  ditches  and  by  estimate  of  the  acreage  to  which  the  water 
is  applied,  do  not  agree  closely  with  the  growers'  estimates  of  the 
amounts  of  water  which  they  actually  use.  There  are,  of  course, 
always  issues  between  water-purveyors  and  water-buyers  which  can 
not  be  entered  upon  in  this  connection.  A  rough  conclusion  from 
data  secured  from  the  ditch  flow,  etc.,  is  that  from  12  to  30  acre- 
inches  of  water  are  used  annually  in  irrigated  orchards  and  vine- 
yards, according  to  local  conditions  involved.  It  is  quite  clear  that 
the  amounts  chiefly  used  would  not  be  the  average  but  would  tend 
toward  the  lower  figure.  The  details  of  these  inquiries  are  found 
in  the  publications  on  irrigation  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture.* 

RELATION   OF  RAINFALL  TO  IRRIGATION 

The  amount  of  rain  and  the  time  it  falls  are  clearly  the  most 
important  factors  in  determining  the  necessity  for  irrigation.  Ab- 
sence of  rainfall  makes  a  desert  of  the  richest  soils  at  all  elevations 
and  at  all  exposures.  Its  only  remedy  is  irrigation.  But  there  are 
degrees  of  poverty  in  rainfall,  and  thorough  tillage  will  often  lessen 
the  ill  effects  of  a  scanty  supply,  so  that  an  oasis  may  be  made  to 
appear  without  water  beyond  that  supplied  from  the  clouds.  This 
is  the  triumph  of  tillage  in  the  arid  region  which  is  to  be  considered 
in  another  connection. 

The  line  between  adequate  and  insufficient  rainfall  can  not  be 
closely  drawn.  In  the  growth  of  common  orchard  fruits,  irrigation 
may  not  be  resorted  to  at  a  number  of  points  where  the  local  rainfall 
sometimes  is  as  low  as  15  or  16  inches,  but  with  less  than  that 
amount,  unless  the  soil  receive  additional  moisture  by  underflow,  it 
is  essential.  On  the  other  hand,  irrigation  is  regularly  practised  in 
some  localities  where  the  rainfall  rises  to  45  inches.  Under  average 
conditions  of  soil  depth  and  retentiveness,  the  amount  of  rainfall 
which  may  be  considered  adequate  for  deciduous  orchard  trees  un- 
der good  cultivation  is  about  20  inches.  So  definitely  is  this  amount 
fixed  in  the  minds  of  some  California  growers  as  meeting  the  needs 
of  the  tree  for  satisfactory  growth  and  foliage  that,  when  rainfall 
for  a  season  is  less  than  that  amount,  irrigation  is  at  once  resorted 
to  to  supply  the  shortage. 


u  ,ci}ation    is   no*   made     because     these     publications     are     continually      appearing 

itn  additional  data  on  the  effective  use  of  water.  The  whole  series  should  be  examined.     The 
ot_the.    Irrigation  InvesttRations"   of  the  Department  of   Agriculture  is   Samuel    Fortier 
whose  office  is  in  the  Post  Office  Building.  Berkeley,  Calif. 


WHEN   IS    IRRIGATION   DESIRABLE  \ft\ 

But  owing  to  local  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  the  rainfall,  no 
matter  how  large,  may  not  always  be  relied  upon  to  carry  the  trees 
through  the  dry  season.  The  fact  is  that  the  soil  is  not  capable  either 
of  receiving  the  heavy  rainfall  or  of  long  retaining  such  portions  as 
actually  enter  it.  There  is,  then,  a  considerable  part  of  the  rainfall 
which  is  worse  than  worthless,  because  it  does  injury  by  soil  wash- 
ing and  soil  leaching,  and  places  where  extremely  heavy  rainfall 
occurs  may  be  actually  worse  off  than  other  places  with  less  rain- 
fall. Some  localities  of  large  rainfall  lead  in  amounts  of  water  sup- 
plied by  irrigation.  The  converse  is  also  true,  for  some  localities  of 
light  rainfall  report  success  with  deciduous  fruit  trees  with  a  mini- 
mum amount  of  irrigation  water. 

Deciduous  Fruits. — Without  making  too  much  of  individual  re- 
ports there  appear  instances  enough  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that 
the  deciduous  fruit  tree  can  winter  successfully  with  a  small  mois- 
ture supply  and  is,  in  fact,  in  less  danger  from  lack  of  moisture  than 
from  over-supply  at  this  time  of  the  year.  If  there  be  enough  mois- 
ture to  prevent  injury  from  evaporation,  the  tree  will  start  good 
growth  as  the  season  advances  and  continue  it  if  irrigation  is  given 
promptly  and  in  sufficient  quantity.  There  must  always  be  a  deter- 
mination of  what  is  an  adequate  supply  by  reference  to  local  con- 
ditions, but  as  an  estimate  of  necessary  rainfall  has  been  made  at  20 
inches,  it  is  evident  that  adequate  irrigation  may  be  very  much  less 
than  that.  The  rainfall  of  20  inches  is  distributed  through  six  or 
seven  months.  Some  of  it  consists  of  light  rains,  with  long,  dry 
intervals,  where  there  is  slight  penetration  and  quick  evaporation. 
Some  of  it  is  lost  by  run  off  and  by  drainage.  It  is  not  surprising, 
then,  that  some  growers  having  deep  valley  loams  to  render  their 
irrigation  effective,  report  success  with  deciduous  trees  with  8  or  10 
inches  of  water  applied  just  before  the  time  of  the  tree's  greatest 
needs  and  used,  no  doubt,  with  maximum  efficiency.  It  seems  to 
be  a  warranted  deduction,  from  all  data  known  to  the  writer,  that 
10  inches  of  water,  applied  at  the  right  time  to  soils  of  good  depth 
and  fair  retentiveness,  and  accompanied  by  good  tillage  for  con- 
servation, is  an  adequate  supply  for  five  months  of  growth  and 
fruiting  even  when  the  rainfall  is  only  about  enough  to  prevent 
drying  out  during  the  winter  season.  Some  growers  report  use  of 
less  than  this.  Certainly  less  will  do  for  young  trees  under  favor- 
able conditions,  and  some  of  the  least  amounts  are  reported  from 
the  newly  planted  regions.  As  the  trees  advance  in  age  and  bearing, 
larger  amounts  will  be  required.  Instances  of  greatest  frequency 
of  application  may  be  taken  as  indicating  soils  lacking  retentiveness, 
either  through  shallowness  or  coarseness,  or  either  of  these  accom- 
panied by  extreme  summer  heat  and  aridity. 

Citrus  Fruits. — As  these  trees  are  evergreens,  and  as  their  habit  is 
to  make  their  chief  fruit  growth  in  the  autumn  after  the  work  of  the 
deciduous  tree  has  been  finished  for  the  season,  the  irrigation  season 
for  them  is  much  longer.  As  they  are,  in  fact,  almost  always  active 
and  sustaining  evaporation  from  their  leaf  surfaces,  they  must 
always  be  provided  with  moisture  or  ill  will  result  to  tree  or  fruit. 


162 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


They  thus  require  more  water  than  do  deciduous  trees.  There  is 
the  same  relation  between  irrigation  and  rainfall  with  citrus,  as  with 
deciduous  fruit  trees,  but  the  degree  of  relation  is  different.  Many 
trials  have  shown  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  grow  satisfac- 
tory citrus  fruits  without  irrigation,  unless  there  be  underflow, 
and  this  is  often  attended  by  the  usual  difficulties  of  high  ground 
water  and  may  be  undesirable.  There  is  no  combination  of  heavy 
rainfall,  or  winter  irrigation,  and  soil  retentiveness  which  will  supply 
the  summer  and  autumn  thirst  of  the  orange  or  lemon  in  California. 
Irrigation,  too,  must  be  maintained  both  summer  and  winter 
wherever  the  rainfall  is  not  well  distributed  and  adequate.  In  the 
chief  citrus  regions  of  the  State  rainfall  is  seldom  adequate  except 
during  January  and  February,  and  not  always  then.  Under  such 
conditions  an  estimate  of  the  average  requirements  of  citrus  fruit 
trees  in  bearing  would  be  about  20  inches  of  irrigation,  irrespective 
of  rainfall,  although  there  are  localities  of  larger  rainfall  and  more 
retentive  soils  where  crops  of  these  fruits  can  be  made  with  10 
inches  used  at  just  the  right  time. 

RELATIONS  OF  SOIL  TO  IRRIGATION 

As  already  stated,  the  desirability  of  irrigation  is  unquestionably, 
in  many  cases,  conditioned  upon  soil  depth  and  character.  This 
relation  has  received  careful  attention  from  soil  physicists,  and  an 
understanding  of  it  involves  problems  of  plant  growth  and  the  move- 
ment of  water  in  soils,  the  leading  facts  of  which  are  available  in 
popular  form.* 

Analysis  of  such  phenomena  can  not  be  undertaken  in  this  con- 
nection, but  a  few  striking  contrasts  in  existing  practice  are  very 
suggestive. 

On  the  famous  river-bank  fruit  land  of  the  Sacramento  Valley, 
with  loams  of  great  depth  and  good  retentiveness,  and  with  an  aver- 
age rainfall  of  approximately  20  inches,  irrigation  is  resorted  to  only 
in  years  of  minimum  rainfall,  when  the  precipitation  is  perhaps  only 
about  half  the  average.  At  nearly  the  same  level,  as  already  cited, 
where  the  soil  is  shallow  and  overlies  hardpan,  irregular  irrigation 
is  required.  But  still  more  marked  contrast  is  found  in  the  foothills 
within  sight  of  these  valley  fruit  lands,  where  with  twice  the  average 
rainfall  irrigation  must  begin  early  in  the  summer  and  continue  until 
autumn  is  well  advanced,  because,  first,  the  slope  is  so  rapid  that 
much  rainfall  is  lost  by  run  off ;  second,  the  soil  is  too  shallow  above 
bedrock  to  hold  much  water.  Even  here,  however,  there  conies 
in  a  local  variation  of  measurable  effect.  When  the  soil  lies  upon 
vertical  plates  of  bedrock  much  water  is  retained  between  them, 
and  is  capable  of  being  reached  by  tree  roots,  while  soil  lying  upon 
flat  plates  of  rock  has  no  such  subterranean  reservoir.  In  the  foot- 
hill region  there  also  occurs  exceptional  exposure  from  slopes  facing 

fartn*R?lattunS  °f  Suils  *to  .climat*>  U.   S.    Dept.   AKT.,   Weather   Bureau   Bui.    3.     Water  as   a 

•m   the  Krowth   of  plants.   Yearbook  U.    S.    Dept.   of   AKr..    1894,   p.    165.      Some   inter- 

:stmK    soil    problems.    Yearbook   U.   S.    Dept.    AKr.,    1897.    p.    429.      The    movement   and    re- 

^,?rP°TTWa|ernn.SOAS'  Y??—0-ok  Ur  $••?*#•  ARr"    1898'  °-   399-     The   mechanics   of  soil 
moisture,  U.  S.  Dept.  Aj?r.,  Division  of  Soils,  Bui.  10. 


CULTIVATION  AND  IRRIGATION  163 

the  midsummer  sun  in  an  atmosphere  whose  dryness  is  but  slightly 
ameliorated  by  the  influence  of  air  currents  from  the  coast. 

In  the  valley  and  foothill  contrast,  just  cited,  the  unirrigated 
valley  looks  up  to  the  irrigated  foothills.  There  are  also  places 
where  unirrigated  hillslopes  look  down  upon  irrigated  valleys.  The 
uplands  of  San  Diego  County  are  nearer  the  coast  than  those  above 
the  Sacramento  Valley.  They,  too,  have  a  rainfall  usually  ample  for 
deciduous  fruits  suited  to  their  elevation.  Their  rolling  plateaus  of 
deep  soil,  free  from  excessive  heat  and  evaporation  which  occur  on 
the  highlands  farther  inland  and  500  miles  farther  north,  produce 
very  successfully  without  irrigation.  In  this  region,  however,  the 
rainfall  in  the  valleys  below  is  often  less  than  the  needs  of  even  the 
deciduous  fruit  trees,  and  waters  flowing  from  mountain  snows 
through  a  region  of  unirrigated  uplands  must  be  used  to  irrigate 
them. 

Still  another  striking  contrast,  and  one  involving  another  and 
wholly  different  factor,  is  found  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  Near 
Visalia  2  feet  above  river  bottom  and  4  feet  above  the  surrounding 
plains,  there  is  a  large  area  of  deep  alluvial  soil  with  much  decayed 
vegetable  matter.  The  land  is  moistened  by  underflow  from  the 
river,  and,  though  the  rainfall  is  but  7^  inches,  deciduous  fruits  are 
grown  without  irrigation.  In  the  same  county,  and  only  18  miles 
distant,  there  are  areas  of  rich  loam  mixed  with  granite  sand  16  to 
18  feet  deep.  In  this  locality,  though  the  rainfall  is  11/4  inches, 
irrigation  is  practised  freely,  as  the  loss  of  moisture  in  summer  is 
very  great. 

RELATION    OF   TILLAGE   TO    IRRIGATION 

Tillage,  particularly  during  the  dry  season  of  the  year,  under 
some  conditions,  directly  determines  the  need  of  irrigation,  and  is 
to  a  certain  extent,  as  the  popular  phrase  goes,  a  substitute  for  irri- 
gation. Under  all  conditions  surface  tillage  by  promoting  conserva- 
tion of  soil  moisture,  is  determinative  of  the  actual  duty  of  water, 
whether  it  be  from  rainfall  or  irrigation.  The  effect  of  frequent 
surface  tillage  has  been  accurately  determined  by  investigation  and 
experiment,  both  in  humid  and  arid  regions.  These  experiments 
fully  support  the  view  taught  by  the  experience  of  more  than  half 
a  century  in  California,  in  accordance  with  which  thorough  tillage 
has  been  so  widely  practised  in  the  arid  sections  as  an  essential  to 
successful  fruit  growing. 

As  already  maintained  in  Chapter  XIII,  the  relations  of  tillage  to 
soil  moisture  include  both  reception  and  conservation.  For  the  re- 
ception of  moisture,  deep  work  with  the  plow,  and  sometimes  with 
the  subsoiler  also,  is  almost  indispensable.  To  retain  this  moisture 
and  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  its  escape  into  the  thirsty  air  of 
the  arid  region  by  surface  evaporation,  less  depth  and  more  thorough 
surface  pulverization  are  required.  Recent  practice  has  been  tending 
toward  deeper  summer  cultivation,  so  that,  as  previously  claimed,  5 
or  6  inches  of  loose,  finely  divided  soil  is  now  obtained  where  for- 


164 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


merly  half  that  depth  was  considered  adequate.  It  has  also  been 
shown  that  frequent  stirring  of  this  fine  surface  layer  checks  evapo- 
ration, even  when  no  water  is  applied  to  compact  the  surface  of 
where' no  weeds  grow  to  draw  upon  the  soil  moisture.  In  a  word, 
the  aim  of  tillage  in  the  arid  region,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  moisture 
supply  in  the  soil  consists  in  opening  the  soil  to  rain,  or  to  irrigation, 
and  in  subsequently  closing  it  to  evaporation.  These  are  the  prin- 
ciples which  were  recognized  and  applied  in  California  seventy  years 
ago  and  are  now  enjoying  somewhat  sensational  renaissance  in  the 
"dry  farming"  agitation  in  the  interior  of  the  United  States. 

A  Negative  Declaration. — It  is  interesting  that  current  practice 
affords  full  demonstration  of  the  foregoing  claims  both  positively 
and  negatively.  The  negative  argument  in  favor  of  moisture  con- 
servation by  clean  summer  cultivation  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
growers  in  regions  of  heaviest  rainfall  approve  the  growth  of  cover 
crops,  like  clover,  after  the  trees  reach  bearing  age,  and  also  that 
others  employ  scant  summer  cultivation,  or  cultivation  for  a  short 
period  only.  The  idea  of  these  growers  is  that  such  practices  relieve 
the  soil  of  excessive  moisture,  either  by  the  growth  of  the  cover 
crop  or  by  facilitating  surface  evaporation,  and  so  prevent  the  tree 
from  being  stimulated  to  too  large  wood  growth,  or  maintaining 
growth  so  late  in  the  season  as  to  enter  the  frost  period  in  too  active 
a  condition  and  with  new  wood  not  properly  matured.  Quite  in 
contrast  with  this  is  the  practice,  which  is  gaining  ground  in  the 
hottest  parts  of  the  irrigated  region,  of  growing  alfalfa  as  a  cover 
crop  for  the  purpose  of  shading  the  soil  and  thus  reducing  soil  tem- 
perature and,  perhaps,  of  avoiding  the  ill  effects  of  the  reflection  of 
burning  sun  heat  from  a  smooth  surface  of  light-colored  soil,  or  the 
ill  effect  of  "burning  out  of  humus"  by  clean  summer  culture.  In 
such  cases  more  irrigation  is  needed  to  supply  enough  water  for  the 
growth  of  both  trees  and  cover  crop.  But  at  present  these  excep- 
tions are  of  rare  occurrence. 

Cultivation  Not  Determined  by  Irrigation. — The  adoption  of  a 
policy  of  clean  cultivation  in  the  dry  season  is  not  conditioned  upon 
the  amount  of  moisture  available  either  by  rainfall  or  irrigation. 
It  is  pursued  both  where  irrigation  is  practised  and  where  it  is  not, 
and  also  where  the  rainfall  is  greatest  and  where  it  is  least.  It  pre- 
vails in  the  humid  region  where  rainfall  may  rise  to  60  inches  or 
more,  and  in  the  arid  region  where  it  may  not  exceed  one-tenth  as 
much.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  a  good  fruit 
soil  so  deep  and  retentive  that  it  can  retain  enough  even  of  a  very 
heavy  rainfall  to  effect  good  tree  growth  and  fruit  bearing  if  it  is 
forced  to  sustain  the  loss  by  evaporation  from  a  compact  surface 
during  the  long  dry  season  following.  There  may  be,  it  is  true,  soils 
weak  in  capillarity,  in  which  water  does  not  rise  to  surface  evapora- 
tion and  in  which  deep-rooting  plants  may  find  ample  water  in  the 
subsoil,  providing  it  is  held  there  by  impervious  underlying  strata. 
There  are  many  more  instances  where  loss  by  natural  drainage  is 
added  to  loss  by  evaporation.  But,  disregarding  exceptions,  the  loss 
of  moisture  by  both  drainage  and  evaporation  during  the  dry  season 


WHEN   TO   IRRIGATE  165 

is  so  great  that  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  feet  loses  practically 
all  the  water  which  is  available  for  plant  growth,  and  the  trees  fail 
or  become  unprofitable.  Loss  by  drainage  can  not,  practically,  be 
prevented,  but  loss  by  evaporation  can  be  so  reduced  that  trees  and 
vines  will  be  adequately  supplied  in  spite  of  the  loss  by  drainage. 
Because,  therefore,  the  soil  can  not  retain  enough  water  in  its  natural 
state,  no  matter  how  much  it  may  receive,  clean  summer  cultivation, 
involving  quite  complete  and  more  or  less  frequent  stirring  of  the 
surface  to  the  depth  of  5  or  6  inches,  as  discussed  in  Chapter  XIII, 
is  the  almost  universal  practice,  irrespective  of  local  rainfall  or  of 
irrigation — except  where  irrigation  water  is  so  abundant  that  it  can 
be  used  to  grow  summer  crops  of  legumes  for  plowing  under  as  well 
as  to  supply  the  moisture  requirements  of  the  trees. 

Cultivation,   However,  Determines  Success  of  Irrigation. — The 

prevailing  motive  for  cultivation  in  the  dry-summer  region  is  mois- 
ture retention.  In  this  respect  good  surface  tilth  is  so  effective  that, 
though  enough  moisture  can  not  be  retained  without  it,  so  much  can 
be  retained  with  it  that,  even  where  irrigation  or  rainfall  is  moderate 
in  amount,  it  may  serve  all  purposes  of  the  tree  or  vine.  Thus  culti- 
vation enters  into  the  fruit-growers'  practice  in  the  region  under 
consideration,  not  to  make  large  rainfall  effective  as  it  does  in  some 
parts  of  the  region,  but  to  make  moderate  rainfall  effective,  or  to 
make  small  irrigation  effective,  by  increasing  the  duty  of  water 
which  is  applied.  It  becomes  not  only  a  ruling  consideration  in  the 
effectiveness  of  a  certain  amount  of  rainfall,  as  has  already  been 
suggested  in  another  connection,  but  it  also  determines  the  success 
of  irrigation  and  the  amount  of  water  required ;  for,  although  it  was 
an  early  and  crude  practice  to  rely  upon  irrigation  to  support  un- 
cultivated fruit  trees  and  to  irrigate  more  and  more  frequently  as 
the  ground  became  harder  from  its  use,  this  policy  has  now  no  stand- 
ing in  commercial  fruit  growing.  Not  only  was  it  wasteful  of  water, 
but  it  was  otherwise  detrimental  to  the  thrift  of  trees. 

Tillage  and  Irrigation  Work  for  Soil  Improvement. — Rational 
tillage,  both  in  winter  and  summer,  has  other  very  important  ends 
in  view.  It  opens  the  soil  and  promotes  aeration ;  it  encourages 
deeper  rooting  and  thus  encourages  the  tree  to  take  possession  of  a 
greater  soil  mass  both  for  moisture  and  other  plant  food.  It  is  part 
of  the  very  valuable  policy  of  increasing  organic  matter  by  plowing 
under  the  natural  growth  of  weeds  or  specially  sown  legumes.  This 
affords  opportunity  to  use  water,  beyond  the  amount  the  trees  re- 
quire, for  soil  improvement. 

WHEN  TO  IRRIGATE 

When  to  irrigate  is  governed  by  local  conditions  and  the  needs  of 
different  fruits,  and  can  not  be  stated  in  general  rules.  There  are, 
however,  some  principles  involved  which  may  be  hinted  at. 

Winter  Irrigation. — On  lands  with  sufficient  depth  of  fairly  re- 
tentive soil,  the  grower  may  artificially  supplement  a  scanty  rainfall 


166 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


by  thoroughly  soaking  the  land  by  winter  irrigation  and  then  by 
careful  summer  cultivation  he  will  be  able  to  conserve  enough  water 
in  the  soil  to  carry  deciduous  fruit  trees  or  vines  through  bearing 
and  autumn  bud  formation  without  further  water  supply.  But  there 
are  other  situations  in  which  no  amount  of  winter  irrigation  nor 
rainfall  will  suffice  for  these  ends.  There  are  foothiH  orchard  areas 
in  which  the  winter  rainfall  is  two  or  three  times  as  "great  as  in  the 
valley  situations  where  fruit  is  successfully  grown  without  irriga- 
tion, and  yet  water  must  be  applied  in  summer  on  those  foothills  or 
the  fruit  would  be  unmarketable  and  the  trees  in  distress.  The  forty 
or  more  inches  of  rainfall  falling  on  a  shallow  soil  underlaid  by 
sloping  bedrock  in  some  cases  nearly  sluices  the  cultivated  soil  from 
its  foothold,  and  yet  the  over-saturation  in  winter  avails  nothing  for 
summer  growth,  because  most  diligent  cultivation  can  not  retain 
moisture  enough  in  shallow  soil  thus  situated  to  sustain  bearing  trees 
in  good  crops  of  full-sized  fruit.  The  same  is  true  of  valley  soils 
underlaid  by  hardpan.  In  such  cases  winter  irrigation  could  add 
nothing  but  distress  to  the  soil  over-soaked  by  rainfall,  and  summer 
irrigation,  well-timed  and  adequate,  is  the  secret  of  success  in  the 
orchard.  The  same  conclusion,  although  for  very  different  reasons, 
must  hold  for  soils  underlaid  by  gravel  or  sand,  and  thus  too  rapidly 
dried  by  leaching. 

But  even  this  generalization  must  be  accepted  only  for  situations 
endowed  with  conditions  which  justify  it.  There  may  be  sloping 
hills  with  shallow  soil  where  winter  rainfall  does  not  amount  to 
saturation.  Then  winter  irrigation  to  supply  such  irrigation  is 
desirable,  and  then,  too,  summer  irrigation  in  proper  amount  and 
at  proper  intervals,  will  also  be  demanded.  Among  the  foothills, 
also,  there  may  be  localities  with  depth  of  retentive  soil  in  which 
water  enough  can  be  applied  in  winter  to  carry  trees  through  the 
year.  Thus  we  come  again  to  the  only  safe  generalization  which  can 
be  made,  and  that  is,  that  everywhere  water  must  be  adequate  to 
the  demands  of  the  tree  at  the  time  it  is  needed,  and  whether  it  can 
best  be  applied  in  summer  or  winter,  or  both,  or  whether  it  is  not 
necessary  to  make  any  artificial  application  at  all,  depends  upon 
existing  conditions  which  the  grower  must  ascertain,  and  to  which 
his  policy  and  practice  must  conform.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that,  in 
all  situations  of  good  rainfall,  and  for  all  soils,  which  are  fairly  deep 
and  retentive,  winter  irrigation,  when  water  is  most  abundant,  and 
usually  carries  most  sediment,  can  be  made  to  go  far  toward  making 
summer  irrigation  unnecessary  for  all  deciduous  fruits. 

As  to  winter  irrigation,  practice  varies,  some  relying  upon  a  single 
heavy  flooding  by  using  checks  on  contour  lines,  by  which,  perhaps, 
a  foot  in  depth  or  more  of  water  is  allowed  to  soak  into  the  soil; 
others  use  the  same  method  of  application  in  winter  as  in  summer, 
and,  therefore,  give  a  number  of  irrigations  in  winter.  There  is,  of 
course,  much  less  danger  of  injury  by  water  to  deciduous  growths 
in  winter,  because  they  are  dormant,  though  an  eye  should  be  kept 
on  drainage  for  excessive  irrigation  as  for  excessive  rainfall.  The 
grape  and  the  pear  are  known  to  endure  long  submergence,  but  some 
other  fruits  are  susceptible  to  serious  root-injury. 


METHODS   OF  IRRIGATION  167 

Summer  Irrigation. — When  this  shall  begin  and  when  end  are  to 
be  locally  determined.  In  some  places  even  the  earliest  fruits  can 
not  reach  satisfactory  size  and  quality  without  irrigation.  In  others 
rainfall  with  winter  irrigation  will  suffice  for  proper  development  of 
early  fruits,  but  not  for  late.  In  both  cases  the  fruit  may  be  satis- 
factory, but  the  tree  unable  to  hold  its  leaf  vigor  until  the  work  of 
the  growing  season  is  properly  completed.  It  is  then  apparent  that 
local  practice  must  vary  in  order  to  reach  the  universal  fact,  and 
that  is  that  all  through  the  active  season  the  tree  must  have  constant 
and  adequate  moisture  supply.  Many  evils  in  lack  of  bearing,  in 
dying  back,  in  unseasonable  activity  and  the  like  are  due  to  in- 
adequate, intermittent  and,  in  some  cases,  to  excessive  moisture  in 
the  soil. 

Cultivation  and  Irrigation. — Although  the  relations  of  irrigation 
and  cultivation  have  been  freely  discussed,  it  must  be  remarked  in 
this  connection  that  with  such  an  extension  of  irrigation  practice  as 
is  now  realized,  there  is  danger  that  those  who  have  previously 
trusted  so  fully  upon  good  cultivation  may  swing  to  the  other  ex- 
treme and  trust  too  much  to  the  stream  of  water  and  too  little  to  the 
plow  and  cultivator.  There  is  a  temptation  this  way  when  one  finds 
that  he  can  run  water  in  large  amounts  very  cheaply.  Not  only  is 
there  danger  of  over-irrigation  in  the  growth  of  tree  and  fruit,  but 
the  ill  effects  of  water  upon  the  soil,  when  unattended  by  good  culti- 
vation, are  constantly  threatened.  The  tree  needs  air  as  well  as 
water ;  it  needs  a  certain  free  condition  of  the  soil  for  its  best  root 
action.  These  needs  can  be  amply  secured  when  adequate  applica- 
tion of  water  is  quickly  followed  by  soil-stirring.  Irrigated  soil  when 
amply  supplied  with  organic  matter,  is  delightfully  mellow  and  free 
and  of  condition  to  invite  the  fullest  activity  on  the  part  of  the  tree. 
Irrigated  ground  not  properly  treated  becomes  compacted,  fissured, 
cloddy  and  generally  hateful,  losing  moisture  rapidly,  setting  around 
the  roots  like  cement  and  tearing  them  by  its  subsequent  shrinkage. 
These  conditions  do  not  occur  on  the  lighter  soils,  and  yet  even  these 
are  best  when  cultivated  in  a  rational  manner. 


METHODS  OF  IRRIGATION 

There  are  various  methods  employed  in  California  for  the  con- 
veyance and  application  of  water  to  trees  and  vines.  Some  of  the 
principal  ones  will  be  described. 

As  this  writing  does  not  pretend  to  be  a  treatise  on  irrigation 
engineering,  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  secribe  the  more  ambitious 
undertakings,  which  should  never  be  entered  upon  without  the  en- 
gagement of  a  qualified  engineer.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  discuss  the 
numerous  devices  which  are  covered  by  patents.  Investment  should 
always  be  preceded  by  visits  to  irrigation  works  now  in  operation, 
and  procedure  should  be  guided  by  observation.  The  hints  presented 
herewith  relate  chiefly  to  things  the  irrigator  can  do  for  himself. 

Free  Flooding. — Flooding — that  is,  the  free  flow  of  water  over 
the  whole  surface,  or  the  flow  between  rows  with  furrows  near  the 


168 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


trees  to  retain  the  water  in  the  interspaces — is  only  employed  on 
some  flat  lands  where  winter  irrigation  is  used  to  supplement  rain- 
fall when  the  l^ter  is  occasionally  below  normal.  In  such  cases 
water  is  available  in  large  quantities,  and  the  lay  of  the  land  favors 
quite  even  distribution.  Even  under  these  conditions  the  experience 
of  growers  soon  leads  to  the  adoption  of  deep  furrows  or  lateral 
ditches,  or  some  simple  check  system,  as  superior  to  flooding. 
Summer  flooding  is  done  only  by  those  who  are  unacquainted  with 
better  methods  or  who  count  their  trees  of  too  little  account  to 
warrant  extra  effort.  It  seems,  therefore,  a  fair  conclusion  that 
flooding  is  only  resorted  to  as  a  temporary  expedient,  and  has  little 
standing. 

The  Check  System. — With  soils  of  such  character  that  vertical 
percolation  is  very  rapid,  flooding  in  checks,  by  which  water  is  held 
upon  a  particular  area  until  it  sinks  below  the  surface,  is  considered 
necessary.  There  is  a  tendency  to  change  from  this  methods  to  a 
furrow  system  wherever  practicable,  because  the  former  requires 
more  soil  shifting,  a  larger  head  of  water  for  economical  operation, 
more  labor  to  handle  it,  more  working  in  water  and  mud,  and  more 
difficult  cultivation  to  relevel  the  land  and  to  reduce  a  puddled 
surface  to  satisfactory  tilth.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  perhaps, 
on  loams  of  medium  fineness  one  may  find  two  adjacent  growers 
pursuing  different  methods,  while  on  coarse  porous  loams  the  check 
or  basin  system  prevails,  and  on  fine,  retentive  loams,  the  furrow 
system  is  without  rival. 

The  check  system  can  be  seen  on  the  most  extensive  scale  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  where  the  land  is  so  level  and 
water  so  abundant  that  the  checks  can  be  measured  by  acres  or 
fractions  of  acres.  In  its  most  perfect  form  it  is  found  in  Orange 
County  and  some  parts  of  Los  Angeles  County,  where  the  checks  are 
measured  by  feet,  rarely  by  rods.  Very  large  checks  are  chiefly  used 
for  field  crops,  although  also  employed  for  winter  irrigation  for 
vineyards  and  orchards  of  deciduous  fruits.  With  fruits,  however, 
even  in  the  same  district,  the  tendency  is  toward  using  smaller 
checks  carefully  leveled  before  planting.  With  the  large-check 
system  permanent  levees,  either  in  rectangular  form  or  on  the  con- 
tour plan,  are  generally  used.  The  small-check  system  is  chiefly  laid 
off  with  temporary  levees,  quickly  made  with  special  appliances 
and  as  quickly  worked  back  to  a  level  as  soon  as  the  ground  dries 
sufficiently  after  irrigation,  and  the  whole  surface  kept  well  cultivated 
until  the  time  arrives  for  a  restoration  of  the  levees  for  the  next 
irrigation.  The  latter  is  the  leading  horticultural  mode.  It  is  care- 
fully described  by  Mr.  Sydmer  Ross,  of  Fullerton,  Orange  County, 
California,  as  follows : 

The  check  system,  as  carried  out  in  the  best-handled  orchards,  entails 
much  hard  work,  but  after  you  are  through  with  an  irrigation  you  know  that 
each  and  every  tree  has  had  its  full  supply  of  water  or  you  know  the  reason 
why.  The  ground  must  be  cultivated,  say,  about  5  inches  deep,  so  as  to  have 
•lenty^of  loose  soil  with  which  to  throw  up  a  high  ridge.  Then  a  four  or  six 
horse  ridger"  should  be  run  once  each  way  through  the  rows,  if  it  is  a  citrus 
or  deciduous  orchard,  or  twice  should  the  trees  be  walnuts,  because  these 


MAKING  CHECKS   FOR   IRRIGATION  169 

trees  are  grown  about  40  feet  apart.  After  this  is  done  the  ridger  should  be 
run  entirely  around  the  outside  of  the  piece  to  be  irrigated,  so  as  to  have  as 
perfect  a  ridge  as  possible  on  the  outside.  One  man  will  ridge  about  15  acres 
in  a  day.  The  ridger  should  be  built  with  a  steel  plate  extending  along  the 
bottom  on  both  sides,  bolted  to  the  inside  and  projecting  about  2  inches,  so 
as  to  take  good  hold  of  the  ground.  Then  with  one  horse  attached  to  what  is 
locally  known  as  a  "jump  scraper,"  one  side  of  the  checks  should  be  closed 
up,  for  the  ridger  in  making  the  cross  ridges  breaks  down  the  first  ridge  at 
its  intersection.  These  repairs  were  at  first  made  with  a  shovel,  but  the  jump 
scraper,  also  called  locally  the  "horse  shovel,"  closes  up  the  gaps  very 
quickly.  The  practice  generally  followed  is  to  close  up  the  high  side  of  the 
checks  if  the  land  does  not  cut  by  running  water,  but  if  it  cuts,  close  up  the 
lower  side. 

After  closing  up  the  checks  the  ditches  are  plowed  out  and  then  the  V-- 
shaped "crowder"  is  run  twice  through  them.  On  lands  inclined  to  cut  it  is 
advisable  that  the  length  of  the  rows  to  be  irrigated  should  not  be  over  250 
feet,  but  in  heavy  land  this  distance  can  be  considerably  increased,  if  neces- 
sary, without  danger  of  cutting  the  ridges  by  too  long  a  run  of  water. 

If  the  checks  have  been  closed  up  on  the  low  side  of  the  ridge,  it  is  better 
to  run  the  water  to  the  ends  of  the  ditch  and  water  the  last  row  first;  but  if 
the  high  side  has  been  closed  up,  it  is  best  to  water  first  the  row  nearest  the 
gate  or  the  main  ditch,  as  the  case  may  be,  as  in  each  instance  dry  earth  will 
thus  be  available,  if  necessary,  to  close  up  the  checks.  The  water  is  run 
down  the  row  to  the  end  tree,  and  as  soon  as  the  last  check  is  filled  it  is 
closed  up,  and  so  on  till  all  are  filled  and  closed,  when  the  water  is  turned 
down  the  next  row. 

To  do  good  work  it  is  usual  to  allow  three  men  for  every  50  inches  of 
water,  but  in  our  own  practice  we  have  had  much  better  results  by  dividing 
up  our  water  and  running  from  35  to  40  inches  to  a  ditch  and  allowing  two 
men  for  such  streams.  In  doing  this  we  get  better  work  and  find  it  much 
easier  for  the  men.  If  everything  is  well  in  hand,  each  man  will  irrigate 
about  30  acres  in  a  day. 

For  turning  the  water  from  the  ditches  into  the  checks  metal  dams  or 
tappoons  are  used.  Some  of  these  have  a  gate  for  the  division  of  the  water 
when  the  stream  is  too  large  and  is  divided,  and  two  rows  are  watered  at 
the  same  time.  The  gate  is  not  a  great  success,  as  the  water  is  apt  soon  to 
cut  its  way  under  the  tappoon,  but  it  may  be  much  improved  by  having  a 
shelf  for  the  water  to  drop  on  after  it  passes  through  the  opening.  The 
common  practice  for  dividing  water  is  to  throw  a  tappoon  partly  across  the 
ditch,  putting  a  gunny  sack  on  the  opposite  side  to  prevent  cutting  by  the 
water.  This  is,  on  the  whole,  fully  as  satisfactory  as  using  the  tappoon  with 
a  gate. 

All  who  follow  this  system  should  get  ready  for  the  water  before  it 
comes.  A  great  many  seem  to  think  that  if  they  ridge  up  their  land,  close 
up  the  checks,  and  plow  out  their  ditches,  everything  necessary  has  been 
done.  Such  is  not  the  case,  as  ditches  that  are  liable  to  cut  should  be  fixed 
in  the  weak  places  with  brush  or  burlaps.  Old  gunny  sacks  cut  open  and 
spread  out  are  excellent  for  this  purpose.  Occasionally  there  are  places 
where  it  is  impossible  to  get  a  perfect  ridge.  These  should  be  looked  up 
and  fixed  with  a  shovel.  The  jump  scraper  will  not  entirely  close  up  a 
check;  it  generally  requires  a  shovelful  or  two  to  complete  it.  It  is  usual 
after  the  water  is  turned  down  one  row  to  fix  up  the  next  one,  but  it  is  an 
excellent  plan  to  have  a  few  rows  fixed  up  ahead,  for  there  come  times  when 
breaks  occur  and  there  is  not  time  to  make  the  necessary  repairs,  and  when 
water  once  gets  the  start  there  is  apt  to  be  much  trouble,  and  hard  work 
before  it  can  be  put  under  control,  besides  doing  poor  work  . 

After  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work,  the  ridges  are  split  with  a  listing 
plow  or  furrower  attached  to  a  cultivator.  Then  the  ground  should  be  run 
over  with  a  harrow,  setting  the  teeth  to  go  well  in,  so  as  to  pulverize  the 
surface  thoroughly.  By  using  the  harrow  the  ground  can  be  worked  about 
one  day  earlier  than  with  the  cultivator,  and  it  also  prevents  the  ground 
from  baking  till  such  time  as  it  can  be  worked  with  the  latter  implement, 
besides  doing  far  better  work  than  with  the  cultivator  alone,  especially  when 


J7Q  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

there  is  much  land  to  go  over,  as  some  of  it  is  certain  to  get  too  dry  before 
it  can  be  reached,  and  then  it  will  not  pulverize  well.  All  trees  should  be 
worked  around  by  hand  with  either  a  fork  or  hoe,  as  soon  after  irrigation 
as  the  ground  becomes  dry  enough  and  before  it  becomes  hard. 

Specifications  for  Homemade  Implements  for  the  Check  System. 
—The  following  implements,  used  in  preparing  the  ground  for  irri- 
gation by  the  check  system,  were  made  on  the  fruit  ranch  of  J.  B. 
Neff,  Anaheim,  California,  with  the   tools  ordinarily   found  on  a 
ranch,  and  with  but  little  help  from  the  blacksmith: 

The  Ridger. — This  has  sides  of  2  by  16-inch  pine  7  feet  long, 
standing  18  inches  apart  at  the  rear  and  5  feet  apart  at  the  front 
end.  The  sides  may  be  made  of  2  by  8-inch  pieces  with  2  by  3-inch 
battens  bolted  on  securely.  The  front  crossbar  is  2  by  4-inch  pine 
6  feet  2  inches  long,  and  is  set  20  inches  from  the  end.  The  rear 
crossbar  is  of  2  by  4-inch  pine  4  feet  4  inches  long.  It  is  set  7  inches 
from  the  end  of  the  sides.  The  diagonal  braces  are  1  by  3-inch  pine 
6  feet  10  inches  long.  The  short  side  braces  are  2  by  3-inch  pine  15 


The  "Ridger." 

For  levee  making  in  the  check  system  of  irrigating  trees   and   vines. 

inches  long.  The  lower  inside  edge  should  be  protected  by  a  strip 
of  steel  or  iron  l/s  by  2  inches  extending  to  and  around  the  front 
ends,  which  should  be  beveled  to  a  sharp  edge.  The  inside  should 
also  be  lined  with  sheet  iron  6  or  8  inchs  above  the  1A  by  2-inch 
piece,  and  should  have  sheet-iron  pieces  extending  16  inches  beyond 
the  rear  end  of  the  sides,  tapered  and  braced  in  the  manner  shown 
in  the  cut,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  ridger  firmer  at  the  top. 
Every  part  of  the  ridger  should  be  firmly  bolted  with  ^-inch  bolts, 
except  the  J/8  by  2-inch  iron,  which  should  have  3-16-inch  bolts,  and 
the  sheet-iron,  which  may  be  put  on  with  nails.  The  hooks  on  sides 
for  hitching  draft  chain  are  ft  by  1  j£  inches,  and  the  draft  chain  is 
cable  chain. 


The  V-shaped  Crowder  or  Ditcher.—  This  has  sides  of  2  by  12- 

mch  pine  and  cross-brace  of  2  by  9-inch  pine.    The  long  side  is  7  feet 

5  inches  long  and  short  side  3  feet  6  inches  long.    This  is  also  pro- 

tected by  a  piece  of  steel  or  iron  extending  entirely  around  the 

cher  and  bolted  with  3-16-inch  bolts.    The  sides  come  together  in 


IMPLEMENTS   FOR   CHECKING 


a  point  and  stand  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  The  brace  is  placed 
2  feet  10  inches  from  the  point  on  short  side  and  3  feet  10  inches 
from  the  point  on  long  side.  It  also  has  two  handles,  as  shown  in 
cut,  3  feet  long.  These  are  made  of  2  by  3-inch  pine  reduced  so  as 
to  hold  conveniently.  The  sloping  handle  is  bolted  to  the  short  side. 


The  "Crowder." 

Used   in  the   preparation   and   distribution   of   water   in   the  check   system. 

When  in  use  this  implement  stands  with  the  short  side  elevated  at 
an  angle  of  about  35  degrees,  and  a  floor  is  placed  in  the  triangular 
space  so  that  it  will  be  level  when  in  use.  An  ordinary  wide  clevis 
is  used  for  the  draft  and  is  placed  as  shown  in  the  cut.  A  vertical 
hole  may  be  made  in  front  of  the  clevis  pin  and  a  small  rod  driven 
in  to  strengthen  the  hold  of  the  clevis. 


The  "Jumper." 

Used  to  complete  levees  by  the  "ridger"  for  the  check  system. 

The  Jump  Scraper  or  Horse  Shovel. — This  is  used  for  rilling  gaps 
in  the  ridges,  and  is  the  work  of  the  blacksmith.  The  beams  are  % 
by  \l/4  inches  and  30  inches  long  from  the  draft  ring  to  the  bend 
downward.  The  shovel  is  of  No.  16  sheet-iron,  24  inches  long  by 
18  inches  deep.  The  handles  are  those  used  on  any  cultivator.  The 


172 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


beams  are  bent  to  stand  6  inches  forward  of  a  square  placed  on  top 
of  the  beams.  The  braces  are  of  ^-inch  round  iron.  The  shovel  is 
slightly  cupped  to  make  it  hold  more  earth. 

The  Portable  Gate  or  Tappoon. — These  are  for  shutting  ditches, 
and  are  made  of  No.  16  sheet-iron  2  feet  wide  and  of  any  desired 
length,  but  usually  3  feet,  4  feet  or  5  feet  long.  The  corners  are  cut 
off  to  a  circle,  starting  about  1  foot  back  of  the  corner.  The  handles 
are  made  of  2  pieces  of  1  by  3-inch  pine,  12  inches  longer  than  the 
gate,  and  are  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  sheet  iron  and  secured 
by  %-inch  bolts. 

The  Combined  Check  and  Furrow  Method. — An  effort  to  escape 
in  some  measure  the  puddling  of  the  surface  which  results  from 
allowing  water  to  sink  away  upon  finely  pulverized  soil,  lies  in  the 
direction  of  breaking  up  the  soil  roughly  in  the  bottoms  of  the 
checks,  which  facilitates  the  quick  passage  of  the  water  into  the 
subsoil.  This  is  done  by  running  a  small  plow  or  three  large  culti- 
vator teeth  attached  to  a  single  frame  before  the  ridger  is  used  to 
form  the  levees.  Mr.  A.  D.  Bishop  of  Orange  County,  California, 
uses  a  combined  furrow  and  check  system,  as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying diagram.  He  furrows  the  land  first  with  a  three-tooth 
furrower  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  water  is  to 
flow,  and  then  uses  the  ridger  to  make  levees  in  line  with  the  water, 
laying  out  the  work  so  as  to  get  the  closest  approximation  to  a  level. 
When  the  levees  are  made,  the  jump  scraper  is  used  and  the  end  of 
each  third  or  fourth  furrow  bank  is  connected  with  the  levees  at 
alternating  sides  of  the  check  made  by  the  levees.  This  causes  the 
water  to  flow  through  the  furrows  from  side  to  side  and  distribute 
itself  evenly  over  the  whole  ground.  The  number  of  furrows  which 
can  be  passed  before  connecting  with  the  bank  depends  upon  the 
slope  of  the  land — the  nearer  level  the  land  the  greater  the  distance 
that  can  be  left  between  the  connections,  and  vice  versa.  In  this 
way  the  water  is  taken  slowly  down  a  grade  where  it  would  flow 
too  rapidly  were  it  admitted  to  furrows  in  the  direction  of  its  flow. 

Another  combination  of  the  check  and  furrow  system  is  found 
where  the  lowest  spaces  of  a  slope  irrigated  by  furrows  are  laid  off 
in  checks  to  catch  the  overflow  from  the  furrows  and  compel  its 
percolation  at  a  point  which  would  otherwise  receive  too  little  water. 
The  parts  of  a  furrow  system  which  lie  farthest  from  the  source  of 
supply  are  obviously  least  supplied,  because  long  flow  can  not  be 
maintained  there  without  much  loss  from  overflow.  Holding  the 
water  in  checks  at  the  lower  end — usually  for  two  rows  of  trees — 
is  quite  a  help  toward  even  distribution. 

The  Basin  System. — The  term  basin  should  be  restricted  to  in- 
closures  which  do  not  aim  at  covering  the  whole  surface,  but  only 
a  smaller  area  immediately  surrounding  the  tree.  The  check  system 
is  clearly  a  more  rational  and  perfect  method  of  flooding.  When 
basins  were  used  on  ground  capable  of  irrigation  by  the  check  or 
furrow  systems,  it  was  probably  due  to  a  misconception  which  has 
prevailed  also  in  the  practice  of  fertilization,  that  the  tree  derived 
its  chief  benefit  from  the  soil  immediately  surrounding  and  beneath 


LAYING   OFF   CHECKS   AND    FURROWS 


173 


its  bole,  and  that  distant  applications  were  likely  to  be  wasted. 
Years  ago  it  was  held  that  the  lateral  root  extension  of  a  tree  was 
equal  to  the  spread  of  its  branches,  but  recent  investigations  have 
shown  that  under  favorable  soil  conditions  the  root  extension  is 
much  greater.  It  is  not  reasonable  then  to  restrict  water  or  other 
plant  food  to  the  region  chiefly  occupied  with  the  stay  roots  and 
not  the  feeding  roots  of  the  tree,  and  it  is  a  frequent  observation 
that  basined  trees  do  not  do  so  well  and  that  they  show  distress 
sooner  than  those  under  systems  which  secure  more  complete  water 
distribution. 

To  the  basin  system  may,  however,  be  conceded  these  possibili- 
ties :  (1)  Trees  may  be  grown  on  hillsides  too  steep  for  other  means 
of  irrigation  unless  the  hillside  be  previously  terraced;  (2)  the 


Combined  check  and  furrow  irrigation. 


basins  afford  an  opportunity  to  use  a  very  small  stream  of  water 
by  allowing  it  to  run  for  a  long  time  in  each  basin,  thus  making  a 
miniature  reservoir  at  the  base  of  each  tree;  (3)  for  young  trees 
a  small  amount  of  water  may  sustain  growth,  while  with  other 
methods  the  same  amount  of  water  would  be  almost  wholly  lost  by 
evaporation  or  percolation,  or  both ;  (4)  the  expense  of  wider  appli- 
cation of  water  and  the  necessary  after-cultivation  is  obviated. 

In  planting  on  hillsides,  terracing  is  the  foundation  of  the  basin 
system.  Terraces  are  plowed  and  scraped  out  until  they  have  width 
enough  to  accommodate  a  line  of  basins  and  a  ditch  at  the  foot  of 
each  bank  to  supply  them.  The  terraces  are  given  a  little  fall,  alter- 
nating in  direction  so  that  the  water,  starting  from  the  ridge  above, 
is  dropped  through  a  box,  or  otherwise  let  down,  from  the  low  end 


174 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


of  one  terrace  to  the  high  end  of  the  next,  and  so  on  until  the  stream 
reaches  the  bottom  of  the  slope.  As  a  basin  is  reached  it  is  filled 
and  closed  and  the  water  sent  along  to  the  next  and  so  on.  As  these 
basins  are  usually  small  and  shallow  they  are  filled  two  or  three 
times  in  succession  at  each  irrigation. 

Wherever  water  can  be  handled  in  contour  ditches  or  furrows, 
terracing  should  seldom  be  undertaken  for  commercial  purposes. 
With  slopes  which  do  require  terracing,  basins  on  the  steeper 
parts  are  largely  made  by  hand  labor,  after  plowing  to  loosen  the 
whole  surface,  and  the  operation  consists  of  moving  the  earth  from 
the  upper  side  of  the  tree  so  as  to  form  a  circular  levee  on  the  lower 
side,  until  the  tree  stands  in  a  level,  roundish  pan  as  large  as  can  be 
made  without  too  much  excavation  and  filling.  As  the  slope  becomes 
less  the  basins  enlarge  and  reach  a  diameter,  finally,  where  the  sides 
can  be  made  by  turning  a  small  horse  or  mule  around  the  tree  with 
a  plow,  the  rim  being  further  raised  and  shaped  by  hand  so  as  to 
hold  3  inches  or  more  of  water  without  danger  of  breaking  away. 

The  basins  are  filled  with  a  small  stream  by  ditch  or  hose  or  pipe 
line,  according  to  the  ground  and  notion  of  the  irrigator.  They  are 
filled  at  such  intervals  as  the  water  supply  admits  or  the  growth 
seems  to  need.  The  basin  bottom  is  rarely  disturbed.  The  cracking 
soil  is  finally  given  another  dose  of  water  to  close  up  its  wounds ; 
meantime  the  frequent  surface  soaking  puddles  the  soil  and  the 
conditions  unfavorable  to  growth  arrive  sooner  or  later,  according 
to  the  disposition  of  the  soil  to  run  together  by  water  settling.  Dry- 
ing and  cracking  is  lessened  by  filling  the  basin  with  manure  or 
rotten  straw  or  other  light  rubbish,  or  by  a  layer  of  coarse  sand  on 
the  bottom.  As  the  tree  grows  the  foliage  shades  the  basin  and  thus 
reduces  evaporation. 

Where  the  surface  is  uneven  or  the  soil  too  leachy  to  carry  water 
well  in  a  ditch,  portable  and  adjustable  carriers  are  used  to  advan- 
tage. Of  these,  slip-joint  pipes  of  non-rusting  metal  or  of  wood,  are 
most  satisfactory  and  are  coming  to  be  largely  used. 

The  Furrow  System. — The  furrow  system  is  the  prevailing 
method  of  irrigating  fruit  trees  except  with  some  soils  which  can  be 
better  handled  with  less  water  by  the  check  system.  The  furrow 
system  has,  however,  a  very  marked  theoretical  advantage  in  the 
escape  from  saturating  the  surface  soil,  which  has  to  dry  out  again 
before  it  can  be  cultivated,  and  it  is  only  with  difficulty  reduced  to 
fine  tilth  after  such  puddling.  Another  advantage  is  in  saving  the 
water  used  in  moistening  soil  which  has  to  be  dried  by  evaporation. 
Other  theoretical  advantages  lie  in  the  even  distribution  of  the 
water  with  the  least  displacement  of  the  soil  and  the  introduction  of 
the  water  to  the  subsoil,  where  deep-rooting  plants  should  derive 
their  chief  sustenance.  It  became  quite  clear  years  ago  that  all  these 
theoretical  advantages  were  not  realized  by  the  furrow  system  as 
generally  practiced,  and  a  number  of  modifications  were  introduced 
to  secure  their  fuller  realization.  The  changes  tended  toward  re- 
ducing the  difference  between  what  are  known  as  the  "large-fur- 
row" and  the  "small-furrow"  methods,  because  the  improvement  lies 


LAYING  OFF  LARGE  FURROWS  175 

chiefly  in  introducing  the  water  more  deeply  in  the  soil  as  will  be 
shown  later,  and  this  is  done  by  using  fewer  and  deeper  furrows. 

Irrigating  by  Largie  Furrows. — Where  one  to  four  furrows  are 
used,  these  are  large  furrows,  while  the  small-furrow  system  uses 
from  five  to  eight  or  more  between  two  rows  of  trees.  Large  furrows 
are  made  with  the  double-moldboard  plow,  or  with  a  single  plow  fol- 
lowed by  the  "crowder,"  or  by  plowing  out  dead  furrows  between 
the  rows,  etc.  Their  number  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  trees  and 
the  fitness  of  the  soil  for  lateral  seepage.  They  are  wide  enough  and 
deep  enough  to  carry  or  hold  a  large  stream  of  water.  This  method 
is  used  chiefly  for  winter  irrigation  on  land  which  is  so  nearly  level 


«fs£r$h 

^v^  v  i ,  Cfr 

2_»  r  js    -.'i.^L. 


SOUTH     FURROW 


NOKTH     FURROW 


Large  furrow. 

Large  furrow  irrigation  of  orange  trees  at  Palermo,  Butte  County,  Cal. 

that  the  water  will  flow  slowly  into  the  furrows  and  stand  there  until 
it  disappears  by  percolation.  It  is  also  used  where  one  or  two  sum- 
mer irrigations  are  all  that  is  required  to  carry  the  trees  through.  It 
is  obviously  adapted  only  to  land  of  slight  and  uniform  grade.  Ir- 
rigation by  a  single  furrow  cut  near  to  the  row  of  trees  is  a  widely 
prevalent  method  with  young  trees.  When  the  trees  are  larger,  or 
when  inter-cultures  are  undertaken,  the  large  furrows  are  multi- 
plied. In  this  case  the  water  is  admitted  to  the  furrows  from  open- 
ings in  a  board  flume  or  the  furrows  are  filled  from  a  lateral  ditch; 
this  lateral  being  parallel  to  the  main  ditch.  In  this  case  the  board 
dam  is  used  to  divert  the  laternal  into  one  large  furrow  after  an- 
other, and  when  the  furrow  is  filled  dirt  is  thrown  in  to  prevent  the 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

reflow  of  the  water  into  the  lateral.  Where  the  orchard  is  piped 
for  irrigation,  as  has  become  quite  common,  the  furrows  are  filled 
from  hydrants — flumes  and  ditches  being  dispansed  with. 

The  great  variety  in  large  furrow  practice  is  suggested  in  the 
foregoing.  A  systematic  manner  of  proceeding  is  that  of  Mr.  A. 
Trost,  of  Palermo,  California,  as  described  by  himself : 

The  soil  is  red,  gravelly  clay,  the  upper  12  inches  without  rocks;  below 
this  the  gravel  is  more  rock.  At  the  depth  of  3  or  4  feet  the  red  clay  changes 
into  a  whitish  one  and  water  enters  it  very  slowly.  My  orchard  is  12  acres — 
1,120  feet  long  from  north  to  south  and  510  feet  from  east  to  west.  The 
northeast  corner  is  the  highest.  Here  the  water  ditch  enters,  and  I  run  my 
head  ditch  along  the  east  side  from  north  to  south.  There  are  51  rows  of 
trees  in  that  direction,  the  north  and  south  outside  rows  being  olives.  There 
are  23  orange  trees  in  the  row  from  east  to  west  and  1  olive  tree  on  the  west 
end.  All  trees  are  20  feet  apart.  I  use  24  miners'  inches  per  day  for  5  days 
in  the  following  manner:  I  use  4  furrows  about  5  or  6  inches  deep  and 
about  3  feet  apart  between  rows,  leaving  the  rows  nearest  the  trees  from  5 
to  6  feet  from  the  trunks.  The  4  lower  rows  on  the  west  side  I  cross-furrow 
with  2  furrows  between  the  trees.  I  divide  the  24  inches  into  51  equal 
streamlets  by  using  one  gate  for  each  4  rows.  First  turn  this  amount  into 
the  furrow  south  nearest  to  tree.  When  the  water  has  moved  to  the  olive 
tree,  I  divide  the  water  between  the  4  furrows  for  the  lower  6  trees  and 
through  the  cross  furrows.  The  next  morning  I  divide  the  water  at  the 
tenth  tree  for  the  4  furrows.  On  the  third  day  I  let  only  one-half  the  water 
go  down  in  the  furrow  south  of  tree,  the  other  in  the  one  north  nearest  to 
tree.  On  the  fourth  day  I  turn  part  of  it  in  the  middle  furrows  near  the 
head  ditch,  and  by  the  fifth  day  I  have  my  place  equally  wet  from  one  end 
to  the  other,  taking  care  that  the  top  soil  near  the  trunks  of  trees  remains 
dry  on  the  surface.  I  keep  the  soil  around  the  trunks  of  the  trees  about  2 
inches  higher  for  a  width  of  3  feet.  In  this  way  I  use  all  the  water  without 
running  any  off,  and  lose  only  the  evaporation.  The  whole  amount  of  water 
used  is  120  inches,  equal  to  10  inches  or  130,000  gallons  per  acre,  or  4.5  acre- 
inches,  or  1,200  gallons  per  tree. 

I  irrigate  about  every  four  weeks,  running  the  water  five  days  and  turning 
it  on  again  three  weeks  after  it  is  taken  off.  I  have  irrigated  as  early  as  the 
1st  of  April  and  as  late  as  the  middle  of  October,  depending  on  late  rains  in 
spring  and  early  rains  in  fall;  usually  from  five  to  six  irrigations  per  year. 
After  four  or  five  days  I  cultivate  14  feet  wide  between  the  trees  from  6  to 
8  inches  deep;  for  this  I  use  a  7-foot  cultivator  and  four  horses.  Near  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  I  work  about  two  inches  deep  and  a  little  farther  away  4 
inches  deep,  using  the  three-cornered  orchard  plow  with  a  cultivator  4  feet 
wide  and  two  horses. 

Irrigation  by  Large  Furrows  Without  Summer  Cultivation. — 

An  exception  to  the  continuous  cultivation  of  orchard  ground  which 
is  prevelent  in  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  Pacific  Coast  is  found  in 
the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  California,  where  furrows  are 
made  at  the  beginning  of  each  irrigating  season  and  used  continu- 
ously during  the  summer.  The  ensuing  winter  plowing  and  early 
spring  cultivation  are  relied  upon  to  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition. 
Although  this  constitutes  an  exception  and  the  practice  is  widely 
followed  for  what  seems  to  the  growers  of  the  region  to  be  a  good 
and  sufficient  reason,  it  does  not  militate  against  the  truth  of  the 
continuous  summer  cultivation  policy  which  elsewhere  prevails,  nor 
does  it  follow  that  this  policy  would  not  be  better  in  some  respects 
even  in  the  region  where  it  is  abondoned.  It  is  a  district  of  very 
large  water  supply,  and  the  arrangements  of  the  water  company  are 
such  that  the  grower  must  pay  for  a  certain  number  of  inches  of 


PERMANENT   IRRIGATION    FURROWS  \Jf 

water  by  the  year,  and  is  entitled  to  this  amount  of  continuous  flow. 
He  has  to  use  it  or  neglect  it  as  it  flows,  and  cannot  get  more  at  one 
time  by  not  using  it  at  another.  For  this  reason  he  has  not  the  mo- 
tive for  close  observation  which  prevails  under  other  conditions, 
and  to  escape  the  cost  of  summer  cultivation  and  fresh  furrowing 
out  he  has  recourse  to  frequent  flows  in  the  old  furrows.  The  fol- 
lowing interesting  account  of  the  prevailing  method  was  prepared 
by  Mr.  W.  R.  Fountain,  of  Newcastle : 

Water  is  supplied  almost  exclusively  by  one  company,  which  has  met 
requirements  up  to  date,  and  seems  fixed  to  supply  in  excess  of  demand.  It 
is  supplied  by  the  miner's  inch;  price  $45  per  inch  per  season  for  a  constant 
supply.  The  inch  is  measured  under  6-inch  pressure. 

Beginning  May  1st,  five  months  is  called  the  irrigating  season,  but  the 
purchaser  can  have  the  water  twelve  months  per  annum  if  he  wants  it.  The 
water  company  collects  monthly.  The  purchaser  cannot  start  the  season 
with  little  and  increase  at  pleasure,  except  upon  payment  for  the  full  season 
on  the  basis  of  the  largest  amount  used  at  any  time. 

With  this  constant  supply  we  use  it  constantly,  piping  to  high  points  and 
moving  it  from  place  to  place.  When  no  fruit  is  ripening  it  is  attempted  to 
water  a  block  of  trees  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  water  is  not  checked  back, 
but  is  run  in  ditches,  mostly  in  one,  but  occasionally  in  two,  along  each  row 
of  trees  or  vines.  When  a  variety  of  fruit  is  ripening  more  water  is  given 
the  trees,  while  after  a  variety  is  picked  and  before  any  other  is  nearly  ripe 
the  effort  is  made  to  water  each  tree  every  ten  or  twelve  days.  Level  land 
and  low  spots  stand  a  good  chance,  as  a  rule,  to  get  too  much  water,  and  a 
larger  stream  is  used  per  row  to  force  the  water  through  quickly.  Then 
it  is  taken  off  in  a  shorter  time  than  it  would  be  where  the  trees  are  on  a 
side-hill  and  have  a  good  drainage. 

About  1  inch  for  each  8  acres  is  generally  used.  This  is  for  deciduous 
fruits.  The  citrus  fruits  and  berries  require  watering  about  once  a  week; 
if  there  is  good  drainage  they  would  prosper  if  watered  every  three  days'. 
In  such  ground  I  have  not  heard  of  their  getting  either  too  much  water  or 
too  much  fertilizer.  The  general  practice  is  to  plow,  cross  plow,  and  then 
after  each  rain  cultivate,  with  no  cultivation  whatever  after  beginning  the 
use  of  water.  I  think  an  occasional  cultivation  after  watering  would  help. 

There  is  a  tendency  for  the  ditches  to  become  packed  after  water  has 
been  flowing  through  them  for  some  time,  in  which  case  but  little  water 
soaks  into  the  ground.  When  this  occurs  I  dig  a  pot  hole  in  the  ditch  to 
allow  the  water  to  soak  in,  or  else  loosen  the  ground  about  the  trees  with 
a  spade  and  carry  the  ditch  through  this  loosened  ground.  I  block  out  my 
ditches  so  that  I  can  get  my  stream  through  the  last  tree  in  about  sixteen 
hours.  Where  the  water  has  not  reached  the  end  of  some  of  the  ditches,  I 
turn  the  water  into  it  from  a  stream  that  is  flush,  and  by  keeping  a  man  with 
a  hoe  constantly  with  the  water,  I  manage  to  get  it  over  the  field  at  about 
4  p.  m.  I  wet  about  350  trees  in  a  block  on  hillsides;  on  a  flat  I  wet  less, 
using  more  water  in  each  stream,  and  changing  it  about  every  twelve  hours 
instead  of  every  twenty-four  hours.  My  trees  grow  about  130  to  an  acre. 

Systematic  Distribution  of  Water  on  Hillsides. — The  common 
method  of  carrying  water  in  pipes  to  the  various  high  points  of 
several  slopes  or  "irrigated  faces"  from  which  it  can  be  admitted 
to  large  furrows  crossing  or  descending  those  faces  is  open  to  some 
difficulties  and  disarrangements.  P.  W.  Butler,  of  Penryn,  had  in 
successful  operation  for  several  years  a  system  of  zigzag  ditches  for 
carrying  and  distributing  and  for  catching  outflow  and  redistrib- 
uting on  a  lower  face.  This  is  also  a  system  which  makes  ditches 
and  furrows  but  once  a  year,  and  dispenses  with  summer  cultivation. 


178 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Mr.  Butler's  account,  as  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  diagram, 
is  as  follows : 

The  amount  of  water  generally  used  in  this  section  for  the  irrigation  of 
deciduous  fruit  trees  is  1  inch  to  5  acres  of  orchard  (miner  s  inch  under  6- 
inch  pressure),  and  is  applied  to  each  row  of  trees  by  one  stream  of  water 
of  sufficfent  quantity  to  just  reach  the  end  of  the  row.  Much  of  the  water 
is  thus  wasted  because  of  inability  to  properly  adjust  its  distribution.  It  is 
usually  run  twenty-four  hours,  then  changed  to  other  parts  of  the  orchard 
until  the  whole  is  covered,  which  takes  about  three  weeks  time  when  the 
process  is  repeated,  continuing  throughout  the  summer,  or  from  May  1  until 
October  1  There  is  no  cultivation  in  the  meantime,  and  at  each  irrigation 
the  water  is  run  in  the  same  ditches.  This  system  is  followed  in  nearly  all 
the  orchards  of  Penryn  and  vicinity,  some  on  quite  steep  hillsides,  which 
suffer  when  the  water  is  thus  applied.  I  have  never  liked  this  method,  and 


Zigzag  ditches 

Large  furrow  system  on  hillside  with  zigzag  ditches  for  distribution, 
catchment,  and  redistribution. 

for  many  years  have  used  a  different  system  in  irrigating  all  orchards  over 
which  I  have  had  control.  In  my  home  orchard  I  have  a  reservoir  on  the 
highest  land,  from  which  water  can  be  conveyed  as  desired  to  every  part. 
My  ditches  are  run  on  a  grade  with  a  fall  from  2  to  3  inches  to  the  rod  and 
from  5  to  8  feet  apart.  At  each  irrigation  the  water  is  run  about  thirty-six 
hours  before  changing.  The  round  of  the  orchard  is  made  in  ten  to  four- 
teen days.  None  of  my  small  ditches  exceed  400  feet  in  length.  When  I 
begin  to  irrigate  a  section  I  turn  on  from  the  reservoir  water  sufficient  to 
cover  the  section  in  a  few  hours,  then  lessen  it  until  it  just  reaches  the  end 
of  each  row,  but  see  that  it  reaches  the  end  of  each  row  if  a  little  surplus 
passes  over.  This  surplus  I  take  up  in  the  main  ditch,  to  be  again  used  on 
lower  ground.  This  is  continued  until  the  lowest  part  of  the  orchard  is 
reached,  and  very  little  water  is  ever  wasted.  By  running  on  a  grade  that 
is  so  nearly  level  the  water  is  applied  uniformly,  even  on  the  driest  parts  of 
the  hill  slopes.  I  run  the  main  distributing  ditches  in  a  zigzag  manner,  tak- 


SMALL   FURROW   IRRIGATION  \jg 

ing  water  from  these  ditches  to  cover  the  lower  sections.  I  formerly  used 
pipes  to  lead  the  water  down  the  steepest  grades,  but  this  system  I  have 
abandoned  and  now  use  open  zigzag  ditches  for  mains.  From  the  main 
zigzag  ditches  I  do  not  take  the  water  at  the  turning  point,  as  there  is  more 
liability  of  breakage  than  if  taken  when  running  straight,  or  at  whatever 
point  is  necessary  to  keep  the  distributing  ditches  on  an  average  of  8  feet 
apart.  The  length  of  the  zigzag  ditches  varies  according  to  the  slope  of  the 
hillside.  When  steep,  the  ditch,  before  turning,  must  be  of  greater  length 
than  where  the  ground  is  more  level.  (See  diagram.)  I  use  no  gates,  but 
bush  the  openings  with  coarse  swale  hay.  I  also  bush  the  turning  points  of 
ditches  as  they  are  in  permanent  use  throughout  the  season,  and  after  the 
first  few  days'  use  require  but  little  care  to  keep  them  in  order.  These 
ditches  are  torn  up  during  the  season  of  cultivation  and  have  to  be  renewed 
every  year. 

I  use  a  level  set  on  a  frame  8.25  feet  long  and  about  2.5  feet  high  (one 
leg  longer  than  the  other)  to  make  any  grade  desired.  Then  I  drag  its 
length  on  the  ground  after  getting  the  level,  and  can  mark  the  line  of  ditch 
nearly  half  as  fast  as  a  man  can  walk. 

I  have  used  many  thousand  feet  of  pipe  in  irrigating,  but  found  it  too 
expensive  to  be  practicable,  and  it  frequently  gets  clogged,  causing  much 
trouble.  The  zigzag  method  of  taking  the  water  down  hills  on  the  dry 
ridges,  distributing  to  right  and  left,  picking  it  up  again  in  zigzag  ditches 
at  the  end  of  the  rows  or  system,  to  be  used  again  on  lower  ground,  brings 
into  use  the  largest  quantity  where  it  is  most  needed  and  utilizes  it  all  with- 
out waste. 

Irrigating  by  Small  Furrows. — It  has  already  been  suggested 
that  recently  the  small  furrow  method  of  irrigation  is  undergoing 
certain  modifications.  The  occasion  for  the  change  is  that  in  certain 
of  the  heavier  soils,  particularly,  the  use  of  water  in  many  shallow 
furrows  followed  by  cultivation  results  in  the  formation  of  a  compact 
layer,  and  this  prevents  the  percolation  of  the  water  into  the  subsoil. 
This  discovery  led  many  Southern  growers  to  resort  to  fewer  and 
deeper  furrows,  and  to  new  devices  to  enable  the  tree  to  get  the 
benefit  of  the  water.  There  has  been  wide  use  of  the  subsoil  plow, 
with  a  wedge-shaped  foot  attached  to  a  slim  standard  rising  to  the 
ordinary  beam.  The  standard  opposes  its  thin  edge  to  the  soil  so  as 
to  cleave  it  with  the  least  difficulty,  and  the  foot,  passing  through 
or  beneath  the  hardpan,  lifts  and  breaks  it.  The  result  of  the  sub- 
soiling  is  to  open  a  way  for  the  water  to  sink  and  spread  below  the 
hardpan.  It  is  usual  to  run  this  plow  once  through  the  center  of  the 
interspace  between  the  rows  of  trees,  sometimes  at  right  angles  to 
the  irrigation  furrows.  When  this  is  done  the  water  is  admitted  to 
the  furrows  as  usual,  but  instead  of  flowing  along  smoothly  it  drops 
into  the  track  of  the  subsoiler  and  runs  there  a  long  time  before 
rising  again  to  continue  its  course  down  the  furrow.  It  is  the  ex- 
perience of  some  growers  that  the  water  has  taken  five  or  six  days 
to  reach  the  lower  end  of  the  furrows,  a  distance  which  would  have 
been  covered  in  twenty-four  hours  if  the  subsoiler  had  not  inter- 
vened. This  has  been  shown  to  result  in  much  water  for  the  subsoil 
and  a  notable  invigoration  of  trees  which  had  been  famishing, 
although  shallow-furrow  irrigation  had  proceeded  regularly. 

Changes  in  the  furrow  method  at  Riverside,  California,  are  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  J.  H.  Reed  as  follows : 

The  handling  of  the  water  in  the  orchard  has  materially  changed  in  recent 
years.  Instead  of  flooding  up,  basining,  or  using  shallow  furrows,  deep 


180 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


furrows,  from  3  to  5  feet  apart,  are  most  generally  used.  In  heavy  adobe 
soils  more  furrows  are  used  than  in  the  more  porous  granite  soils.  The  most 
usual  length  of  furrows  is  40  rods.  Every  precaution  is  taken  to  have  the 
surface  wetted  as  little  as  possible. 

The  amount  of  water  run  at  a  time  is  materially  lessened,  formerly  the 
common  practice  was  to  run  3  inches  per  acre  for  twenty-four  hours  each 
thirty  days.  Now  2  incres  continuous  run  for  seventy-two  hours  is  found  to 
serve  a  much  better  purpose,  except  on  loose  soils.  The  general  practice  in 
the  valley  is  to  irrigate  once  each  thirty  days.  A  few  of  the  most  careful 
orchardists  had  found  that  by  intelligent  and  thorough  manipulation  of  the 
soil  they  obtained  as  favorable  results  from  the  application  of  water  every 
sixty  days  or  more,  using  the  same  amount  as  they  formerly  did  at  intervals 
of  half  that  time.  The  writer  has  watched  with  much  interest  an  eight-year- 
old  orchard  that  during  the  three  years  preceding  the  present  received  in  all 
but  ten  irrigations,  the  usual  amount  of  water  being  used  only  at  each  four 
irrigations  the  first  year  and  three  irrigations  each  the  second  and  third 
years,  with  results  comparing  favorably  with  those  on  trees  of  the  same  age 
on  the  same  soil  in  neighboring  orchards  that  received  the  ordinary  thirty- 
day  irrigations.  While  there  are  few  orchardists  who  have  the  skill  and 
patience  required  to  secure  such  results,  they  show  the  possibilities  of  im- 
proved cultivation  in  conserving  moisture.  So  long  as  water  is  abundant  and 
not  expensive,  more  frequent  irrigations  will  probably  be  generally  practiced; 
but  the  advantage  of  running  the  water  for  a  longer  time,  in  furrows  as  deep 
as  possible,  covering  the  saturated  bottoms  as  soon  as  practicable  and  keep- 
ing the  surface  perfectly  pulverized  and  in  loose  condition,  is  being  generally 
recognized 

The  usual  practice  is  now  to  have  six  deep  furrows  in  20-foot 
spaces.  The  number  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil, 
but  is  in  any  case  less  than  in  the  small,  shallow  furrow  system 
which  formerly  prevailed. 

The  recourse  to  deeper  furrows  and  to  the  subsoil  plowing  has 
been  made  in  several  citrus  fruit  districts  of  Southern  California. 
Its  success  depends  upon  conditions.  There  are  cases  in  which  too 
deep  use  of  the  subsoiler  has  admitted  the  water  at  a  point  too  low 
for  best  results  to  the  tree  which  grows  on  a  leachy  subsoil,  and  the 
cutting  of  roots  by  the  subsoiler  has  in  some  cases  brought  shallow- 
rooting  trees  into  temporary  distress.  The  general  conclusion,  how- 
ever, is  that  deeper  introduction  of  water  favors  deeper  rooting  and 
is  very  economical  of  water  by  preventing  the  loss  by  evaporation 
from  the  surface,  which,  theoretically,  is  dry,  but  which  actually, 
with  shallow  furrows  over  an  irrigation  hardpan,  becomes  too  often 
saturated  over  nearly  the  whole  space  between  the  trees. 

Cement  Pipes  and  Flumes  for  the  Furrow  System. — The  use  of 
cement  in  the  construction  of  flumes,  pipes  and  outlets  for  distribu- 
tion has  advanced  so  rapidly  during  recent  years  that  in  nearly  all 
districts  local  cement  works  can  be  found,  at  which  irrigation  struc- 
tures and  appliances  of  latest  design  can  be  studied.  Other  devices 
are  first  described  and  afterwards  regularly  advertised  in  our  horti- 
cultural journals.  Analysis  of  them  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this 
treatise,  but  they  are  none  the  less  important  and  all  who  contem- 
plate laying  out  irrigation  systems,  both  large  and  small,  should 
consider  them  carefully.  It  is  the  function  of  this  work  to  deal 
chiefly  with  home-made  appliances. 

The  Board  Flume  and  the  Furrow  System. — Although  in  the 
older  regions  the  cement  flume  is  advancing  in  popularity,  important 


HOW   TO    MAKE   BOARD    FLUMES  Igl 

service  will  always  be  rendered  by  the  home-made  board  flume 
where  suitable  lumber  is  cheap.  A  detailed  account  of  its  construc- 
tion and  operation  will  be  widely  useful.  The  following  is  con- 
tributed to  Mr.  A.  S.  Bradford,  of  Orange  county : 

I  consider  the  board  flume  best,  because  it  is  in  many  places  cheapest 
and  because  it  will  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  in  California  if  made  of  good 
soft  redwood.  The  common  redwood  lumber  is  generally  so,  but  the  so-called 
flume  lumber  is  hard,  generally,  and  will  warp  the  flume  out  of  shape.  Even 
in  the  common  redwood  lumber  hard  pieces  will  be  found,  and  these  should 
be  avoided.  My  first  flume  has  been  in  use  nine  years  and  is  apparently  as 
good  as  ever. 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  is  getting  a  flume  put  in  properly,  as 
this  alone  will  cause  much  trouble  if  not  done  right.  A  flume  should  run 
nearly  on  a  level.  It  should  be  placed  about  two-thirds  in  the  ground  at  the 
commencement,  and  as  soon  as  it  comes  out  of  the  ground  to  about  two- 
thirds  of  its  height,  there  should  be  a  drop  made  of  1,  2,  or  3  inches,  is 
necessary,  and  then  carried  along  as  before,  so  as  to  keep  the  entire  length 
of  flume  practically  on  a  level. 

Sixteen-foot  lumber  is  better  than  longer,  as  it  is  lighter  to  handle.  I 
prefer  8-inch  sides  with  18-inch  bottom,  or,  on  some  cases,  10-inch  sides 
with  16-inch  bottom.  The  first  section,  however,  should  be  about  2  feet 
wide,  narrowed  to  the  size  of  the  flume,  so  as  to  control  the  stream.  Collars 
should  be  put  around  the  flume  every  8  feet  of  distance;  that  is,  one  in  the 
center  and  one  to  cover  the  joints  at  each  end.  These  collars  should  be  2 
by  3  inch  stuff  on  the  bottom  and  sides  and  1  by  three  inches  on  top.  This 
makes  a  strong,  durable  flume.  The  length  of  the  flume  should  be  divided 
so  that  the  stream  will  decrease  as  it  goes  along.  The  width  should  be 
decreased  also,  say  from  16  inches  to  14,  12,  10  and  8  inches,  the  sides  being 
the  same  throughout  or  reduced  so  as  to  have  10-inch  sides  on  the  16-inch 
bottom  and  8-inch  sides  on  the  rest,  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  bottom,  making 
7  inches  depth  inside.  Two-inch  holes  should  be  about  30  inches  apart  and 
2-inch  gates  placed  on  the  inside  instead  of  outside,  as  they  will  collect  less 
trash,  the  hole  through  the  wood,  if  uncovered,  making  a  lodgment  for 
leaves,  etc.  In  the  narrow  and  flat  flume  it  is  much  easier  to  fix  the  gates. 

From  8  to  9  furrows  for  trees  set  24  feet  apart  is  sufficient.  The  streams 
should  be  run  from  one-eighth  to  one-half  the  capacity  of  the  holes  in  the 
flume,  according  to  the  soil  and  fall  of  ground.  I  commence  the  stream 
small  and  increase  it  if  necessary  later  on.  The  streams  should  be  kept  as 
near  together  as  possible,  and  when  the  end  is  reached  the  gate  should  be 
nearly  closed  down,  so  as  to  allow  the  stream  to  just  trickle  to  the  end.  In 
this  manner  the  soil  will  become  thoroughly  wet  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
The  streams  should  be  run  very  slowly  on  most  of  our  soils.  A  great  many 
failures  have  been  made  on  hard  soils  by  running  the  stream  too  large  and 
then  reducing  it.  This  seems  to  "slick"  or  cement  the  soil  so  that  it  will  not 
take  the  water,  and  the  consequence  is  a  poor  and  unsatisfactory  irrigation. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  streams  are  started  small  and  allowed  to  soak 
the  ground  as  they  go  along,  it  is  simply  astonishing  how  much  water  can 
be  put  in  the  ground.  On  sandy  soils  the  streams  should  be  larger.  A  little 
practice  would  give  anyone  the  desired  information. 

About  three  rows  of  trees  at  the  lower  end  should  be  blocked  up,  pro- 
vided one  has  no  place  where  the  overflow  water  could  be  used.  This  last 
provision  is  the  better,  however,  as  there  would  be  only  about  10  inches  of 
water  run  over  the  last  three  or  four  hours,  and  a  thorough  job  would  be 
done  from  one  end  to  the  other. 

In  making  furrows  I  have  an  extension  made  for  my  cultivator  to  bolt  on 
each  side  and  use  four  plows.  With  this  extension  I  can  wet  the  whole 
ground  thoroughly.  The  furrows  will  extend  under  the  limbs  of  the  trees, 
and  by  making  a  slight  curve  around  each  tree  the  ground  will  become 
wet  in  the  rows  as  well  as  between. 

As  compared  with  the  check  system,  the  furrow  method,  properly  handled, 
makes  the  soil  light  and  loose,  while  the  check  system  is  apt  to  pack  the 


182 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


soil  rendering  it  lifeless  and  leaving  it  so  that  it  will  not  retain  moisture 
long.  Besides,  the  cost  of  ridging  and  extra  labor  in  handling  water  in 
checks  for  one  season  will  nearly  pay  for  the  flume,  by  which  one  man  can 
do  the  irrigating.  Two  horses  will  furrow  out  10  acres  in  half  a  day,  and 
a  little  hand  labor  at  the  flume  will  connect  the  furrows.  In  the  check 
system  generally  a  disk  is  run  first  where  the  ridges  are  to  be  made,  and 
then  the  ridger  is  run  with  four  horses;  then  jump  scraper  is  run  to  stop 
up  one  side  of  the  blocks;  then  ditches  must  be  made;  thert  from  2  to  3  men 
are  required  to  handle  the  water  by  shutting  up  the  checks  when  filled. 
Afterwards  the  ridges  must  be  plowed  down  before  the  ground  can  be  har- 
rowed and  got  in  condition  to  cultivate.  At  a  glance  one  can  see  that  it 
costs  fully  three  times  as  much  to  irrigate  by  the  check  system  as  by  the 
furrow  system,  and  with  the  latter  the  soil  acts  more  as  it  does  after  a  rain. 

OVERHEAD  IRRIGATION 

Although  Californians  have  always  been  strongly  impelled  by 
the  desire  to  get  irrigation  water  away  from  contact  with  the  air 
and  into  the  soil  as  directly  as  possible,  to  escape  losses  by  evapora- 
tion and  to  maintain  a  loose  soil-surface,  sprinkling  methods  have 
recently  become  matters  of  considerable  expenditure.  Such  systems 
were  installed  in  the  orange  orchards  of  Robert  Baird  of  Porter- 
ville  and  R.  D.  Williams  of  Exeter.  The  former  has  overhead  perfo- 
rated pipes  supported  on  redwood  posts ;  the  latter  has  underground 
pipes  with  a  stand-pipe  rising  through  the  center  of  each  fourth 
tree  and  surmounted  with  a  revolving  sprinkler.  The  cost  of  in- 
stallation at  prices  which  prevailed  before  the  war  in  each  case  was 
about  $150  per  acrce.  The  desirability  of  such  sprinkling  methods 
is  still  to  be  demonstrated.  In  both  cases  the  water  is  forced  into 
the  pipes  by  pumps. 


DEVELOPMENT  AND  STORAGE  OF  WATER 

It  is,  obviously,  beyond  the  limitations  of  this  work  to  attempt 
an  extended  review  of  irrigation  enterprises  and  practices.  The 
enterprises  undertaken  by  capitalists,  or  by  co-operation  among 
settlers,  require  the  services  of  competent  engineers.  All  these 
matters  are  too  great  in  extent  and  variety  to  be  discussed  in  this 
work.  As,  however,  it  has  been  the  aim  of  the  writer  to  aid  the 
inexperienced  planter  to  help  himself  in  small  efforts,  a  little  space 
will  be  given  to  suggestions  as  how  a  planter  may  develop  and 
use  such  small  water  supply  as  may  be  derived  from  spring,  small 
creek  or  well,  on  his  own  land  without  employing  an  engineer. 

Running  Lines  for  Irrigating  Ditches. — How  far  to  go  up  a 
creek  in  order  to  bring  water  out  upon  a  given  piece  of  land  is  a 
question  which  frequently  arises  in  individual  practice.  There  is 
also  doubt  as  to  how  much  fall  should  be  given  to  the  ditch.  The 
fall  required  by  a  ditch  or  canal  depends  upon  the  amount  of  water 
which  it  is  desired  that  it  shall  discharge,  and  upon  the  width  and 
depth  with  which  it  is  intended  that  the  water  should  flow.  It  may 
also  be  dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  in  which  the  ditch 
is  to  be  constructed,  and  upon  the  peculiarities  of  the  water  itself. 


RUNNING  LINES  FOR  DITCHES 


183 


A  strong  current  in  soft  soil  may  cause  mischievous  erosions.  Water 
carrying  much  sediment  must  never  be  allowed  to  move  sluggishly, 
as  clear  water  sometimes  may.  It  is  best  to  state  the  requirements 
to  a  competent  engineer  and  act  on  hib  suggestion,  or  secure  the 
counsel  of  a  neighbor  who  has  had  experience  with  similar  soil  and 
water. 

Having  decided  what  fall  to  give  the  ditch,  the  nearest  point  of 
which  water  can  be  taken  out  of  the  creek  to  be  brought  to  a  certain 
piece  of  land  is  found  by  commencing  with  the  point  at  which  the 
water  is  to  be  delivered  (generally  the  highest  point  of  the  land  to 
be  irrigated),  and  running  up  stream  a  line  which  has  the  inclination 
intended  for  the  ditch. 

To  stake  out  this  line  when  no  special  hindrances  are  in  the  way, 
use  a  home-made  leveling  instrument  constructed  as  follows : 

With  sound,  stranght-edged  lumber  a  triangle  is  made,  as  indicated  in  the 
sketch.  The  three  pieces,  A  B,  10  feet  long,  B  C,  12  feet  long,  and  C  A,  4 
feet  long,  are  made  fast  to  each  other  at  A,  B,  and  C.  The  board,  A  D  is 
fastened  to  the  triangle  at  right  angles  to  B  C  near  A  on  the  board,  A  D, 
plumb-line  is  made  fast.  The  plumb,  like  a  mason's  plumb,  hangs  in  a  hole 
at  F,  so  that  when  A  D  is  vertical,  the  string  hangs  very  near  the  surface  of 
the  board,  A  D. 

It  will  be  seen  that  when  A  D  is  exactly  vertical,  B  C  is  exactly  hori- 
zontal, if  the  angles  at  D  are  true  right  angles.  An  ordinary  carpenter's 
square  used  in  the  construction  of  the  apparatus  will  insure  sufficient  accuracy 
in  the  position  of  A  D. 

In  marking  on  the  board,  A  D,  however,  the  line  in  which  the  string  of 
the  plumb  will  hang  when  B  C  is  exactly  horizontal,  more  care  is  required. 
Two  pegs  are  driven,  as  far  apart  as  B  and  C,  for  these  points  to  rest  on. 
The  highest  one  is  driven  into  the  ground  until  the  plumb-line  follows  about 
the  center  line  of  the  board,  A  D.  Having  marked  this  position  of  the  plumb- 
line,  the  triangle  is  reversed  so  that  the  end  B  rests  on  the  peg,  where 
before  we  had  the  end  C,  and  vice  versa.  Should  the  plumb-line  be  in  a 
position  at  variance  with  the  first  one  marked  on  the  board,  then  the  correct 
position  for  the  B  C  horizontal  will  be  exactly  in  the  middle  between  the  two 
found  by  the  aid  of  the  two  pegs. 

It  will  frequently  be  found  convenient  to  have  a  scale  of  feet  marked  off 
on  B  C.  Holes  in  the  pieces  A  B  and  C  A  at  E  E,  or  handles,  will  make  the 
triangle  convenient  to  carry.  Only  two  men  are  necessary  in  using  it. 


A  home-made  leveling  instrument. 


jg^  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

To  use  this  instrument  for  locating  the  line  of  the  ditch,  calculate 
the  amount  which  your  line  should  rise  between  each  two  pegs. 
Drive  a  peg  at  the  starting  point  with  its  top  say  six  inches  from 
the  general  surface  of  the  ground.  Hold  one  end  of  the  leveling 
apparatus  above  this  peg  by  exactly  that  amount  which  the  line 
arises  per  each  instrument  length  (B  C),  and  swing  the  other  end 
around  into  the  direction  from  which  the  ditch  is  to  come,  until, 
when  level,  it  is  just  six  inches  above  the  ground.  Drive  a  peg  here, 
which  will,  like  the  first,  be  six  inches  high,  and  proceed  as  before. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  give  the  top  of  each  peg  exactly  the  correct 
elevation.  The  level  must  be  horizontal  when  resting  on  any  peg, 
and  raised  exactly  that  amount  which  the  line  rises  per  level  length, 
above  the  preceding  peg.  It  will  be  found  convenient  to  use  a  care- 
fully prepared  block  to  hold  on  the  top  of  each  stake  at  the  rear  end 
of  the  level  instead  of  trusting  to  measurement  each  time. 

Locating  Contour  Lines  for  Checks  or  for  Distributing  Ditches. — 
This  work  can  be  done  with  the  aid  of  the  level  above  described. 
For  instance,  to  locate  a  contour  (a  line  of  equal  elevation),  as  re- 
quired in  the  construction  of  a  check  levee,  drive  a  peg  until  its  top 
has  a  convenient  elevation  from  the  ground,  say  one  foot.  Rest  one 
end  of  the  triangle  on  this  peg  and  swing  the  other  around  until, 
when  B  C  is  horizontal,  this  other  end  has  exactly  the  same  elevation 
from  the  ground  as  the  top  of  the  peg.  At  this  point  drive  a  second 
peg  and  proceed  as  before.  If  the  tops  of  the  pegs  be  chosen  as  the 
height  of  the  levee,  they  may  be  retained  as  grade  stakes  as  well  as 
line  stakes  for  the  embankment. 

Storing  Water  from  Small  Sources. — For  individual  uses  quite 
a  respectable  water  supply  can  sometimes  be  developed  from  ap- 
parently mean  sources.  This  can  be  done  by  clearing  out  and 
opening  up  hillside  springs,  and  often  by  tunneling  into  the  hillside 
to  intercept  subterranean  water-flows,  or  by  pumping  from  a  well. 
Even  a  small  spring,  yielding  but  two  quarts  per  second,  would  be 
sufficient  to  irrigate  several  acres  in  fruit  trees.  To  derive  the 
greatest  benefit  from  small  springs,  however,  a  reservoir  is  neces- 
sary, in  which  the  flow  of  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  or  even  a 
longer  period,  can  be  accumulated,  and  then  discharged  as  required. 
It  is  by  using  water  in  driblets  that  many  springs  are  wasted.  A 
spring  supplying  even  one  and  a  half  inches  of  water  would  be 
wholly  swallowed  up  by  a  thirsty  soil  within  two  hundred  feet  of  its 
source,  when,  by  arresting  the  flow  and  accumulating  it  in  a  reser- 
voir and  discharging  at  intervals  in  a  volume  four  times  as  large,  it 
would  more  than  cover  eight  times  the  surface.  A  spring  flowing 
two  quarts  per  second  will  discharge  forty-three  thousand  two 
hundred  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours.  This  would  require  a  reser-' 
yoir  forty  by  twenty  feet,  and  seven  feet  deep,  or  double  that  width 
if  the  depth  is  decreased  one-half.  The  shallower  it  can  be  made 
the  better,  for  many  reasons,  but  especially  on  account  of  the  tern- 


AN    IRRIGATION    RESERVOIR  Ig5 

perature  of  the  water.  That  of  springs  is  generally  too  low  in  sum- 
mer for  immediate  use,  and  its  value  is  greatly  enhanced  by  being 
raised  to  an  equal  or  greater  temperature  than  that  of  the  air.  This 
is  quickly  done  by  exposure  in  a  shallow  pond.  A  reservoir  can  be 
constructed  entirely  in  the  ground  where  the  slope  will  admit  of  it, 
and  by  lining  the  bottom  and  sides  with  clay  well  puddled,  will 
answer  for  most  purposes.  Some  are  built  of  adobe,  backed  with 
earth  and  plastered  on  the  inner  side  with  hydraulic  cement.  Con- 
crete of  lime,  sand,  and  broken  stone  is,  however,  the  best  material, 
where  lime  can  be  readily  obtained,  and  any  person  with  ordinary 
mechanical  skill  can  construct  them.  The  following  hints  on  a  dirt 
reservoir  may  be  suggestive : 

A  reservoir  should  be  built  on  the  highest  part  of  the  tract  sought  to  be 
irrigated  by  scraping  the  earth  from  the  outside  and  from  such  a  large  area 
as  not  to  affect  the  utility  of  the  land  from  which  it  is  taken.  With  a  levee 
all  around  5  feet  high,  5  feet  of  water  could  be  carried  safely.  The  slopes 
ought  to  be  two  to  one  on  the  inside.  A  reservoir  20  feet  square  and  4  feet 
deep  would  hold  12,000  gallons.  With  the  slopes  as  above  the  reservoir 
should  be  measured  two  feet  from  the  bottom,  or  half  way  up  the  4  feet  of 
water;  consequently,  to  lay  put  a  reservoir  to  hold  12,000  gallons,  put  the 
stakes  12  feet  square  and  build.  For  any  other  size  one  take  8  feet  off  the 
same  as  this:  A  reservoir  25  feet  square  will  hold  18,750  gallons  and  would 
be  17  feet  square  at  the  bottom;  one  30  feet  square  would  hold  27,000 
gallons  and  would  be  22  feet  at  the  bottom;  one  35  feet  square — 27  at  the 
bottom — will  hold  36,000  gallons;  one  40  feet  square — 32  on  the  bottom — will 
hold  48,000  gallons.  This  spread  upon  the  surface  of  an  acre  would  be  a 
little  more  than  1^  inches  of  rainfall. 

Almost  any  loam  or  soil  will  hold  water  with  a  little  puddling.  The 
cheapest  way  to  puddle  is  to  build  a  pen  the  size  of  the  entended  reservoir, 
including  at  least  a  portion  of  that  to  be  under  the  embankment,  wet  it  very 
wet,  put  some  hogs  in  the  pen  and  keep  feeding  them  barley,  a  little  at  a 
time,  so  as  to  make  them  not  only  walk  around,  but  root  for  the  barley.  A 
half-sack  of  barley  fed  to  eight  or  ten  hungry  hogs  in  half  a  day  will  make 
a  good  puddle.  If  it  did  not  work  satisfactorily,  the  water  could  be  taken 
off  and  the  bottom  covered  about  an  inch  deep  with  coarse  sand  mixed  one 
part  to  five  with  Portland  cement,  put  in  dry,  and  let  it  be  covered  slowly. 
A  barrel  of  cement  may  be  counted  at  about  4  cubic  feet  and  with  the  mix- 
ture above  would  cover  the  first-named  reservoir  about  1^4  inches.  This 
would  make  it  tight.  The  supply  pipe  should  come  up  from  the  bottom,  so 
that  the  lift  would  never  be  more  than  the  height  of  the  surface. 

Loss  of  Water  by  Seepage. — The  great  loss  of  water  by  seepage 
during  a  long  run  has  led  to  the  cementing  of  ditches,  and  to  the  use 
of  miles  of  large  wooden,  concrete  and  iron  pipe  by  the  irrigation 
companies  of  Southern  California;  also,  where  the  slope  is  rapid, 
paving  ditches  with  rock  has  been  resorted  to.  Similar  efforts 
naturally  suggest  themselves  to  the  user  of  a  small  supply  to  save 
his  flow  from  loss.  The  lining  of  ditches  to  prevent  seepage  were 
tested  by  the  California  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley,  and  publi- 
cation of  results  were  made.*  Where  lumber  is  cheap  the  use  of  a 
board  flume  is  an  available  means  of  saving  water,  when  the  soilis 
coarse  and  leachy. 

*Bulletin    188   and   Circular    144,   University  of   California   Experiment    Station.    Berkeley. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Irrigation  from  Flowing  Wells. — A  considerable  area  of  orchard 
is  irrigated  from  flowing  wells  in  different  parts  of  the  State.  Nearly 
everywhere  in  the  artesian  districts  there  are  local  well-borers  who 
have  kept  records  of  the  strata  traversed  in  their  work,  and  can 
estimate  closely  the  cost  of  securing  water  by  this  method. 

Lifting  Water  from  Flowing  Ditch  or  Stream. — Where  a  stream 
has  a  rapidity  of  two  miles  or  more  per  hour,  and  a  lift  to  a  height 
of  six  to  sixteen  feet  will  give  head  enough  to  distance  the  water 
over  a  considerable  area,  there  is  nothing  cheaper  than  the  current 
wheel  which  is  largely  used  alongside  streams  in  this  State.  The 
engraving  gives  an  end  view  of  such  a  wheel.  Eight  pairs  of  arms, 
carrying  flat  buckets  like  those  of  a  steamboat  paddle-wheel,  extend 
from  a  hub  rotating  on  metal  bearings.  At  either  end,  or  both 
ends,  of  each  bucket  are  fixed  wooden  or  tin  water  boxes  which  fill 


^_^NfeX 

If 

•'    •*- 

End  view  of  irrigating  wheel. 


themselves  on  entering  the  water,  and  on  being  brought  to  the 
highest  point  of  rotation  empty  themselves  into  a  receiving  trough. 
This  trough  supplies  the  distributing  ditches,  etc.,  and  its  inner  end 
is  so  placed  that  it  comes  under  the  projecting  buckets  of  the  wheel 
without  interference  with  the  motion  of  the  arms.  The  current  of 
water  in  the  channel  underneath  forces  the  buckets  down  stream, 
the  latter  delivering  in  the  opposite  direction  at  the  top.  By  using 
a  double  set  of  boxes,  one  at  each  end  of  each  bucket,  the  water 
may  be  delivered  on  both  sides  simultaneously.  A  little  experi- 
menting will  indicate  the  proper  size  boxes,  which  depends  upon 
the  velocity  and  volume  of  water  in  the  channel,  as  well  as  to  the 
amount  to  be  delivered.  Since,  however,  electric  and  distillate 
motors  have  become  common,  ruder  devices  have  been  largely 
displaced,  though,  under  certain  conditions,  still  serviceable. 


WATER  MEASUREMENT  Ig7 

PUMPING  FOR  IRRIGATION 

The  use  of  pumps  for  irrigation  is  continually  increasing.  The 
capacity  of  pumps,  their  ease  and  cheapness  of  operation  in  this  land 
of  oil  wells  and  ponderous  waterfalls  whose  power  can  be  trans- 
formed into  electric  energy,  warrant  the  conclusion  that  in  many 
places  water  can  be  lifted  from  below  more  cheaply  than  it  can  be 
brought  long  distances  by  ditch ;  and  that  the  supply  is  more  con- 
stant and  subject  to  the  users'  command  and  convenience.  In  all 
parts  of  the  State  well-boring  and  digging  and  pump  construction 
have  advanced  very  rapidly.  Pumping  plants  of  all  capacities,  from 
the  greatest  of  the  gasoline  class,  lifting  five  thousand  gallons  per 
minute  from  a  depth  of  twenty-five  feet,  down  to  the  plant  with  a 
throw  of  three  hundred  gallons  per  minute,  all  styles  of  motors  and 
pumps  are  being  constantly  multiplied.  These  plants  are  being 
placed  upon  wells  in  the  orchard  or  in  the  vicinity,  or  upon  adjacent 
streams  or  ponds.  Many  new  designs  by  California  inventors  are 
coming  into  use.  It  would  require  a  volume  to  contain  any  adequate 
account  of  California's  recent  progress  in  these  lines.  Economic 
pumping  is  governed  by  so  many  considerations  that  no  general 
statement  would  be  conclusive  in  any  specific  case.  Each  orchardist 
must  ascertain  his  own  conditions  and  then  confer  with  trustworthy 
manufacturers  or  their  agents  as  to  what  will  meet  his  require- 
ments.* 

WATER    MEASUREMENT 

The  Miner's  Inch. — Although  the  miner's  inch,  as  commonly 
measured,  is  open  to  objection  because  of  inaccuracy,  from  an  engi- 
neer's point  of  view,  it  is  so  easily  applied  that  it  must  remain  a 
popular  recourse.  It  consists  in  causing  the  water  to  flow  through 
an  opening,  the  capacity  of  which  is  known,  and  which  is  readily 
capable  of  adjustment  to  the  flow  in  any  case.  A  simple  form  of  this 
device  and  its  use  is  shown  in  the  illustration,  which  represents  a 
board  1  inch  thick,  12  inches  wide,  and  about  8  feet  long.  The  open- 
ing is  1  inch  wide  and  50  inches  long,  and  the  distance  from  the  top 
of  the  board  to  the  center  of  the  opening  is  exactly  4  inches  on  the 
up-stream  side.  On  the  down-stream  side  the  opening  is  beveled  so 
that  the  hole  presents  sharp  edges  to  the  stream.  A  sliding  board  is 
hung  upon  the  top  of  the  first  board,  with  a  strip  screwed  along  its 
upper  edge,  this  sliding  board  being  wide  enough  to  cover  the  open- 
ing on  the  up-stream  side.  In  the  slot  there  is  a  closely-fitting  block, 
made  to  slide  on  the  beveled  edges  and  fastened  by  a  screw  to  the 
sliding  board.  It  is  obvious,  then,  that  when  the  sliding  board  is 
moved  backward  or  forward,  by  means  of  its  end,  which  is  extended 
for  a  handle,  the  block  moves  in  the  slot  and  determines  the  length 
of  the  opening. 

In  operation  the  board  is  placed  in  the  stream  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  so  as  to  dam  the  flow  completely,  and  the  sliding  board  is 

*Full   details  of  the  cost  and  flow  from  pumps  drawing  from  various  depths  and  operated 
by   various   motors   are    Riven    in   the   publications    of    the    Irrigation    Investigations   to    which 
reference   has   previously    been    made.      Also,    Circular    117,    California     Experiment     Station; 
The   Selection  and  Cost  of  a   Small  Pumping  Plant,"  by  B.   A.   Etcheverry. 


188 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


moved  backward  and  forward  until  the  water  is  all  passing  through 
the  slot,  the  water  being  kept  up  to  the  top  of  the  board,  or  4  inches 
above  the  center  of  the  opening.  The  length  of  the  opening  measures 
the  number  of  miner's  inches  of  water  flowing  through.  If  the  flow 
is  too  great  to  pass  through  the  opening  1  inch  wide,  the  opening 
may  be  made  wider,  the  water  still  to  be  kept  4  inches  above  the 
center  of  the  opening.  The  laws  of  several  States  provide  that  in 
devices  for  measuring  water  for  sale  by  the  miner's  inch  the  opening 
shall  be  6  inches  high  and  shall  be  provided  with  a  slide  as  shown 
in  the  picture.  The  number  of  miner's  inches  then  discharged  is 
equal  to  the  number  of  square  inches  in  the  opening.  The  assump- 
tion made  that  the  discharge  is  proportional  to  the  size  of  the  open- 
ing is  not  true,  but  the  error  in  measuring  small  quantities  is  not 
great  enough  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  By  converting  the 
results  of  measurements  in  miner's  inches  to  gallons,  cubic  feet,  or 
some  other  familiar  unit,  it  may  be  determined  how  long  it  will  take 


Measuring  miner's  inches  in  a  small  stream  or  ditch. 


the  stream  to  fill  a  reservoir  or  cover  a  given  field  with  the  neces- 
sary depth  of  water.  This  unit  is  readily  convertible  into  cubic  feet 
or  gallons  or  acre-inches  of  water,  according  to  the  time  the 
water  flows. 

The  following  data  will  be  helpful  in  computations :  One  miner's 
inch,  as  described  above,  equals  0.1496  gallons  per  second,  8,976  gal- 
lons per  minute,  538.56  gallons  per  hour,  12,925.44  gallons  per  day ; 
0.02  cubic  feet  per  second,  1.2  cubic  feet  per  minute,  72  cubic  feet 
per  hour.  One  acre-inch  of  water  (that  is,  1  inch  in  depth  over  an 
acre  of  surface)  equals  27,152  gallons,  or  3,630  cubic  feet,  and  1 
miner's  inch  will  supply  this  quantity  in  about  50.4  hours.  Thus  a 
simple  calculation  shows  that  a  little  stream  of  5  miner's  inches  will 
supply  enough  water  to  cover  an  acre  2.3  inches  deep  in  about  23 
hours — a  fair  amount  for  one  irrigation  of  soil  of  average  character 
if  it  has  not  been  allowed  to  become  too  dry  before  the  application. 
In  fact,  this  is  an  average  amount  actually  used  for  an  irrigation  of 
shallow-rooted  plants  like  most  field  and  garden  crops. 


IRRIGATION  SUGGESTIONS  189 

Weir  Measurement. — The  term  "weir"  is  not  always  understood 
by  those  who  use  it.  The  term  can  properly  be  used  only  for  struc- 
tures designed  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  over  the  crest  with  a  con- 
siderable fall  on  the  down-stream  side.  There  are  a  large  number  of 
forms  of  weirs,  taking  their  names  from  the  shape  of  the  weir  notch, 
or  the  form  of  crest.  The  triangular  weir  has  a  V-shaped  notch. 
The  rectangular  weir  has  a  horizontal  crest  with  vertical  sides.  Both 
of  these  forms  of  weir  are  good,  when  used  by  the  expert  irrigator 
or  engineer  who  understands  the  principles  and  factors  which  enter 
into  their  calculations.  Water  measurement  as  practiced  by  irriga- 
tion companies  is,  however,  rather  more  a  question  of  engineering 
than  of  fruit  growing  and  cannot  be  pursued  in  this  connection. 
Several  publications  on  the  subject  are  readily  available.* 

DANGER  OF  ALKALI   IN   IRRIGATION  WATER 

Every  since  Prof.  Hilgard's  original  observations  on  alkali  were 
published,  Californians  have  been  aware  of  the  danger  of  using 
waters  containing  alkali  for  irrigation  purposes,  but  they  have  not 
realized,  until  recently,  of  how  much  significance  this  is.  Investiga- 
tions and  observations  made  by  the  California  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  show  that  many  of  the  well  waters  used  for  irrigation 
purposes  in  orchards  contain  so  much  alkali,  usually  including 
common  salt,  that  though  beginning  with  a  soil  free  from  alkali,  one 
can  readily  impregnate  it  with  salts  enough  in  a  few  years  to  ruin 
an  orchard.  The  investigations  emphasize  further  some  general 
alkali  problems  in  orchards,  even  where  fairly  good  waters  have 
been  used,  and  render  the  alkali  question  one  of  the  most  important 
in  soil  management  problems  in  arid  parts  of  California.  The  fruit 
planter  should  never  plan  to  use  water  from  any  source  for  irriga- 
tion without  having  proper  samples  analyzed  and  the  analysis  inter- 
preted.f  River  and  stream  waters  are  usually  found  to  be  purer 
and  better  than  well  waters  in  the  citrus  districts,  in  which  the 
investigations  cited  were  carried  out.  Nevertheless,  recourse  to 
analysis  is  always  a  safe  guide. 

RANDOM   SUGGESTIONS 

Without  attempting  an  impossible  thing,  to-wit,  to  furnish  ex- 
plicit directions  for  the  practice  of  irrigation,  for  much  of  it  every 
man  must  learn  for  himself  by  experience,  a  few  suggestions  may 
be  noted. 

Usually  water  should  be  prevented  from  actual  contact  with  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  Citrus  trees  are  especially  sensitive  to  such  con- 
tact, and  resent  it  by  "gum  disease,"  which  was  formerly  far  more 

'Bulletin  247  of  the  California  Experiment  Station  on  "Some  Measuring  Devices  Used 
in  the  Delivery  of  Irrigation  Water"  (Jan.,  1915):  "Farmers'  "  Bulletin  813.  U.  S  Dent 
Agr.,  on  "Construction  and  Use  of  Farm  Weirs"  (June,  1917):  Circular  36.  Utah  Experi- 
ment Station,  Logan,  Utah,  on  "Practical  Information  on  the  Measurement  of  Irrigation 
Water"  (January,  1919). 

fThe  ill  effects  of  irrigating  with  alkaline  water  are  strikingly  set  forth  by  W.  P.  Kelly 
and  E,  E.  Thomas  ki  Bulletin  318  and  Circular  219  of  the  University  of  California,  Berkeley 


190 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


prevalent  in  the  State  than  now.  Care  must,  therefore,  be  taken  not 
to  set  trees  which  are  to  be  irrigated  too  low.  It  is  better  to  raise 
them  up  a  little  and  draw  the  earth  around  them  to  prevent  ap- 
proach of  the  water,  but  this  must  not  be  overdone. 

If  possible,  the  ditch  should  be  run  on  the  shady  side  of  the  tree, 
because  reflected  sunshine  from  the  water  surface^  may  burn  the 
bark. 

In  examining  soil  to  ascertain  dryness,  one  must  dig  or  bore 
deeply,  for  often  an  upper  layer  will  be  fairly  moist,  if  well  culti- 
vated, while  lower  layers,  where  the  feeding  rootlets  are,  will  be 
arid.  Therefore,  when  trees  or  vines  are  suffering,  go  far  down  in 
examining  the  soil. 

In  irrigating,  thorough,  deep  soaking  is  necessary,  and  examina- 
tion must  be  made  to  see  if  an  artificial  hardpan  which  prevents 
the  descent  of  the  water  has  been  formed. 

Be  careful  not  to  continue  irrigation  too  late  in  the  season.  It 
will  prevent  the  proper  dormancy  of  deciduous  trees,  and  if  more 
fall  irrigation  is  given  citrus  trees  than  they  need  for  perfecting  the 
fruit,  the  trees  will  continue  growing  tender  shoots  until  they  are 
injured  by  severe  frosts.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  often  desirable  to 
give  deciduous  trees  a  draft  of  water  after  the  fruit  has  been  gath- 
ered, if  the  soil  is  so  dry  that  the  tree  is  likely  to  drop  its  leaves 
too  soon,  and  wake  from  its  dormancy  with  the  first  rains.  Many 
times  the  fall  blooming  of  deciduous  trees,  which  is  very  undesir- 
able, may  be  prevented  by  keeping  them  growing  later  in  the 
summer  by  moderate  irrigation. 

If  trees  or  vines,  in  regions  usually  irrigated,  are  to  be  grown 
without  irrigation,  it  is  important  that  the  grower  be  more  than 
usually  thorough  and  constant  with  his  summer  cultivation.  In 
trying  the  non-irrigation  experiment,  one  should,  of  course,  begin 
with  young  trees  which  have  not  been  irrigated,  and  not  usually 
expect  success  by  withdrawing  the  water  from  trees  which  have 
been  accustomed  to  it,  and  have  developed  a  root  system  accord- 
ingly. 

While  waiting  for  an  "irrigating  system,"  young  trees  can  be 
kept  going  with  a  water  wagon.  With  a  galvanized  tank  on  a  wagon 
three  men  went  over  a  60-acre  orchard  three  times,  taking  four  days 
for  each  irrigation.  One  man  went  ahead  to  scoop  out  around  each 
tree,  and  after  the  water  was  put  on  he  covered  it  up,  to  keep  the 
soil  loose  and  prevent  loss  by  evaporation.  He  could  keep  ahead 
because  of  the  loss  of  time  of  the  team  going  after  water  and  return- 
ing. From  the  tank  ran  two  large  hose,  the  water  being  siphoned 
off  at  the  basin  near  each  tree  till  about  four  or  five  gallons  of  water 
were  put  on.  Then  the  hose  was  bent  back  so  the  water  could  not 
flow  out,  and  they  advanced  to  the  next  tree. 

SUB-IRRIGATION   IN    CALIFORNIA 

The  word  "sub-irrigated"  is  freely  used  in  California  to  describe 
land  which  is  moistened  below  by  underflow  or  seepage  from 
streams  or  springs,  or  from  open  irrigation  ditches,  traversing 


DRAINAGE   IN   CALIFORNIA  \^\ 

higher  levels.  This  land  is  sub-irrigated,  it  is  true,  but  there  is  no 
system  about  it,  except  the  natural  distribution  of  water,  which  is 
to  seek  its  level.  Some  of  our  most  productive  lands  are  of  this 
character,  and  where  the  soil  and  subsoil  are  fitted  to  the  movement 
of  this  living  water,  and  not  apt  to  retain  it  up  to  the  point  of  sat- 
uration, satisfactory  growth  of  deep-rooting  field  crops  and  of  trees 
and  vines  are  secured.  But  this  is  not  sub-irrigation  in  the  ordinary 
signification  of  the  term. 

Several  systems  of  sub-irrigation  by  subterranean  pipes  have 
been  devised  by  California  inventors,  but  none  have  passed  beyond 
the  experimental  stage,  and  no  acreage  has  been  continually  op- 
erated. This,  of  course,  has  no  reference  to  carrying  water  in  sub- 
terranean pipes  to  outlets  for  surface  distribution.  Such  distribution 
systems  are  largely  used. 

DRAINAGE   IN   CALIFORNIA 

There  was  for  a  long  time  a  very  erroneous  popular  generaliza- 
tion that  California  soils  do  not  need  drainage;  that  in  a  dry  state 
the  aim  should  be  to  retain  the  moisture,  not  to  part  with  it.  It  is, 
of  course,  true  that  we  have  vast  areas  of  naturally  well-drained 
soil,  upon  which  any  money  spent  for  drainage  would  be  in  a  great 
part  thrown  away,  but  we  have,  also,  both  in  the  valley  and  on  the 
hillsides,  localities  where,  by  peculiar  character  and  conformation 
of  the  subsoil,  water  is  held  in  the  soil  until  evaporated  from  the 
surface,  and  the  result  is  a  boggy,  miry  condition,  which  prevents 
proper  winter  cultivation,  and  at  the  same  time  injures  the  roots  of 
the  trees  or  vines.  This  defective  cultivation,  added  to  the  puddling 
effect  of  standing  water,  makes  the  soil  dry  out  completely  under 
the  fervid  sun  of  summer,  and  the  result  is  that  the  wettest  soil  of 
the  winter  may  be  the  driest  in  the  summer,  and  plants  which  are  in- 
jured by  soaking  in  winter  suffer  again  from  lack  of  moisture  and 
sustenance  in  summer.  Thus  it  is  a  fact,  clearly  proven  by  observa- 
tion and  experience,  that  thorough  under-drainage  removes  surplus 
water  in  winter,  and  ministers  to  the  retention  of  moisture  in  sum- 
mer. More  than  this,  a  soil  puddled  by  standing  water  can  not 
present  its  contents  in  available  form  for  plant  nutrition,  and  be- 
sides, it  loses  the  fertilizing  effects  of  atmospheric  currents,  which 
pass  through  an  open,  well-dried  soil.  Wet  land  is  cold  and  late  in 
spring,  and  hot  as  a  baked  brick  under  the  summer  sun;  it  is  no 
fiction  of  the  imagination  to  say  that  well  drained  land  is  warm  in 
winter  and  cool  in  summer — that  is,  cool  to  a  degree  which  favors 
quick  and  free  root  growth,  and  cool  enough  to  escape  the  parching 
effect  of  deeply  baked  soil. 

These,  and  a  host  of  similar  considerations,  which  have  made 
under-drainage  popular  in  older  countries,  are  of  weight  in  Cali- 
fornia. Possibly,  as  a  rule,  because  of  our  vast  area  of  deep,  kind 
loams,  the  proportion  of  land  needing  drainage  in  this  State  is  less 
than  elsewhere,  and  yet  there  is  a  vast  extent  of  country  to  be  im- 
proved by  tiling.  There  have  been  large  losses  of  trees  from  plant- 
ing upon  soils  defective  in  this  respect.  The  evil  has  resulted  from 


192  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

excessive  rainfall  and  excessive  irrigation,  either  direct  or  by  under- 
flow from  adjacent  irrigations.  In  some  places  this  latter  movement 
of  water  has  brought  alkali  to  assist  in  the  ruin  of  the  trees  and 
vines.  The  cure  is  drainage  to  sufficient  depth  and  with  good  outlet 
for  the  drainage  water. 

Information  on  the  construction  of  under-drains  is  too  available 
through  other  sources  to  call  for  its  presentation  in  this  connection.* 

Drainage  and  Irrigation. — A  special  importance  attaches  to  com- 
plete and  systematic  drainage  in  connection  with  irrigation.  There 
is  pressing  need  of  such  provision  where  the  soil  has  become  over- 
loaded by  seepage  water  from  irrigation  ditches,  and  it  is  well  that 
people  in  such  situations  are  waking  up  to  the  need  of  coupling 
drainage  outlets  with  their  irrigation  inlets.  Another  matter  closely 
allied  to  this  is  the  action  of  alkali  on  soils  thus  artificially  water- 
soaked.  This  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  special  publication,  to 
which  allusion  has  already  been  made  in  Chapter  III.  Drainage  is 
plainly  essential,  both  in  individual  farms  and  in  districts  where  the 
water  level  is  rising  too  high,  and  the  striking  statements  given 
below  by  Professor  Hilgard  should  incite  all  to  give  immediate  at- 
tention to  the  needs  of  vines  and  trees  in  this  regard : 

In  the  valleys  and  plains  of  the  arid  irrigation  countries  the  soils  are  pre- 
dominantly of  a  light,  sandy  or  silty  nature,  easily  penetrated  to  great  depths 
by  water  and  air.  With  these  the  roots  of  plants  also  reach  to  such  depths, 
drawing  therefrom  not  only  moisture,  but  also  plant  food,  which  in  these 
soils  is,  as  a  rule,  very  abundant.  The  plants  of  the  arid  region  thus  are 
enabled  to  utilize  nearly  as  many  feet  of  soil  mass  as  in  the  regions  of 
summer  rains  inches  would  be  drawn  upon;  and  it  is  evident  that  this  advan- 
tage, which  postpones  for  a  long  time  the  need  of  fertilization,  should  not 
be  lightly  thrown  away.  Each  farm  in  the  arid  region  has  several  similar 
ones  underground,  which  with  proper  management  can  be  fully  utilized. 

But  this  presupposes  that  the  water,  air  and  roots  can  all  penetrate  under 
irrigated  culture  as  they  do  in  the  natural  condition.  It  means  that  the 
ground  water  level  shall  not  be  allowed  to  rise  to  such  an  extent  as  to  pre- 
vent the  penetration  and  healthy  life  of  the  roots  in  the  depths  of  the  soil 
mass.  If  by  intentional  or  careless  over-irrigation,  or  by  the  leakage  from 
the  ditches,  the  water  level  is  allowed  to  rise  within  a  few  feet  of  the  sur- 
face, the  wonderfully  productive  lands  of  the  arid  valleys  are  reduced  to 
the  same  condition  as  are  those  of  the  humid  countries;  a  shallow  layer 
of  surface  soil,  within  which  alone  the  roots  can  exercise  their  functions 
of  plant  nutrition.  The  natural  result  is  that  this  layer  soon  becomes  ex- 
hausted, and  copious  artificial  fertilization  is  required  to  maintain  prolific 
production. 

And  even  this  is  the  most  favorable  case.  When,  in  addition,  the  upward 
movement  of  the  soil  water  carries  with  it  the  entire  mass  of  salts  of  various 
kinds  which  exist  in  all  arid  soils,  and  brings  them  within  reach  of  surface 
evaporation,  these  "alkali"  salts  impregnate  the  soil  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
render  the  cultivation  of  many  crops  unprofitable,  or  sometimes  altogether 
impossible. 

Summarizing  the  advantages  of  systematic  land  draining  it  may  be  said 
that: 

1.  It  prevents  the  drowning  out  of  the  deeper  roots  of  plants  by  the  rise 
or  fluctuations  of  the  ground  water,  by  which  the  vineyards  and  orchards  are 
so  frequently  rendered  unprofitable. 

*"Farm  Drainage  Methods"  by  W.  W.  Weir.  Circular  174  of  University  of  California 
Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  Calif. 


DANGER  IN  STANDING  WATER  193 

2.  It  prevents,  or  at  least  limits  definitely,  the  shallowing  of  the  soil 
caused   by   high-lying    ground   water,   resulting   in   the   need    of    early   and 
copious  fertilization,  which  would  otherwise  not  have  been  called  for  in  many 
years.    The  annual  cost  of  such  fertilization  would  soon  exceed  the  first  cost 
of  drainage. 

3.  Drainage  does  away  definitely  with  the  alkali  evil.    When  drainage  is 
established  the  land  can  easily  be  so  handled  as  either  to  remove  all  the 
alkali,  or  to  leave  in  the  soil  so  much  of  it  as  may  be  rationally  considered 
beneficial,  on  account  of  its  usual  content  of  valuable  and  highly  available 
plant  food.    To  prevent  the  waste  of  much  of  this  soluble  plant  food,  the  use 
of  gypsum  is  also  valuable;  but  subsequent  swamping  of  the  land  would 
cause  a  return  of  the  black  alkali  unless  drainage  were  provided  for. 

In  view  of  the  facts  that  water-logged  lands  are  still  being  sold 
to  the  unwary  for  fruit  planting;  that  sometimes  lands  are  offered 
with  the  attractive  promise  of  an  irrigation  supply  when  they 
actually  need  a  drainage  system;  that  on  such  lands  every  year  of 
large  rainfall  brings  areas  of  trees  into  distress  and  inflicts  consider- 
able losses,  these  declarations  of  Professor  Hilgard  should  be  most 
carefully  kept  in  mind.  The  only  item  of  his  declaration  which 
later  researches  question  is  the  feasibility  of  "drainage  doing  away 
definitely  with  the  alkali  question,"  because  difficulties  have  arisen 
in  the  effort  to  make  drainage  do  it,  when  the  alkali  is  in  its  worst 
form  and  in  very  large  amount — as  explained  in  the  publications 
cited  in  the  footnote  on  page  ....  That  problem  seems  to  be  still 
pending  solution. 


PART  THREE:  ORCHARD  FRUITS 


CHAPTER  XVI 

COMMERCIAL    FRUIT   VARIETIES 

What  fruit  to  plant,  or  what  kind  of  a  bearing  orchard  to  buy  as 
an  investment,  are  questions  which  can  not  be  answered,  in  this 
treatise.  The  planters  on  new  land  and  the  investors  in  improved 
land  must  answer  them  for  themselves — forming  their  judgments 
after  securing  facts  which  seem  to  them  a  proper  basis  for  such  a 
business  decision.  It  is  the  conviction  of  the  writer  that  all  fruits 
which  have  demonstrated  commercial  suitability  in  California,  when 
properly  placed  under  the  soil,  temperature  and  moisture  conditions 
which  favor  their  best  growth  and  productiveness,  may  be  counted 
as  yielding  nearly  equal  net  returns,  considering  the  investment  in 
land,  water,  waiting  for  bearing  and  handling  of  the  product.  So 
far  as  the  writer  has  observed,  all  our  commercial  fruits  have  reached 
maximum  and  minimum  returns  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century 
which  are  practically  identical.  Therefore  to  plant  good  fruit  in  the 
best  place  for  it,  to  handle  the  trees  and  products  most  intelligently, 
both  in  production  and  marketing,  holds  out  substantially  equal 
promise  of  profit.  If  it  could  be  demonstrated  that  any  particular 
fruit  had  the  especial  advantage  over  others  in  net  returns,  this 
advantage  would  immediately  disappear  because  planters  would 
rush  to  it  and  take  away  this  advantage  by  undue  increase  of  its 
acreage.  Therefore  the  choice  of  fruits  must  remain  an  open  ques- 
tion for  each  one  to  determine  by  his  own  experience  and  observa- 
tion, at  least  to  the  extent  of  determining  his  own  line  of  production. 

It  is  one  of  the  purposes  of  this  treatise,  as  they  will  be  disclosed 
in  succeeding  chapters,  to  impress  upon  the  local  planters  the  con- 
viction that  their  clearest  path  toward  satisfactory  income  lies  in 
choosing  varieties  which  have  demonstrated  two  fundamental  char- 
acters, viz. :  adaptation  to  the  locality  and  to  the  uses  of  the  fruit 
trade — rather  than  in  choosing  novelties,  no  matter  how  alluring 
they  may  be. 

It  may  surprise  the  casual  reader  to  find  that  our  production 
proceeds  so  largely  upon  old  standard  varieties.  Anyone,  however, 
who  is  acquainted  with  commercial  fruit  growing  knows  that  it  is 
neither  wise  nor  easy  to  revolutionize  an  established  and  profitable 
industry  by  the  substitution  of  new  varieties  for  the  old  standards. 
It  takes  several  years  to  determine  whether  a  new  variety  is  really 
trustworthy  and  suitable,  and  it  takes  much  longer  to  get  a  large 
acreage  in  bearing  either  by  grafting  or  new  planting  because 
people  are  slow  and  conservative  in  making  changes.  As  the  period 
of  trial  of  each  novelty  passes,  however,  new  varieties  are  accepted, 


WHY   FEW   VARIETIES    ARE   GROWN  195 

if  for  any  good  reason  found  suitable,  and  become  prominent  as 
their  merits  justify. 

Another  reason  why  new  varieties  do  not  figure  more  largely  in 
California  fruit  growing  is  the  smallness  of  the  amateur  interest. 
There  is,  in  fact,  almost  an  absence  of  pure  amateurs — enthusiastic, 
critical,  discriminating,  athirst  for  novelties.  Even  suburban  plant- 
ers follow  the  lead  of  commercial  orchardists  and  plant  chiefly  that 
which  has  shown  adaptations  to  local  growing  conditions,  and  few 
are  averse  to  making  what  they  can  by  sale  of  small  surpluses.  The 
result  is  that  California  fruit  growing  is  almost  wholly  commercial 
in  spirit,  policy  and  point  of  view,  which  is  perhaps  only  natural  in 
a  state  where  the  fruit  crops  yield  the  growers  an  annual  aggregate 
value  of  something  like  two  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars. 
The  effect  is  to  concentrate  attention  upon  varieties  which  have 
achieved  fame  for  profit,  and  to  repress  amateur  devotion  and  in- 
dulgence. 

At  the  same  time  there  is,  and  has  always  been,  quite  a  disposi- 
tion toward  trial  of  novelties  among  commercial  growers,  especially 
manifested  in  search  of  specific  characters  which  are  seen  to  be 
desirable  rather  than  desire  for  newness  for  its  own  sake,  which  is 
often  a  point  of  pride  among  amateurs.  To  this  enterprising  and 
discriminating  search  is  due  the  prominence  of  some  of  the  leading 
varieties,  which  were  chance  seedlings  recognized  as  meeting  special 
requirements  and  having  grown  great  because  they  really  did  so. 
The  California  grower  is,  therefore,  quite  certain  that  he  needs  not 
varieties  new  throughout  and  of  startling  characters,  but  improved 
varieties  which  hold  the  good  points  of  the  old  and  add  other  points. 
For  instance,  he  calls  for  trees  resistant  to  disease,  for  improvement 
of  the  fruit  in  beauty,  flavor  and  keeping  qualities;  for  varieties, 
similar  in  kind,  which  fill  gaps  in  the  ripening  season  so  that  he  can 
employ  help  continuously,  and  shippers  and  canners  agree  with  him 
so  that  they  can  keep  the  cars  moving  and  the  cannery  plants  at 
work.  The  grower  says  he  must  be  careful  not  to  plant  something 
different  from  what  is  already  growing  and  selling  well  in  his  region, 
and  this  is  also  the  advice  of  the  trade  to  him.  He  can  not  risk 
much  on  varieties  of  entirely  different  types,  although  most  growers 
are  always  doing  a  little  experimenting.  Nor  should  he  undertake 
too  many  varieties,  because  a  profitable  orchard  is  not  a  pomolog- 
ical  museum.  There  must  be  a  large  quantity  of  uniform  fruit  to 
make  any  district  commercially  prominent. 

For  these  reasons  the  number  of  varieties  now  planted  is  but  a 
fraction  of  what  it  was  a  third  of  a  century  ago,  and,  stopping  at 
this  point,  one  might  get  the  idea  of  the  California  grower  as  a 
monument  of  conservatism  and  lacking  in  enterprise  and  adventure. 
The  fact  is  that  he  has  very  definite  ideas  of  the  suitability  and 
desirability  of  the  varieties  which  he  chooses  for  planting.  From 
the  beginning,  California  growers  and  nurserymen  have  exercised 
painstaking  discrimination  and  selection  to  secure  varieties  which 
best  served  particular  purposes,  and  in  1920  they  co-operated  in 
organizing  a  Bud  Selection  Association  in  order  that  commercial 
propagation  might  be  more  widely  and  systematically  directed 


j<^  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

toward  increased  production  of  varieties  of  most  serviceable  types 
of  the  different  fruits  and  the  most  productive  trees  of  such  types, 
by  propagating  only  from  the  best  trees,  which  were  determined 
and  designated  for  that  purpose. 

It  should  therefore  be  noted  by  the  reader  that  the  preference 
for  certain  varieties,  which  is  embodied  in  this  statement,  which 
will  close  this  chapter,  does  not  involve  pomological  standards  as  a 
leading  factor.  The  claim  is  distinctly  not  made  that  these  varieties 
are  chosen  exclusively  on  the  basis  of  quality,  beauty,  hardiness  or 
health.  In  the  case  of  nearly  all  the  fruits,  there  are  other  varieties 
which  might  equal  or  even  surpass  them  in  one  or  more  of  these 
respects.  The  choice  is  made  because  they  are  most  profitable  to 
grow ;  not  alone  because  they  are  good,  but  because  they  are  good 
for  something.  This  particular  suitability  or  serviceability  may 
involve  pomological  considerations  and  commercial  and  manufac- 
turing considerations  as  well.  The  planter  must  use  these  lists  in 
connection  with  what  he  may  find  about  the  varieties  in  subsequent 
chapters,  without  neglecting  to  confer  with  older  growers,  in  the 
district  in  which  he  may  plan  to  plant,  as  to  what  varieties  produce 
best  and  are  in  best  demand  in  the  business  of  his  district. 

Perhaps  an  intelligent  use  of  the  statement  can  be  concretely 
suggested  by  briefly  discussing  the  first  group  of  varieties  men- 
tioned— the  apples  most  approved  in  California.  First  comes  the 
yellow  Newtown  Pippin,  and  that  means  that  most  apples  commer- 
cially grown  are  winter  apples  and  this  variety  is,  on  the  whole,  the 
most  profitable  of  them.  But  a  planter  in  a  hot  interior  valley 
should  usually  reject  them,  for  all  winter  apples  are  apt  to  be  un- 
satisfactory, and,  if  he  plants  apples  at  all,  should  choose  early 
varieties,  because  they  ripen  early,  thus  escaping  the  highest  heat 
and  at  the  same  time  being  ready  for  the  early  market.  Similar 
comments  might  be  made  upon  the  varieties  of  other  fruits. 

During  the  year  1921  the  writer  made  a  careful  review  of  the 
experience  of  growers  and  propagators  to  determine  which  fruit 
varieties  were  considered  most  satisfactory  in  commercial  planta- 
tions in  California,  using  as  a  basis  of  revision  the  decisions  reached 
at  several  conferences  of  fruit  growers,  nurserymen,  and  managers 
of  fruit  canneries,  drying  establishments  and  those  engaged  in 
long-distance  shipment  of  fresh  fruits.  In  the  chapters  devoted  to 
different  fruits  the  decisions  of  the  conferences  will  be  given  in 
more  detail. 

The  varieties  grouped  below  are  not  arranged  according  to  ripen- 
ing season.  Such  data  will  be  given  in  following  chapters : 

Apples.— Newtown  Pippin,  Bellflower,  E.  Spitzenburg,  W.  W. 
Pearmain,  Gravenstein,  Red  Astracan,  W.  Astracan,  Carolina  Red 
June,  Skinner,  R.  I.  Greening,  Alexander,  Rome  Beauty,  Jonathan, 
Winesap,  Stayman,  Winter  Banana,  Grimes,  Delicious,  King  David, 
Arkansas  Black,  Baldwin. 

Apricots.— Royal,  Blenheim,  Tilton,  Hemskirk,  Peach,  Newcas- 
tle, Moorpark. 


FRUIT    VARIETIES    CHIEFLY    GROWN  197 

Cherries. — Royal  Ann,  Black  Tartarian,  Bing,  Black  Oregon, 
Gov.  Wood,  Lambert,  Chapman,  Burbank,  Montmorency,  Purple 
Guigne,  May  Duke,  Centennial,  Black  Bigarreau. 

Free-Stone  Peaches. — Muir,  Lovell,  Elberta,  Salway,  Mayflower, 
Alexander,  Hale's  Early,  Triumph,  St.  John,  Early  Crawford, 
Wheatland,  Morris  White,  Strawberry,  Decker,  Early  Elberta,  J. 
H.  Hale. 

Cling-Stone  Peaches. — Phillips,  Tuscan,  Pedora,  Peaks,  Al- 
bright, Levi,  Sim's,  Libbee,  Albright,  McDevitt,  Hauss. 

Pears. — Bartlett,  Winter  Nelis,  Easter,  Du  Cornice,  Glout  Mor- 
ceau,  D'Anjou,  Hardy,  Barry,  Lawson,  Seckel,  Winter  Bartlett, 
Wilder,  Bosc,  Clairgeau,  Forelle,  Flemish  Beauty. 

Plums. — Climax,  Beauty,  Hungarian,  Tragedy,  Wickson,  Bur- 
bank,  Kelsey,  Yellow  Egg,  Red  June,  Giant,  Washington,  Jefferson, 
Bavay's,  Gaviota,  Damson,  Grand  Duke,  California  Blue,  President, 
Santa  Rosa  Satsuma,  Duarte. 

Prunes. — French,  Imperial,  Sugar,  Robe  de  Sergeant,  Silver. 

Raisin  and  Shipping  Grapes. — Muscat,  Tokay,  Thompson,  Em- 
peror, Malaga,  Cornichon,  Black  Prince,  Black  Morocco,  Sultana, 
Sweet  Water,  Gros  Colman,  Verdal,  Pierce,  Concord. 

Figs. — White  Adriatic,  Calimyrna  (Smyrna),  Mission,  Kadota 
(White  Endrich),  Brown  Turkey,  White  San  Pedro. 

Almonds. — Nonpareil,  IXL,  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  Drake,  Texas  Pro- 
lific, Peerless. 

Walnut. — Franquette,  Mayette,  Concord,  Eureka,  Placentia, 
Santa  Barbara  Softshell. 

Orange. — Washington  Navel,  Valencia,  Mediterranean  Sweet, 
Paper  Rind  St.  Michael,  Ruby  Blood. 

Lemon. — Eureka,  Lisbon,  Villa  Franca. 

Pomelo. — Marsh. 

Olives. — Mission,  Manzanillo,  Sevillano,  Ascolano. 

Blackberries. — Mammoth,  Lawton,  Logan,  Himalaya,  Crandalls. 

Raspberries. — Cuthbert. 

Strawberries. — Melinda,  Banner,  Nick  Ohmer,  Klondyke,  Dollar, 
Brandywine,  Jessie,  Arizona,  Marshall. 

This  compilation  indicates  the  popularity  of  varieties  in  the 
State  as  a  whole.  It  should  be  taken  as  a  guide  to  planting  in  any 
particular  district  only  as  it  may  be  revised,  for  local  adaptations 
and  special  purposes,  by  the  fuller  data  for  each  kind  of  fruit  in  the 
special  chapter  which  will  be  devoted  to  it.  In  these  chapters  other 
varieties  will  also  be  enumerated — including  those  now  considered 
exceptionally  promising  and  likely  to  displace  some  varieties  which 
appear  in  the  foregoing  category. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

THE   APPLE 

During  the  last  decade  notable  progress  has  beer\  made  in  apple 
growing  in  California.  The  old  idea  that  our  conditions  did  not 
favor  excellence  in  the  apple  has  given  away  to  full  assurance  that 
in  wisely  selected  elevations  and  exposures  the  very  highest  points 
of  size,  beauty,  flavor,  keeping  and  shipping  qualities  are  secured. 
Even  before  the  wonderfully  satisfactory  test  of  both  Northern  and 
Southern  California  apples  at  the  New  Orleans  World's  Fair,  it  was 
clear  that  the  right  variety  grown  in  the  right  place  yields  an  apple 
in  California  than  which  a  better  can  not  be  grown  anywhere,  and 
during  the  last  decade  California  early  apples  have  been  in  sharp 
request  for  shipment  to  all  regions  of  the  Northwest  and  British 
Columbia,  and  California  winter  apples  have  been  sold  at  the  high- 
est prices  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  in  Europe. 

Because  of  her  achievements  with  other  fruits  California's  stand- 
ing in  apple  production  is  not  usually  considered.  By  the  U.  S. 
Census  of  1910,  California  ranked  ninth  among  apple  growing  states 
of  the  country.  The  crop  of  1919,  as  reported  by  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  advanced  the  State  to  fourth  place,  with  a 
product  of  8,640,000  bushels.  The  Pacific  Coast  leads  the  country 
in  apples.  The  largest  producing  state  is  Washington  and  the 
fourth  California;  the  combined  product  of  these  two  states  being 
5,000,000  bushels  greater  than  that  of  New  York  and  Virginia, 
which  rank  second  and  third,  respectively.  The  relative  planting 
and  product-value  of  apples  to  other  California  fruits  is  shown  in 
Chapter  VI. 

Localities  for  Apples. — Speaking  generally,  it  may  be  laid  down 
that  the  great  valleys  of  the  interior  are  not  well  suited  to  the  apple ; 
also,  there  are  some  situations  which  are  much  better  than  others. 
In  the  early  regions  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  foothills,  how- 
ever, excellent  early  apples  are  profitably  produced.  In  the  great 
valley  and  lower  foothill  region  of  the  State,  the  late  apple  usually 
lacks  character  and  keeping  quality.  On  the  great  plains  the  tree 
is  liable  to  sunburn,  or  sun  blight,  as  it  is  called.  Some  varieties, 
because  of  the  character  of  their  foliage,  are  less  liable  to  this  injury 
than  others,  and  it  is  possible  that  this  evil  may  be  finally  overcome 
by  the  selection  of  varieties  with  blight-proof  foliage,  as  will  be 
mentioned  later.  In  the  great  valley,  however,  on  the  rich  river- 
bottom  land  of  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  and  its  tribu- 
taries, the  apple  roots  deeply,  attains  good  size,  bears  good  fruit, 
with  fair  keeping  quality,  while  but  a  few  miles  away  on  the  plains 
it  is  inferior.  On  these  deep,  rich  river-bank  lands  excellent  early 
apples  are  produced. 

In  the  interior,  adaptation  to  the  late,  long-keeping  apple  lies  at 
an  elevation  on  the  foothills  on  both  the  east  and  west  rims  of  the 
great  valley.  Its  limits  are  not  well  defined,  but  there  are  flourish- 


WHERE   CALIFORNIA  APPLES   GROW  199 

ing  orchards  at  an  elevation  of  about  four  thousand  five  hundred 
feet  on  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  from  two 
thousand  to  three  thousand  five  hundred  feet  is  commonly  regarded 
the  best  apple  region  of  the  mountains.  The  trees  attain  larger 
size  and  bear  heavily,  and  the  fruit,  of  well-adapted  varieties,  is 
large,  crisp,  juicy  and  has  exceptional  keeping  qualities.  This 
district,  which  is  practically  as  long  as  the  State,  is  still  awaiting 
development  in  commercial  apple  production. 

Along  the  coast  the  apple  succeeds  well  from  end  to  end  of  the 
State,  and  very  close  to  the  ocean  excellent  fruit  is  produced  on 
good  soil — usually  without  irrigation  but  sometimes  advantaged  by 
it.  In  this  coast  region  are  situated  the  chief  commercial  apple 
districts  of  the  State.  Named  in  the  order  of  their  acreage  in  1920 
they  are  as  follows :  Santa  Cruz  and  Monterey  counties  (Watson- 
ville  district)  ;  Sonoma  (Sebastopol  district) ;  Lake  Mendocino  and 
Humboldt  counties  (Upper  Coast  district).  As  the  coast  is  not 
an  early  region,  the  product  is  almost  exclusively  fall  and  winter 
apples. 

There  is  a  certain  advantage  in  elevation  in  the  coast  region  as 
well  as  in  the  interior,  but  the  advantage  is  not  so  marked  nor  is  the 
required  elevation  so  great.  Coast  valleys  in  the  central  and  upper 
portion  of  the  State,  where  the  soil  is  suitable,  produce  most  excel- 
lent apples,  but  even  here  the  lower  hillsides,  with  deep,  well- 
drained  soils,  are,  perhaps,  preferable  to  the  floors  of  the  valley. 
Departing  from  immediate  coast  influences  and  approaching  the 
interior,  with  its  greater  heat  and  aridity,  the  greater  elevation 
becomes  desirable.  The  apple,  excepting  the  very  early  varieties, 
does  not  relish  the  forcing  heat  which  brings  such  perfection  to  the 
peach,  but  to  insure  late  ripening  and  long  keeping,  with  accom- 
panying crispness,  juiciness,  and  flavor,  it  must  have  atmospheric 
surroundings  which  favor  slower  development. 

Localities  for  apple  growing  in  Southern  California  are  to  be 
chosen  with  much  the  same  rules  as  in  the  upper  part  of  the  State. 
As  has  already  been  said,  valleys  in  which  coast  conditions  largely 
predominate  produce  good  apples,  on  suitable  soils,  but  away  from 
the  coast,  proper  elevations  must  be  sought,  and  they  should  be 
above  the  so-called  thermal  or  frostless  belts.  Good  apples  are 
grown  on  low  lands  near  the  coast  in  Los  Angeles  and  Orange 
Counties.  Sixty  miles  inland,  in  San  Bernardino  and  Riverside 
counties,  winter  apples  fail  in  the  valleys,  but  are  most  excellent 
at  a  sufficient  elevation  upon  the  slopes  of  the  surrounding  moun- 
tains or  in  elevated  valleys  like  the  Yucaipa  Valley  above  Redlands, 
where  a  Rome  Beauty  of  excellent  quality  was  grown  in  1903  to  a 
weight  of  twenty-seven  ounces  and  a  circumference  of  fifteen  inches. 
This,  however,  is  not  "the  record"  in  apple  size  for  the  writer  re- 
ceived a  Bietigheimer  from  Napa  in  1921  which  weighed  twenty- 
eight  ounces  and  had  a  circumference  of  sixteen  inches!  In  the 
elevated  interior  of  San  Diego  County,  as  in  the  Julian  and  Smith 
Mountain  districts  and  in  the  San  Jacinto  region  of  Riverside 
county,  excellent  apples  are  produced  in  large  quantities  and  profit- 
ably carried  long  distances. 


2Q0  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Second  and  Third-Crop  Apples. — There  is  a  peculiar  behavior  of 
the  apple  tree,  most  noticeable  when  winter  temperature  is  mildest, 
and  that  is  blooming  and  fruiting  out  of  season.  In  the  case  of 
early  apples  the  second  bloom  may  appear  about  the  time  the  first 
fruit  ripens  and  the  third  bloom  when  the  second  crop  is  half  grown. 
Even  such  behavior  may  be  followed  by  regular  blooming  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Second  crops  of  apples  are  not  of  amount  nor  regu- 
larity enough  to  be  of  much  economic  importance,  as  the  second 
crops  of  pears  and  grapes  sometimes  are.  The  third  crop  occa- 
sionally ripens.  An  instance  is  on  record  at  Chino,  San  Bernardino 
County,  where  in  1903  a  tree  ripened  its  first  crop  in  June,  and  its 
last  fruit  was  picked  on  Christmas  day  following.  Such  behavior, 
of  course,  indicates  conditions  ill  suited  to  the  apple. 

Exposures  for  the  Apple. — The  choice  of  exposure  for  an  apple 
orchard  may  almost  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  said  about 
localities.  In  regions  with  high  summer  temperature  the  apple  will 
do  best  on  cool,  northerly  slopes,  and  this  exposure  becomes  doubly 
desirable  when  the  location  has  high  temperature  with  only  moder- 
ate annual  rainfall,  or  where  the  soil  is  not  well  adapted  to  the 
retention  of  moisture.  With  such  prevailing  conditions,  the  apple 
will  be  grateful  for  the  cooler  air  and  the  greater  moisture  of  the 
northerly  slope.  Where  the  temperature  is  moderately  cool,  and 
the  rainfall  adequate,  the  matter  of  exposure  is  of  less  account,  and 
the  grower  can  make  the  existence  of  the  best  soil  the  test  of  loca- 
tion for  his  orchard.  At  elevations  on  the  sides  of  high  ranges 
where  late  cold  storms  are  liable  to  rush  down  from  higher  snow 
fields,  protection  from  the  usual  course  of  such  storms,  or  from  the 
course  of  cold  winds  generally,  must  be  sought ;  and  directly  up  the 
coast,  especially  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  in  certain  places 
where  the  peach  does  not  usually  succeed,  even  the  apple  needs  pro- 
tection, and  the  benefit  of  all  heat  available,  and  then  a  southerly 
or  southeasterly  exposure  becomes  desirable.  The  choice  of  ex- 
posure is  thus  seen  to  be  largely  a  local  question  and  to  be  deter- 
mined by  a  knowledge  of  local  conditions.  A  newcomer  in  a  region 
can  best  learn  these  conditions  by  conference  with  older  residents, 
or  by  personal  observation  of  older  orchards. 

Soils  for  the  Apple.— Experience  with  the  apple  in  California 
confirms  what  has  long  been  set  forth  as  its  choice  of  soils  in  older 
regions.  If  one  avoids  an  extremely  light,  sandy  soil  on  the  one 
hand,  and  a  very  stiff  clay  or  adobe  on  the  other,  he  may  plant 
apples  on  almost  any  soil  which  allows  extension  of  the  roots  to  a 
considerable  depth  without  reaching  standing  water.  The  apple 
thrives  in  a  moist  soil,  but  it  must  be  well  drained,  naturally  or 
otherwise.  A  soil  which  may  be  called  best  for  the  apple  is  a  deep, 
rich  moist,  calcareous  loam,  but  the  tree  will  thrive  on  coarser  ma- 
The  subsoil,  whatever  its  nature,  must  be  sound  and  open 
to  the  passage  of  moisture.  The  most  unfavorable  condition  for  the 
tree  is  a  subsoil  of  clay  which  holds  water.  There  is  some  difference 
in  varieties  as  to  choice  of  soil.  The  Yellow  Bellflower,  for  instance, 
will  do  well  on  a  lighter  soil  than  the  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin 


HOW  TO  ESCAPE  THE  WOOLLY  APHIS  201 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  APPLE 

The  apple  is  chiefly  propagated  by  root-grafting  upon  apple 
seedling  roots,  either  whole  roots  or  root  pieces.  Budding  is  also 
practised  up  to  a  certain  extent.  For  dwarf  trees  the  Paradise 
stock  is  used.  Repeated  trials  with  working  the  apple  on  the  pear, 
chiefly  by  top  grafting,  have  secured  growth  of  limited  life  but 
without  fruiting. 

The  resistance  of  certain  roots  to  the  woolly  aphis  has  been  fully 
demonstrated  by  local  experience  in  the  use  of  the  Northern  Spy 
and  Winter  Majetin,  chiefly  the  former.  Seedlings  of  Northern  Spy 
can  not  be  relied  upon  as  resistant  to  the  woolly  aphis.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  get  a  root  actually  grown  from  the  Northern  Spy  wood.  The 
best  way  to  get  a  start  is  to  buy  some  Northern  Spy  trees  from 
some  reputable  nurseryman,  specifying  that  they  shall  be  Northern 
Spy  root  and  top.  With  these  resistant  roots  and  wood  growth  for 
scions  or  cuttings  can  be  grown.  Resistant  trees  are  made  by  root 
grafting  the  scion  of  the  variety  which  it  is  desired  to  propagate 
upon  a  piece  of  Northern  Spy  root  and  then  being  careful  that  the 
scion  does  not  send  out  roots  of  its  own,  but  is  wholly  dependent 
upon  the  Northern  Spy  root.  It  is  customary  with  nurserymen 
selling  resistant  trees  to  save  the  root  pieces  which  are  removed  in 
digging  and  packing,  for  subsequent  propagation.  It  is  also  possible 
to  get  a  resistant  tree  by  starting  from  the  cutting  of  a  Northern 
Spy.  To  facilitate  the  rotting  of  these  cuttings  a  small  piece  of  any 
kind  of  apple  root  is  put  in  by  side  graft  near  the  bottom  of  the  cut- 
ting. This  acts  as  a  starter,  but  the  cuting  will  also  make  roots  of 
itself.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  then  the  cuttings  are  taken  up,  the 
piece  of  root  used  as  a  starter  is  cleanly  cut  away  and  the  rooted  cut- 
ting replanted ;  henceforth  it  is  dependent  upon  its  own  roots  and  is 
resistant.  The  variety  desired  is  then  grafted  in  a  little  way  above 
the  ground  surface  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  its  making 
its  own  roots.  By  either  of  these  processes  it  is  more  troublesome 
and  takes  more  time  to  produce  a  tree  with  a  resistant  root  than 
in  the  ordinary  way,  and  for  that  reason  trees  on  resistant  roots  are 
sold  at  higher  price,  and  this  may  explain  why  resistant  trees  are 
not  yet  largely  used  in  this  State. 

Other  suggestions  applicable  to  the  growth  of  young  apple  trees 
are  given  in  Chapters  VIII  and  IX. 


DISEASES  AND  PESTS  OF  THE  APPLE 

The  apple  is  subject  to  various  diseases  and  insect  enemies  which 
must  be  resolutely  fought  or  they  will  render  the  trees  unprofitable. 
Chief  of  these  diseases  are  the  "pear  blight"  and  the  apple  scab,  and 
the  apple  mildew.  Of  the  insect  enemies  the  codlin  moth,  the  apple- 
leaf  aphis,  the  various  leaf-cutting  caterpillars  and  several  scale 
insects  must  be  kept  in  check,  and  the  latest  approved  means  of 
reducing  these  troubles  will  be  described  in  detail  in  Chapters  XLII 
and  XLIII. 


2Q2  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  APPLE  ORCHARD 

The  chapters  on  planting,  and  pruning  contain  suggestions  to 
which  the  reader  is  referred.  Care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  trees 
with  clean,  healthy  roots,  not  knotted  and  scarred  by  woolly  aphis. 

Distance  in  Planting. — The  distance  between  the  trees  is  of  the 
highest  importance.  All  the  old  apple  orchards  are  v  overcrowded. 
More  recently  trees  have  been  set  at  greater  distance,  and  such 
planting  is  now  generally  advised.  There  is  some  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  proper  distance,  but  certainly  twenty-five  to  thirty 
feet  is  near  enough,  and  some  of  the  best  new  orchards  have  been 
planted  at  forty  feet,  the  ground  being  used  for  a  time  with  other 
crops  or  planted  with  early  bearing  trees,  for  which  the  soil  is 
suited,  between  them.  Berries  are  largely  grown  in  young  apple 
orchards  in  the  Sebastopol  district. 

Pruning  the  Apple. — The  manner  of  shaping  fruit  trees  described 
in  the  chapter  on  pruning  succeeds  admirably  with  the  apple.  Year- 
ling trees  are  usually  planted,  and  they  are  regularly  pruned  until 
proper  form  is  secured. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Rodgers,  during  his  life-time  a  leading  apple  grower 
of  the  Watsonville  district,  near  the  coast  in  central  California,  gave 
the  following  excellent  outline  of  a  simple  and  economical,  yet  suc- 
cessful, method  for  apple  tree  building  under  ordinary  conditions. 

First  Year:  On  planting  cut  the  stem  from  30  to  36  inches  in 
height,  with  the  terminal  bud  toward  the  southwest.  In  the  spring, 
when  growth  begins,  strip  off  all  shoots  from  the  ground  up  to 
about  20  inches.  Above  this  point  let  all  growth  remain  during  the 
summer.  If  for  any  cause  during  early  summer  a  bud  does  not  start 
where  wanted,  a  short  transverse  cut  through  the  bark  just  above 
the  bud  will  cause  it  to  develop  into  limb. 

Beginning  of  Second  Year :  Cut  off  all  limbs  except  those  selected 
to  remain  permanently.  Two,  three,  four,  and  not  more  than  five 
limbs  should  be  allowed  to  remain,  the  number  depending  on  their 
position.  It  should  be  the  aim  to  distribute  them  evenly  on  all  sides, 
and  to  give  all  possible  space  between  limbs  up  and  down  the  trunk. 
This  latter  precaution  is  to  give  room  for  expansion  of  limbs  in  after 
years.  Cut  back  the  limbs  that  are  to  remain,  taking  off  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  of  the  previous  season's  growth.  It  the  tree  is  of  a 
spreading  habit,  and  it  is  desired  to  have  it  grow  erect,  cut  to  inner 
buds.  If  desired  to  spread  the  top  cut  to  outer  buds. 

Beginning  of  Third  Year:  Allow  two  or  three  lateral  limbs  to 
remain  on  each  of  the  main  branches.  Top  the  tree  again,  taking  off 
from  one-third  to  one-half  the  previous  year's  growth.  Continue 
this  method  during  the  first  four  years,  at  which  time  the  tree  should 
begin  to  bear,  and  if  surrounding  conditions  are  favorable,  it  will 
prove  strong,  vigorous  and  capable  of  sustaining  a  heavy  load  of 
apples.  The  after  treatment  will  consist  mainly  in  keeping  the  top 
properly  thinned. 

After  coming  into  bearing  there  must  be  intelligent  pruning  ac- 
cording to  the  growth-habit  of  the  variety.  Some  varieties,  like  the 


PRUNING  THE   APPLE  203 

Yellow  Bellflower,  resent  heavy  pruning  after  coming  into  bear- 
ing, and  slow  growers  like  the  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin,  do  not  need 
it.  On  the  other  hand,  varieties  like  the  Winesap  and  Smith's  Cider 
are  apt  to  make  long  slim  branches  and  bear  at  the  ends.  This  can 
be  corrected  by  cutting  back  to  secure  more  short  shoots  which  will 
bear  better  fruit.  Some  varieties,  like  the  Jonathan,  will  make 
plenty  of  short  spurs  under  this  treatment,  while  others,  like  Rome 
Beauty  and  Rhode  Island  Greening,  are  persistent  tip-bearers,  but 
can  be  gradually  drawn  in  without  reducing  the  crop  too  much. 
The  grower  must  study  his  varieties  not  only  with  reference  to  this 
but  in  forming  the  tree,  cutting  to  an  inside  bud  all  varieties  which 
naturally  take  a  horizontal  direction,  and  cutting  to  an  outside  bud 
varieties  which  have  a  tendency  to  send  up  tall,  straight  shoots. 
By  this  throwing  the  new  growth  upward  in  the  first  case,  and 
outward  in  the  second,  one  can  shape  each  kind  to  greater  symmetry 
and  strength  for  fruit  carrying,  and  bring  up  all  spreading  varieties 
to  a  form  which  admits  near  approach  of  the  plow  and  cultivator. 
This  manner  of  shaping  the  tree  must  continue  as  long  as  seems 
necessary  to  secure  a  tree  which  will  come  to  bearing  age  shapely 
and  strong,  and  within  reach. 

Bearing  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to  carry  too  many  branches, 
and  pruning  will  largely  consists  of  thinning  out  surplus  shoots  and 
removing  interference  between  branches.  It  is  not  desirable  to 
shorten  in  the  apple  as  is  done  with  the  apricot  and  peach.  Some 
growers  do  not  cut  back  after  the  third  year. 

A  successful  treatment  of  bearing  trees,  long  practiced  in  the 
Sebastopol  district,  is  described  by  Mr.  W.  I.  Newcomb  as  follows : 

While  trees  are  young,  their  new  growth  is  cut  back  one-half  to  two- 
thirds.  When  they  become  older  they  are  not  topped  at  all  to  speak  of. 

As  long  as  you  cut  the  ends  off  from  branches,  they  will  grow  more  new 
wood;  if  you  leave  them  alone,  their  tendency  is  more  to  very  slow  growth 
and  heavier  fruiting  down  on  the  old  wood.  When  thinning  is  necessary, 
cut  off  the  entire  branch. 

Wood  is  allowed  to  grow  quite  thickly  in  the  center  of  the  older  trees,  but 
is  thinned  out  to  prevent  rubbing,  however.  Fruit  spurs  are  induced  to  set  in 
the  body  of  the  tree  rather  than  far  out  on  the  limbs  where  a  heavy  load  is 
dangerous  to  the  tree  and  fruit  too.  Some  spurs  on  the  old  trees  have 
borne  half  a  dozen  crops  each,  and  will  continue. 

Summer  Pruning. — Summer  pruning  to  reduce  wood  growth  and 
promote  bearing  is  practiced  to  a  limited  extent  in  some  districts 
upon  varieties  inclined  to  shy  bearing.  In  regions  of  the  most  in- 
tense summer  heat,  less  pruning  is  admissible  than  in  the  coast  and 
elevated  regions.  It  is  necessary  that  the  foliage  be  dense  to  protect 
the  tree  and  the  fruit  from  sunburn.  Nor  does  the  tree  seem  to 
relish  cutting  back.  Slight  thining  out  if  the  tree  becomes  too 
brushy,  seems  to  be  the  best  treatment  in  some  of  the  hot  valleys. 

In  summer  pruning  to  secure  form  and  earlier  fruiting  of  the 
young  tree,  there  is  much  variation  in  method.  Very  systematic 
work  is  credited  to  Mr.  J.  W.  Fulton  of  Yucaipa,  San  Bernardino 
County,  as  follows : 


204 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


The  orchard  includes  ten  acres  of  Rome  Beauties  and  ten  of  Stayman 
Winesap,  Arkansas  Black,  Black  Ben,  and  Vanderpool  Red.  The  summer 
pruning  is  done  in  June  and  again  in  August.  In  June  the  new  growth  is 
eight  or  ten  inches  long  on  the  average.  It  is  not  cut  back,  but  thinned  out 
to  keep  the  trees  open  enough,  but  not  to  allow  sunburn.  Suckerous  growth 
especially  is  removed.  The  only  cutting  back  at  that  time  is  to  direct  the 
growth  of  undesirably-pointed  limbs  into  another  direction.  Rome  Beauty 
especially  is  hard  to  spread  enough,  so  all  cutting  back  is  done  to  an  outside 
bud.  The  Winesaps  naturally  spread,  and  may  need  direction  upward.  A 
branch  may  be  growing  in  a  direction  where  it  would  cross  another  by 
winter  and  have  to  be  taken  out  then.  There  is  much  less  wasted  energy 
if  it  is  cut  out  early.  Late  in  August  comes  the  really  vigorous  pruning, 
when  the  new  growth  is  two  to  four  feet  long.  It  is  cut  back  and  thinned 
some  more.  Then  in  winter  there  is  only  some  small  brush  to  cut  out. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Dunscombe  of  Beaumont,  San  Bernardino  County,  has 
for  a  number  of  years  promoted  bearing  in  young  apple  trees  in 
this  way : 

After  four  years  old,  there  is  usually  no  need  to  prune  an  apple  tree 
for  increased  size.  Turn  the  tree's  energies  into  bearing  instead  of  wood 
growth.  Do  not  prune  in  winter  except  to  cut  out  dead  wood  and  interfering 
branches,  and  to  thin  out  where  brush  is  too  thick.  Top  back  the  new 
growth  (not  heavily)  all  summer,  preferably  in  August.  The  stoppage  of 
sap  flow  will  force  side  buds  to  become  fruit  buds  and  spurs.  When  enough 
spurs  have  been  started  by  a  few  years'  summer  pruning,  leave  the  trees 
alone  except  to  thin  them  out  and  keep  them  open  to  the  sun  for  vigorous 
fruiting  and  high  coloring  inside  the  tree.  In  cutting  back  in  summer,  leave 
a  branch  or  a  promising  bud  just  below  the  cut. 

Thinning  the  Fruit. — One  of  the  most  important  items  in  the 
handling  of  an  apple  orchard  is  the  faithful  thinning  out  of  the  fruit 
of  all  varieties  which  are  prone  to  over-bear,  and  this  work  is  now 
regularly  provided  for  by  the  leading  commercial  growers.  Only 
one  apple  should  grow  at  a  place,  and  spacing  of  four  to  six  inches 
is  commended.  Although  this  work  is  tedious  and  expensive,  it  is 
profitable,  because  of  the  improved  price  which  can  be  had  for  the 
larger  fruit  which  will  be  secured,  and  it  is  desirable  in  the  effects 
of  thinning  on  the  tree.  It  will  be  relieved  from  the  exhaustion  of 
overbearing,  induced  to  yield  annual  crops,  and  often  saved  from 
breaking  down  with  a  too  heavy  burden. 

Cultivation  and  Irrigation.— All  that  has  been  urged  in  measures 
to  secure  adequate  moisture  supply  has  full  force  with  the  apple. 
Excepting  the  early  varieties,  it  is  a  fruit  with  a  long  growing  season 
and  therefore  requires  continuous  moisture  to  secure  size  and  qua- 
lity. Most  California  apples  are  grown  on  deep,  retentive  soils  in 
regions  of  large  rainfall  and  if  this  is  conserved  by  thorough  culti- 
vation, good  fruit  can  be  secured,  though  irrigation  to  increase  size 
of  fruit  is  often  desirable.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  apples  in  coast 
valleys  would  sometimes  be  improved  by  irrigation  just  as  they  are 
in  interior  and  mountain  districts  where  adequate  irrigation  is  es- 
sential. 

Fertilizers  have  been  thus  far  but  little  used  in  California  apple 
orchards,  but  they  are  manifestly  needed. 


HOUSES  FOR  STORING  APPLES  205 

GATHERING  AND  STORING  APPLES 

The  disposition  in  this  State,  as  elsewhere,  is  to  allow  the  fruit 
to  hang  too  long  upon  the  tree  before  gathering.  It  was  long  ago 
demonstrated  that  an  apple  for  long-keeping  must  be  picked  a  little 
in  advance  of  full  maturity.  As  late  fall  weather  in  California  is  so 
delightful,  there  is  more  temptation  to  delay  the  picking  than  where 
the  approach  of  winter  admonishes  the  grower  to  get  his  fruit  under 
cover.  Picking  apples  for  shipment  should  be  done  just  when  the 
seeds  begin  to  blacken  and  when  the  fruit  yields  to  pressure.  If 
left  on  until  fully  ripe,  and  the  seeds  all  black,  the  fruit  is  apt  not 
to  keep  well.  This  rule  applies  to  fall  apples  for  shipment  to  dis- 
tant markets,  or  for  apples  to  be  stored  at  home.  But  this  is  a  rule 
with  exceptions.  A.  W.  Tate  of  Watsonville  does  not  pick  Arkansas 
Black  Twigs  until  the  latter  part  of  November,  when  they  are  well 
sugared  but  firm  and  matured — a  nice  color  and  very  desirable  for 
the  holiday  trade.  The  King  is  often  picked  too  early — before  it 
has  the  color  or  size  it  ought  to  have.  Apples  are  picked  early  to 
escape  the  drop,  but  in  the  Watsonville  district  canners  and  driers 
pay  good  prices  for  sound  windfalls,  and  the  late  picked  apples  sell 
at  a  good  price. 

An  Apple  Storage  House. — Mr.  C.  H.  King  of  Sonoma  County 
has  a  storage  house  with  a  capacity  of  7,500  boxes  or  more.  The 
building  is  40x60  feet,  has  no  refrigerating  equipment,  but  is  kept 
cool  by  night  ventilation.  The  floor  and  sides  are  of  sawdust  held 
in  place  by  board  sheeting  inside  and  out,  8  inches  apart.  The  ceil- 
ing has  two  layers  of  sheeting  and  14  inches  of  sawdust,  above 
which  is  six  feet  of  air  space,  then  the  regular  gabled  roof.  The  air 
space  helps  shield  the  ceiling  from  the  heat  on  the  roof. 

Along  the  peak  of  the  roof  is  a  low,  open,  continuous  cupola.  On 
each  of  two  sides  are  seven  doors  about  two  feet  square,  built  like 
the  sides  ,and  located  just  above  the  level  of  the  floor.  At  night 
these  are  opened.  A  wire  screen  on  each  prevents  exit  or  entrance 
of  any  codling  moths  or  rodents.  At  the  end  of  the  season,  the 
house  is  closed  tight  and  sulphur  burned  to  kill  any  insects  which 
may  be  carrying  over. 

The  fruit  is  stacked  in  trays  22  inches  square  and  3  inches  deep. 
Their  bottoms  are  of  eight  laths,  so  spaced  that  apples  rest  squarely 
on  them.  One  lath  on  each  side  leaves  plenty  of  chance  for  ventila- 
tion. 

Trays  are  stacked  30  deep  in  piles  so  there  is  an  aisle  from  each 
door  to  the  one  on  the  other  side  of  the  house.  A  gentle  draft  of 
cold  air  flows  in  at  night  while  the  warmer  air  flows  up  through  the 
cupola.  Some  Wageners  and  Yellow  Newtowns  have  been  success- 
fully held  until  April  15  with  less  than  two  per  cent  of  loss  by  decay. 

A  rather  more  open  house  is  used  in  the  coast  region  of  Southern 
California,  by  Mr.  T.  W.  Ward,  of  Carpinteria : 

It  is  a  slat  house  made  of  strips  1x2^  inches,  put  on  one  inch  apart.  The 
roof  is  similarly  constructed.  There  are  two  passages,  on  either  side  of 
which  are  two  shelves,  one  above  the  other,  i.  e.,  eight  in  all.  The  shelves 
are  made  of  slats  placed  one-half  inch  apart,  with  sides  a  food  high.  The 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

apples  are  spread  on  these  shelves  a  foor  or  more  deep.  The  floor  is  made 
of  slats,  and  there  are  bins  on  this  also.  The  first  must  receive  a  thorough 
sprinkling  weekly,  unless  sufficient  rain  falls.  The  slats  are  close  enough 
to  prevent  birds  doing  damage,  and  the  whole  building  is  raised  six  inches 
from  the  ground. 

In  the  mountain  regions  arrangements  must  be  made  for  frost 
exclusion — a  consideration  which  does  not  apply  to  the  valley  and 
coast. 

PICKING  AND  PACKING  APPLES  ON  A  LARGE  SCALE 

Mr.  C.  H.  Rodgers,  whose  pruning  prescription  has  been  cited, 
gives  the  best  methods  of  handling  apples  for  market  as  follows : 

In  the  matter  of  picking,  experience  has  evolved  a  number  of  rules  which 
should  be  strictly  adhered  to: 

(1)  Do  not  pull  the  apple  off  the  tree.     By  so  doing,  the  stem  may  be 
detached  from  the  apple,   thus   making  a  second  grade  of  what  otherwise 
would  be  choice. 

The  proper  method  of  plucking  the  apple  is  to  grasp  it  with  the  full  hand, 
not  with  the  fingers  only,  and  by  a  gentle  twist  and  lateral  movement  detach 
it  with  the  stem  attached.  Especially  must  finger  pressure  be  avoided  in 
the  picking,  as  bruises  thereby  produced  injure  the  value. 

(2)  The  apple  must  n  ever  be  dropped  into  a  receptacle  or  from  box  to 
box,  but  should  be  transferred  as  carefully  as  so  many  eggs. 

(3)  Under  all  circumstances  use  vehicles  having  springs  in  moving  the 
fruit. 

Once  within  the  packing-house  the  more  perishable  varieties  should  be 
handled  immediately  and  forwarded  to  market,  while  the  long-keeping  vari- 
eties, especially  those  intended  for  export,  should  be  held  at  least  a  month 
before  sorting  and  packing.  This  latter  precaution  enables  the  packer  to 
discover  and  eliminate  all  diseased  and  defective  fruit — a  thing  that  would 
be  impossible  if  the  fruit  were  packed  at  an  early  date  after  picking. 

Three  grades  or  qualities  are  recognized  in  the  "trade" — first,  second 
and  third.  First  grade  includes  only  perfect  fruit  Second  grade  includes 
the  fruit  having  a  trivial  surface  blemish  or  stem  absent.  The  third  or  cull 
class  includes  all  wormy,  badly  bruised  or  skin-broken  apples. 

Though  grading  for  size  varies  somewhat  in  different  localities,  in  the 
Watsonville  district,  the  leading  apple-producing  center  of  the  West,  there 
are  but  three  sizes  recognized.  These  are  3*/2,  4  and  4^  tier.  The  unit  of 
size  is  the  4-tier,  which  comprises  all  apples  running  from  2%  to  3J4  inches 
in  diameter,  and  derives  the  name  from  the  fact  that  when  packed  in  the 
box  there  are  four  rows  of  four  apples  each,  both  vertically  and  horizon- 
tally across  the  end  of  the  box.  Apples  in  excess  of  3^  inches  are  classed 
as  354-tier  size.  The  third  size,  4^-tier,  includes  those  apples  ranging 
between  2^  and  2^  inches  in  diameter.  Both  the  3^-tier  and  4^i-tier 
are  packed  in  the  manner  known  as  "diamond"  pack  or  "pear"  pack.  Apples 
smaller  than  4^-tier  are  thrown  into  the  cull  pile.  The  sorter  ascertains 
the  size  by  passing  the  apples  through  circular  holes  in  a  board. 

In  this  state  the  standard  box  is  made  of  pine.  Redwood  boxes  are  used 
only  for  cheap  grades  of  apples  packed  for  the  local  market. 

After  being  sorted,  the  apples  are  passed  to  the  packer,  who,  before 
placing  them  in  the  box,  wraps  each  apple  in  a  piece  of  paper  prepared  for 
the  purpose. 

The  apples  must  be  so  packed  in  the  box  as  to  permit  the  nailing  firmly 
of  the  hd  at  each  end,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  a  gradual  swell  of  about 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  at  the  middle  of  both  top  and  bottom.  On  account 
of  the  resultant  shape  of  the  boxes,  they  can  be  stacked  up  with  safety  only 
on  their  sides. 

The  packed  boxes,  after  being  neatly  labeled,  are  next  transferred  to  the 
cars  and  stacked  four  or  five  tiers  high.  An  air  space  of  three  or  four  feet 


APPLES  FOR  VARIOUS  PURPOSES  207 

is  left  between  the  top  tier  and  the  roof  of  the  car,  also  the  entire  space 
between  the  doors  is  left  vacant  for  the  better  circulation  of  air.  The  boxes, 
after  being  systematically  placed  in  the  car,  are  so  braced  with  timbers  as 
to  prevent  any  movement.  The  usual  carload  consists  of  about  650  boxes. 
Refrigerator  fruit  cars  are  employed  mainly  for  apple  shipment,  but  no  ice 
is  used. 

Before  packing  apples  for  sale  growers  should  inform  themselves 
fully  as  to  the  latest  standardization  requirements  by  consulting  the 
county  horticultural  commissioners. 

Summer  and  Fall  Apples. — In  some  regions  noted  for  early  ma- 
turing of  fruit,  it  is  profitable  to  grow  early  apples,  providing  there 
are  facilities  for  reaching  profitable  avenues  of  trade.  Except  to 
minister  to  some  special  local  or  distant  trade  which  can  be  thus 
foresoon,  it  must  be  said  that  very  early  apples  are  hardly  worth 
the  attention  of  the  commercial  planter.  These  sorts  are  apt  to  come 
into  direct  contest  with  the  magnificent  peaches,  grapes  and  other 
summer  and  autumn  fruits,  and  suffer  thereby. 

On  the  other  hand  the  fall  apples,  chiefly  the  Yellow  Bellflower 
and  Gravenstein,  are  so  good  and  profitable  in  regions  where  they 
bear  well  that  they  are  among  the  varieties  which  constitute  our 
chief  commercial  reliance.  Bellflowers  are  also  encroaching  on  the 
field  of  winter  apples  because  they  come  out  so  well  from  cold 
storage. 

Winter  Apples. — For  large  ventures  in  apple  growing,  in  locali- 
ties carefully  chosen  for  especial  adaptations,  a  few  of  the  finest 
varieties  of  winter  apples  should  generally  be  selected.  It  is  the 
judgment  of  the  most  experienced  apple  growers,  many  of  whom 
have  old  orchards  including  many  varieties,  that  new  plantations 
of  winter  apples  should  contain  only  about  six  sorts.  Of  these,  in 
most  parts  of  the  State,  two  would  be  the  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin 
and  White  Winter  Pearmain ;  the  other  four  would  vary  in  different 
parts  of  the  State,  as  can  be  learned  by  conference  with  experienced 
local  growers. 

Apples  for  Long  Shipment. — There  has  been  for  years  quite  an 
important  trade  in  shipment  of  California  apples  to  various  ports 
in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  and  recently  there  has  been  a  sharp 
demand  for  Calofornia  apples  for  shipment  to  the  Eastern  States 
and  England,  and  this  movement  by  way  of  the  Panama  Canal  may 
be  expected  to  increase  greatly.  The  characteristic  size,  quality 
and  keeping  of  the  fruit,  together  with  the  size  and  style  of  package, 
have  strongly  commended  the  fruit.  The  center  of  this  trade  is  Wat- 
sonville,  in  a  coast  valley,  in  the  central  part  of  the  State.  The  two 
apples  which  are  most  popular  are  the  Yellow  Bellflower  and  the 
Yellow  Newtown  Pippin.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  these  varie- 
ties have  overcome  the  popular  ferver  for  a  red  apple,  though  at 
Watsonville  some  Red  Pearmains  are  grown  to  fill  orders  which 
insist  on  having  some  color. 

For  the  Interior  Valleys. — In  choosing  varieties  for  the  hot  val- 
leys of  the  State  those  making  a  heavy  foliage  growth  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. The  Spitzenburg,  for  example,  is  a  failure  in  the  valleys  of  the 


2Qg  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

interior,  though  satisfactory  at  points  on  the  valley  borders.  From 
experience  already  had  it  seems  likely  that  some  of  the  Russian 
varieties,  with  thick,  large  leaves,  will  prove  best  for  such  situations. 
The  behavior  of  the  Astracans,  the  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  and 
others  of  Russian  origin,  are  illustrations  of  this  fact.  Other  varie- 
ties have  been  on  trial  for  several  years,  but  no  great  distribution 
of  them  has  yet  been  attained.  t 

SELECTION  OF  VARIETIES  FOR  CROSS-POLLINATION 

The  suspicion  long  held  by  growers  that  productivity  of  the  apple 
is  largely  conditioned  on  cross-pollination,  at  least  in  the  case  of 
some  leading  commercial  varieties,  is  being  sustained  by  careful 
tests  by  the  pomologists  of  the  University  of  California  in  the  Wat- 
sonville  district.  Results  indicate  that  the  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin 
is  self-fertile  but  is  helped  by  cross-fertilization  with  the  Red  Pear- 
main  which  is  also  best  for  the  Yellow  Bellflower.  Red  and  white 
Pearmains  are  virtually  advantageous.  The  Yellow  Bellflower  is 
self-sterile ;  also  that,  though  they  bloom  together,  is  not  satisfac- 
torily influenced  by  the  Yellow  Newtown.  In  all  cases  the  set  of 
fruit  was  largely  increased  by  providing  hives  of  bees  to  act  as  polli- 
nating agencies.  The  present  inference  is  that  planters  should 
provide  potent  pollinizers  and  not  narrow  down  too  closely  in  plant- 
ing some  of  the  varieties  which  the  trade  seems  to  require. 

For  the  Sebastopol  district  Mr.  O.  E.  Bremner  observes  that  the 
Gravenstein,  the  basic  local  variety,  is  assisted  in  bearing  by  Esopus 
Spitzenburg,  and  Baldwin;  while  Wagener,  and  Rome  Beauty  or 
Hoover,  Rhode  Island  Greening  and  Red  Astracan,  are  well  adapted 
for  alternate  planting.  Gravenstein  is  also  advantaged  by  Delicious 
and  Jonathan 

Association  for  cross-pollination  can  be  arranged  with  a  number 
of  our  most  popular  varieties  by  consulting  the  following  dates  of 
blooming  as  prepared  by  Mr.  Frederick  Maskew  based  upon  ob- 
servations in  the  coast  region  of  Los  Angeles  County : 

General 
Varieties.  First  bloom.  Full  bloom.         fall  of  bloom. 

White  Winter  Pearmain   April  11  April  27  May  5 

Red  Astracan  April  17  April  30  May  12 

Bellflower    April  20  April  30  May  16 

Fall  Pippin April  20  May      5  May  15 

Rhode  Island  Greening  April  20  May      5  May  15 

Kentucky  Red  Streak  April  20  May     10  May  20 

Early  Harvest April  21  May      6  May  12 

Shockly    April  27  May    15  May  20 

Fameuse    April  27  May    15  May  22 

Ben  Davis  April  29  May    15  May  23 

Wmesap    May      5  May    17  June  1 

Yellow  Transparent    May      5  May    16  June  1 

None-such   May      7  May    16  June  1 

Missouri   Pippin    May    10  May    20  June  1 

Alexander    May    15  May    25  June  1 

Smiths   Cider   May    15  May    25  June  6 

Transcendent  Crab Mar.    30  April     7  April  22 

Hyslop  Crab    April  11  April  22  April  30 

Montreal  Crab  April  16  April  24  May  7 


APPLES   GROWN   IN   CALIFORNIA  209 

This  is  a  later  range  of  bloom  than  will  be  found  in  many  parts 
of  the  State,  but  the  same  relation  may  be  expected  everywhere. 

APPLES  CHIEFLY  GROWN  IN  CALIFORNIA 

Of  the  hundreds  of  varieties  tested  in  California  comparatively 
few  are  now  grown,  as  has  already  been  suggested.  Those  named 
in  Chapter  XVI  are  most  largely  grown.  They  are  grown  in  all 
regions,  according  to  the  suitability  of  their  maturing  season  to  local 
growing  conditions  and  the  avenues  of  profitable  trade  which  have 
been  developed.  Including  these  the  following  showing  is  made 
of  practically  all  varieties  which  are  now  being  propagated  for 
planting.  The  arrangement  is,  approximately,  in  the  order  of 
ripening. 

Carolina  Red  June  (Southern).— Medium  size  oval,  irregular,  inclined  to 
conic;  deep  red  covered  with  light  bloom;  slack  in  small  cavity;  calyx 
closed;  flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  subacid;  core  rather  large. 

Early  Harvest  (American). — Medium  size,  roundish;  straw  color  with 
few  faint  white  dots;  stalk  half  to  three-fourths  inch,  slender,  set  in  mod- 
erate cavity;  calyx  in  shallow  basin;  flesh  very  white,  tender,  crisp,  pleas- 
ant. 

Early  Strawberry  (New  York). — Medium  size,  roundish,  narrowing  to- 
ward the  eye;  skin  smooth,  deep  red  on  yellow  ground;  stalk  one  and  a 
half  inches,  rather  slender  and  uneven,  in  deep  cavity;  calyx  small,  in  shallow 
basin;  flesh  white,  tinged  with  red  next  to  the  skin,  tender  subacid,  sprightly. 

Red  Astracan'  (Russian). — Large  roundish;  skin  deep  red,  save  greenish 
yellow  in  the  shade;  pale  white  bloom;  stalk  short,  and  deeply  inserted; 
calyx  partially  closed  and  set  in  slight  basin;  flesh  white,  juicy  and  crisp, 
pleasant  acid;  tree  hardy  and  vigorous,  and  an  early  bearer.  The  main 
reliance  in  California  for  an  early  apple. 

White  Astracart  (Russian). — Large,  roundish;  skin  smooth  and  nearly 
white,  with  faint  streaks  of  red,  and  covered  with  white  bloom;  flesh  white. 
Considerably  grown  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  foothills  for  early  ship- 
ment. Sometimes  attains  a  weight  of  29  ounces.  Excellent  in  the  Modesto 
district  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

Duchess  of  Oldenburg  (Russian). — Large,  roundish,  oblate;  yellow, 
streaked  with  red;  calyx  large,  nearly  closed,  set  in  wide,  even  hollow; 
flesh  juicy,  subacid. 

Skinner's  Seedling'  (name  approved  by  California  State  Horticultural 
Society,  November,  1887);  syn.  Skinner's  Pippin,  Santa  Clara  King. — Orig- 
inated with  Judge  H.  C.  Skinner,  of  San  Jose.  Fruit  large  to  very  large; 
form  oblate,  conic,  slightly  mixed;  color  rich  lemon  yellow,  faintly  striped 
with  bright  red;  flesh  yellowish  white,  very  tender,  juicy,  sprightly,  mild 
subacid;  quality  best.  Season,  September  and  October.  Excellent  for  home 
use  and  local  sale.  Difficult  to  pick  without  breaking  the  spurs. 

Gravenstein'  (German). — Large,  rather  flattened;  a  little  one-sided  or 
angular;  broadest  at  base;  stalk  short,  strong,  deeply  set;  calyx  large, 
closed,  in  a  large  basin;  skin  yellow,  freely  marked  with  light  and  deep  red 
and  orange;  flesh  tender,  crisp,  highly  flavored,  aromatic;  a  strong-grow- 
ing and  heavily-bearing  tree;  a  standard  fall  apple  in  this  State. 

Red  Bietigheimer  (German). — Large  to  very  large,  oblate,  slightly  coni- 
cal, regular,  smooth,  whitish  or  yellowish  white,  shaded  with  light  and  dark 
red,  and  purplish  crimson  in  the  sun;  stalk  short,  rather  stout,  calyx  closed 
in  large,  deeply,  slightly  corrugated  basin;  flesh  white,  firm,  juicy,  brisk 
subacid.  Declining  in  favor. 

Maiden's  Blush  (New  Jersey). — Rather  large,  smooth,  regular;  yellow, 
with  evenly  shaded  red  cheek;  stalk  short,  in  rather  wide,  deep  hollow; 
calyx  closed  in  moderate  depression;  flesh  white,  tender  sprightly. 


210 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Fall  Pippin. — Very  large,  roundish,  a  little  flattened;  stalk  three-fourths 
inch,  projecting  considerably  beyond  the  fruit  (which  distinguishes  it  from 
the  Holland  Pippin);  calyx  open,  not  very  large,  rather  deeply  sunk  in 
round,  narrow  basin;  skin  smooth,  yellowish  green,  becoming  pure  yellow; 
brownish  blush  and  few  scattered  dots;  flesh  white,  tender,  mellow,  rich, 
aromatic.  Being  discarded  by  planters. 

Alexander  (Russian).  —  Very  large,  showy,  conical,  greenish  yellow, 
streaked  with  red  in  shade,  bright  red  in  sun;  calyx  large^  in  deep  basin; 
stalk  slender,  long,  in  deep  cavity;  flesh  yellowish  white,  crisp,  tender,  and 
juicy.  Tree  vigorous,  but  not  always  a  good  bearer. 

Gloria  Mundi. — Very  large,  roundish,  oblate;  ribbed;  greenish  yellow. 
A  popular  show  apple  on  account  of  great  size  attained  in  this  State. 

Fameuse;  syn.  Snow  Apple  (Canada). — Medium  size,  roundish,  somewhat 
flattened;  deep  crimson,  nearly  concealing  pale  yellowish  ground;  flesh 
snowy  white,  tender,  juicy,  slight  perfume;  stalk  slender,  one-half  inch,  in 
narrow  funnel-shaped  cavity;  succeeds  well  in  the  foothills,  but  losing  popu- 
larity. 

King  of  Tompkins  County. — Large,  globular,  angular,  inclining  to  conic; 
yellowish,  mostly  shaded  with  red,  striped  and  splashed  with  crimson;  stalk 
short  and  stout,  in  large,  somewhat  irregular  cavity;  calyx  small,  closed; 
flesh  yellowish,  rich,  juicy,  vinous,  aromatic;  chiefly  grown  in  mountain 
regions.  Popular  in  Humboldt  County. 

Ben  Davis. — Large,  roundish,  sides  often  unequal;  light  red  and  deep 
red  on  yellowish  ground;  stalk  medium,  rather  slender,  in  deep,  narrow 
cavity;  calyx  partially  open.  Being  discarded  by  planters.  Displaced  by 
Black  Ben  Davis  and  Gano  to  some  extent. 

Baldwin  (Massachusetts). — Large,  roundish,  narrowing  a  little  toward 
the  eye;  deep  bright  red  over  a  yellow  ground;  a  few  russet  dots;  calyx 
closed  and  set  in  narrow  basin;  stalk  one-half  to  three-quarters  inch,  rather 
slender,  set  in  deep  cavity;  flesh  yellowish-white,  crisp,  juicy,  sub-acid. 
Best  in  northern  and  elevated  regions;  coloring  varies  greatly  according  to 
locality. 

Hoover  (South  Carolina). — Large,  roundish,  slightly  oblique;  yellowish, 
mostly  overspread  with  red,  with  conspicuous  light  dots;  stalk  rather  long, 
in  large  cavity;  calyx  open  in  furrowed  basin;  flesh  yellowish,  juicy,  'crisp, 
acid.  Sells  well  in  Sonoma  County. 

Rhode  Island  Greening.— Large,  roundish,  a  little  flattened,  pretty  regu- 
lar; dark  green,  becoming  yellowish  green;  calyx  small,  woolly,  closed,  in 
shallow  basin;  stalk  three-fourths  inch,  curved,  thickest  at  the  bottom; 
flesh  yellow,  fine  grained;  tender  crisp,  juicy,  aromatic,  slightly  acid;  tree 
healthy  and  the  variety  widely  popular.  Sells  well  to  apple  driers. 

King  David. — Large,  deep  red,  suffusing  rich  yellow,  and  delicious  flavor. 
Largely  planted  for  the  fall  trade,  at  elevated  situations  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

Jonathan~(New  York).— Medium  to  large,  roundish,  conical  or  tapering 
to  the  eye;  light  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  red  stripes  and  deep  red  in  the 
sun;  stalk  three-fourths  of  an  inch,  rather  slender,  in  deep,  regular  cavity; 
calyx  in  deep,  broad  basin;  tender,  juicy,  rich,  vinous;  a  great  favorite  in 
California;  specially  commended  as  a  market  apple;  keeps  till  midwinter. 

Winesap.— Medium  size,  roundish  oblong;  dark  yellow  with  traces  of 
yellow  in  the  shade;  stalk  nearly  an  inch,  slender,  set  in  an  irregular  cav- 
ity; calyx  small,  in  regular  basin;  flesh  yellow,  crisp,  high,  rich  flavor; 
largely  grown;  tree  a  good  bearer. 

Stayman  Winesap.— An  old  improvement  on  the  Winesap  now  becoming 
more  prominent.  Some  growers  reporting  favorably  on  Winesap  have  this 
variety,  which  is  larger  and  better,  and  the  tree  a  stronger  grower  and 
more  productive. 

Otrley;  syn.  White  Bellflower,  etc.  (New  Jersey).— Large,  oblong,  green- 
ish yellow,  becoming  fine  yellow  with  slight  blush;  stalk  medium,  slender, 


APPLES  GROWN  IN  CALIFORNIA  211 

set  in  deep,  acute  cavity;  calyx  closed,  set  in  abrupt  corrugated  basin; 
flesh  white,  fine  grained,  juicy,  subacid;  disappearing  from  propagation. 

Lawver. — Large,  roundish,  oblate,  dark  red,  covered  with  small  dots; 
stalk  medium,  cavity  deep,  regular;  calyx  small,  closed  in  medium  furrowed 
basin;  flesh  white,  sprightly,  aromatic;  late  keeping  variety,  but  being  dis- 
carded. 

Yellow  Belleflower" (New  Jersey). — Very  large,  oblong,  irregular,  taper- 
ing toward  the  eye;1  smooth;  lemon  color,  with  blush;  stalk  long  and  slen- 
der, in  deep  cavity;  calyx  closed,  in  rather  narrow  basin;  flesh  tender,  juicy, 
crisp,  with  sprightly  subacid  flavor;  keeps  well  into  the  winter;  tree  a  strong 
grower  and  healthy;  one  of  the  universal  favorites  of  California. 

Esopus  Spitzenburg^  (New  York). — Large,  oblong,  tapering  roundly  to 
the  eye;  smooth,  nearly  covered  with  rich,  lively  red,  dotted  with  distinct 
yellowish  russet  dots;  on  shaded  side,  yellowish  ground  with  streaks  and 
broken  stripes  of  red;  stalk  rather  long,  three-fourths  inch,  slender,  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  base  and  inserted  in  the  wide  cavity;  calyx  small  and 
closed,  in  shallow  basin;  flesh  yellow,  rather  firm,  crisp,  juicy,  with  a  de- 
licious rich,  brisk  flavor.  A  largely  grown  variety;  tree  a  good,  upright 
grower  and  healthy;  fruit  keeps  fairly. 

Smith's  Cider  (Pennsylvania). — Large,  roundish,  oblate  conic;  yellow, 
shaded  and  striped  with  red,  sparsely  covered  with  gray  dots;  stalk  slen- 
der, in  deep,  rather  narrow  cavity;  calyx  closed,  in  broad,  shallow  basin;  flesh 
whitish,  juicy,  crisp,  acid;  tree  a  strong  grower,  and  fruit  keeps  till  midwinter. 

Rome  Beauty "( Ohio). — Large,  roundish,  approaching  conic;  yellow,  shaded 
and  striped  with  bright  red,  sprinkled  with  light  dots;  stalk  one  inch,  in  large, 
deep  cavity;  calyx  partially  closed,  in  deep  narrow  basin;  flesh  yellowish, 
juicy,  sprightly;  fruit  keeps  late.  Particularly  fine  in  the  mountain  valleys 
of  Southern  California,  though  popular  also  in  northern  coast  districts. 

Missouri  Pippin"  (Missouri). — Large,  roundish  oblate,  slightly  oblique, 
somewhat  flattened  at  the  ends;  shaded,  striped  and  splashed  with  light  and 
dark  red,  often  quite  dark  in  the  sun;  many  large  and  small  gray  dots;  stalk 
short,  small;  cavity  large,  deep;  calyx  closed  or  half  open,  basin  rather  abrupt 
deep,  slightly  corrugated;  flesh  whitish,  rather  coarse,  moderately  juicy,  sub- 
acid.  Formerly  largely  planted,  but  losing  favor  for  lack  of  keeping  quality 
in  coast  valleys. 

Winter  Banana^— Medium  to  large;  golden  yellow,  shaded  red;  flavor 
rich,  subacid.  Late  fall.  An  early  bearer. 

Northern  Spy  (New  York). — Large,  roundish,  oblate,  conical;  pale  yel- 
low, purplish  red  stripes  in  the-  sun;  stalk  three-fourths  inch,  slender,  in 
wide,  deep  cavity;  calyx  small,  closed;  flesh  white,  mild,  pleasant;  highly 
esteemed  in  a  few  localities,  but  abandoned  in  others  .for  shy  bearing. 

White  Winter  Pearmain. — Large,  roundish,  oblong  conic,  somewhat  ob- 
lique; pale  yellow  with  slight  blush,  many  minute  brown  dots;  stalk  short, 
in  deep  cavity;  calyx  nearly  closed;  flesh  yellowish,  tender,  crisp,  juicy,  very 
pleasant,  subacid,  extra  high  flavor;  grown  everywhere  and  fruit  keeps  late; 
tree  a  strong  grower  and  healthy.  Greatly  advantaged  by  cross-pollination. 
Red  Pearmain  is  grown  to  some  extent  to  fill  orders  for  a  red  apple. 

Grimes  Golden. — Medium  to  large;  rich  yellow  with  many  gray  dots; 
beautiful;  flavor  good.  Late  fall. 

Delicious.— Resembling  Bellflower;  yellow;  almost  covered  with  dark  red; 
very  mild  acid,  quality  good;  a  late  keeper.  Strongly  approved  in  elevated 
districts,  and^recently  largely  planted. 

Arkansas  Black  (Mammonth  Black  Twig). — Large,  round,  sometimes 
oblate  and  conic;  dull  green  becoming  deep  yellow,  overspread  with  deep  red, 
obscurely  striped  with  deeper  shade.  Late  fall. 

Yellow  Newton  Pippin.— Large,  roundish,  oblate  and  oblaque,  more  or 
less  flattened,  yellow  with  brownish  red  cheek;  stalk  very  short;  flesh  firm, 
crisp,  juicy,  and  with  very  rich,  high  flavor.  Generally  considered  the  best 
winter  apple  in  California. 


212  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

CRAB  APPLES 

Hyslop. — Fruit  large,  growing  in  clusters;  roundish  ovate;  dark  rich  red, 
covered  with  thick  blue  bloom;  stalk  long,  slender;  calyx  closed;  flesh  yel- 
lowish. 

Large  Red  Siberian. — Roundish  ovate  with  large  and  prominent  calyx; 
pale  red  and  yellow  skin.  Large  Yellow  Siberian  has  similar  fruit,  light  clear 
yellow,  inclining  to  amber,  with  warm  cheek. 

Trancendant. — Medium  to  large,  roundish  oval,  flattened  at  the  ends, 
slightly  but  regularly  ribbed;  golden  yellow,  with  rich,  crimson  cheek,  or 
nearly  covered  with  red;  delicate  white  bloom;  stalk  long  and  slender,  in 
open,  deep  cavity;  calyx  closed;  flesh  creamy  yellow. 

Montreal  Beauty. — Large,  roundish,  oblate;  bright  yellow,  mostly  cov- 
ered and  shaded  with  red;  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  crab  apples. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  APRICOT 

California  has  nearly  four  million  apricot  trees  which  stand  in 
the  open  air  without  protection  of  any  kind  and  bear  large,  luscious 
fruit.  That  apricot  trees  can  do  this  constitutes  one  of  the  unique 
features  of  California  fruit  growing  and  proclaims  it  different  from 
fruit  growing  in  other  States,  for,  excepting  a  few  localities  in  other 
parts  of  the  Pacific  slope,  California  has  a  monopoly  of  commercial 
apricot  growing,  and  nowhere  else  in  the  world  does  the  fruit  attain 
such  commercial  importance.  Although  the  apricot  has  been  grown 
here  from  the  earliest  days  of  American  occupation,  and  though 
since  the  opening  of  the  export  trade  in  canned  and  dried  fruits, 
the  apricot  has  gained  in  popularity,  the  planting  of  apricot  orchards 
has  not  proceeded  recently  with  great  rapidity,  although  indications 
are  that  our  distant  patrons  are  only  just  beginning  to  recognize 
the  desirability  of  the  fruit,  and  their  demands  will  make  it  well- 
nigh  impossible  for  us  to  extend  our  production  beyond  profitable 
limits.  The  reason  the  apricot  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  advance 
of  some  other  fruits  in  California  is  to  be  found  in  certain  limita- 
tions of  suitable  area  which  will  be  mentioned  presently. 

Though  the  apricot  has  some  pests  and  diseases  to  contend  with, 
they  have  thus  far  proved  slight  evils,  and  the  tree  is  generally  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  healthiest  and  most  vigorous,  as  it  certainly 
is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  orchard  trees.  It  is  long  -  lived  and 
attains  great  size.  There  were  in  1900  here  and  there  groups  of  trees 
half  a  century  old  with  a  height  of  fifty  feet ;  the  main  trunks  like 
forest  oaks,  and  the  first  branches  of  limbs  twelve  and  fifteen  inches 
through.  The  smaller  limbs  and  foliage  are  at  least  fifty  feet 
across ;  a  half  dozen  of  them  shade  an  acre  of  ground  and  they  some- 
times yielded  per  tree  a  ton  of  fruit.  But  such  trees  do  not  meet 
orchard  requirements  and  are  only  mentioned  to  show  what  the  tree 
may  do  when  it  has  its  own  way. 

The  apricot  is  a  rapid  grower  and  an  early  and  heavy  bearer  in 
California.  In  the  interior  and  in  the  southern  coast  valleys  it  yields 
a  paying  crop  during  its  third  summer  in  the  orchard,  and  from 
eight  to  fourteen  tons  to  the  acre  was  reached  for  several  years  in 
succession,  in  Judge  Blackwood's  old  orchard  of  Royal  apricots,  in 
Alameda  County.  The  trees,  even  of  some  varieties  which  are  un- 
certain bearers,  are  large  and  vigorous  growers,  and  have  warranted 
the  suggestion  that  there  is  a  use  for  the  apricot  tree  for  a  wind- 
break for  the  protection  of  other  trees.  The  trees  may  be  planted 
near  together  in  strong  land,  and  make  a  summer  windbreak  that 
will  pay  its  way  without  regard  to  such  fruit  as  it  may  incidentally 
produce. 

Apricots  are  chiefly  marketed  as  a  dried  fruit,  and  the  operation 
of  drying  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  such  processes. 


214 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


The  amount  used  in  canning  is,  in  a  year  of  full  production,  about 
one-quarter  of  that  used  for  drying,  while  the  weight  of  fruit  sold 
fresh  to  consumers,  near  and  far,  is  about  one-quarter  of  that  used 
by  the  canners.  It  is  historically  interesting  to  note  that  in  1918 
apricot  pits  of  the  crop  of  1917  sold  at  $32.50  per  ton  for  war 
purposes. 

LOCALITIES  FOR  THE  APRICOT 

In  discussing  localities  for  the  apricot,  reference  is,  of  course, 
only  made  to  its  growth  as  a  standard  orchard  tree  without  pro- 
tection of  any  kind.  It  shows  even  in  California  that  it  does  not 
forget  the  conditions  which  destroy  its  thrift  elsewhere,  for  late 
frost  in  our  upper  coast  counties  render  it,  as  a  rule,  unprofitable. 
Speaking  broadly,  the  quarter  of  the  State  lying  northward  of  the 
Bay  of  San  Francisco  and  westward  of  the  high  ridge  of  the  Coast 
Range  is  not  suited  for  commercial  apricot  growing;  though  here 
and  there  are  places  where  bearing  may  be  regular  and  abundant 
enough  to  make  trees  satisfactory  for  home  gardens.  The  mountain 
regions  everywhere  in  the  State  above  an  elevation  of  1200  feet  are 
also  to  be  excluded.  The  lowest  lands  of  the  great  interior  valleys, 
except  here  and  there,  where  frosts  are  prevented  by  proximity  of 
broad  streams  or  by  favoring  air  currents,  are  unsuited  for  apricots, 
and  the  bottoms  of  small  valleys  whence  cold  air  cannot  find  drain- 
age outlet,  are  also  treacherous.  It  is  evident  then,  that  even  in 
regions  of  general  adaptation  to  the  fruit  local  discrimination  must 
be  exercised  in  selecting  land  for  apricots,  and  the  occurrence  of 
spring  frosts,  which  are  usually  governed  by  topography,  must  be 
guarded  against.  This  is  not  the  same  problem  which  arises  in  the 
selection  of  land  for  fruits,  because  apricots  are  not  open  to  injury 
during  December,  January  and  February,  and  consequently  they 
may  be  successfully  grown  in  places  where  winter  temperatures 
might  injure  the  evergreen  trees  of  the  citrus  family.  Still,  next 
to  the  almond,  the  apricot  is  most  liable  to  frost  injury  of  all  our 
deciduous  tree  fruits,  and  commercial  success  depends  largely  upon 
the  selection  of  a  proper  place  for  them.  The  occurrence  of  even 
light  frosts  during  the  blooming  and  setting,  or  soon  after,  may 
strip  the  tree  of  its  burden  of  fruit  without  injury  to  even  the  softest 
twig  and  leaf ;  consequently,  regular  bearing  of  the  apricot  can  not 
be  expected  where  the  temperature  is  apt  to  fall  four  or  five  de- 
grees below  the  freezing  point  during  the  months  of  March  and 
April,  even  though  the  duration  of  such  temperature  may  be  very 
brief.  For  this  reason  the  area  of  California  which  is  well  suited 
to  apricot  growing  is  limited  when  compared  with  the  great  area 
of  the  State,  though  when  counted  by  acres  it  is  ample  enough  to 
supply  all  the  fresh,  canned  and  dried  apricots  which  the  markets 
of  the  world  can  be  expected  to  take  at  profitable  figures. 

It  is  often  claimed  that  situations  directly  subject  to  ocean  in- 
fluences are  best  for  the  apricot.  It  is  noted  by  many  observers 
that  the  apricot  "points  its  best  branches  to  the  ocean,  in  the  very 
teeth  of  the  constant  breeze,  and  the  landward  limbs  and  twigs  bend 


LOCATIONS  FOR  THE  APRICOT  215 

up  and  endeavor  to  reach  the  same  direction.  This  is  patent  in  every 
tree,  and  in  the  long  orchard  rows  is  very  striking."  This  is  taken 
to  signify  the  special  liking  of  the  tree  for  the  vicinity  of  the  coast 
— if  spring  frosts  are  not  too  frequent.  It  is  well  enough  to  inter- 
pret it  that  way,  providing  one  does  not  lose  sight  of  the  perfect 
success  of  the  apricot  in  the  interior  as  well.  It  is  true  that  the  fruit 
near  the  coast  attains  higher  color,  and  the  less  rapid  growth  of 
the  tree  makes  it  somewhat  easier  to  handle,  but  the  earlier  ripen- 
ing in  the  interior,  coupled  with  freedom  from  fog  and  constant 
sunshine  for  drying,  are  points  of  the  highest  industrial  importance. 
The  fact  is  that  the  apricot  has  a  very  wide  range  in  California,  and 
though  the  trees  have  been  cut  out  at  some  points  it  has  been  chiefly 
because  too  frosty  locations  have  been  chosen  or  because  some  other 
fruit  has  seemed  to  be  locally  more  desirable,  for  one  reason  or 
another. 

In  some  valleys  in  the  upper  part  of  the  State  opening  directly 
to  the  ocean,  there  is  sometimes  complaint  of  the  cracking  of  the 
fruit  on  the  sunny  side.  The  alternation  of  sunshine  and  fog  seems 
to  have  something  to  do  with  this,  for  in  favorable  years,  when  fogs 
are  few,  the  fruit  is  sound. 

Locations  for  early  ripening  of  the  apricot  are  to  be  chosen  with 
reference  to  the  influence  of  topography,  as  laid  down  in  Chapter  I. 
In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said,  in  regions  directly  subject  to  coast 
influences,  both  in  Northern  and  Southern  California,  the  apricot  is 
late.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  on  slightly  elevated 
places,  in  small,  hill-locked  valleys,  the  earliest  apricots  have  been 
grown  for  years.  Protected  situations  in  the  lower  foothills  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  on  the  eastern  rim  of  both  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  Valleys,  share  in  the  production  of  the  earliest  ripening 
fruit.  There  is  probably  about  a  month's  difference  in  the  ripening 
of  the  same  variety  in  the  earliest  situations  and  in  the  coast  valleys 
of  both  Northern  and  Southern  California. 

In  the  interior  of  Southern  California,  inirrigated  situations,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Colorado  River  and  in  adjacent  parts  of  Arizona, 
apricots  rival  in  earliness  the  product  of  the  famous  valleys  of  in- 
terior Northern  California. 

Recently  a  measure  of  success  with  the  apricot  has  been  attained 
in  irrigated  sections  of  Eastern  Washington,  Idaho  and  Utah.  If 
winter  temperatures  are  low  enough  to  keep  the  tree  dormant  and 
yet  not  low  enough  to  injure  the  fruit  buds  and  frosts  are  absent 
after  growth  begins,  success  ought  to  be  attainable. 

STOCKS  AND  SOILS  FOR  THE  APRICOT 

Because  of  the  success  with  which  the  apricot  can  be  budded  on 
various  stocks,  it  has  a  wide  range  in  adaptation  to  different  soils. 
Budded  on  the  peach  root  it  may  be  grown  successfully  on  the  light, 
warm,  well-drained  loams  in  which  the  peach  delights.  The  peach 
root  is,  in  fact,  largely  used  for  the  apricot.  It  gives  the  tree  quick 
growth  and  early  fruiting,  and  the  fact  that  the  gopher  does  not 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

like  the  peach  root  is  a  consideration  with  some  planters.  In  grow- 
ing stocks,  pits  of  a  strong-growing  yellow  peach  are  believed  to 
yield  more  uniform  and  thrifty  seedlings. 

For  deep,  rich,  well-drained,  loamy  soils,  the  apricot  on  its  own 
root  makes  a  magnificent  tree.  Apricot  roots  for  budding  are  easily 
secured.  The  pits  sprout  as  readily  as  corn.  Sometimes,  where 
cutting  and  drying  are  done  in  the  orchard,  the  ground  the  next 
spring  will  be  almost  covered  with  a  volunteer  crop  of  seedling 
apricots.  These  little  plants,  taken  up  and  set  out  in  nursery  rows 
in  March,  are  ready  for  budding  in  June  or  July.  Large  numbers 
of  trees  are  sometimes  secured  in  this  way.  In  the  upper  San 
Joaquin  Valley  there  are  situations  in  which  the  apricot  seems  more 
productive  on  its  own  roots  than  on  the  peach,  and  in  the  moister 
parts  of  the  San  Fernando  and  tributary  valleys  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia the  apricot  root  has  recently  advanced  in  popularity.  It  is, 
however,  rather  more  sensitive  to  soil-drouth  than  the  peach  root. 
Formerly  in  the  Imperial  Valley  the  apricot  root  was  regarded  as 
less  tolerant  of  alkali  than  the  peach  root,  but  recently  in  the  San 
Joaquin  valley  the  reverse  has  been  held. 

When  it  is  desired  to  grow  the  apricot  in  moister  and  heavier 
soils  than  have  been  described,  or  where  a  light  soil  is  underlaid  by 
a  heavy,  retentive  subsoil,  recourse  should  be  had  to  the  myrobalan 
plum  root.  Some  growers  complain  that  this  root  has  a  dwarfing 
effect  on  the  tree,  but  recently  its  use  has  increased.  It  is,  however, 
not  adapted  to  the  lighter  soils  in  which  the  peach  root  may  thrive. 
The  manner  of  securing  myrobalan  stocks  has  been  described  in  the 
chapter  on  propagation. 

Apricot  and  Almond. — The  almond  should  as  a  rule  be  rejected 
as  a  stock  for  the  apricot.  Hundreds  have  tried  it,  and  found  that 
the  scion  does  not  make  a  good  union  with  the  wood  of  the  stock  but 
is  knit  to  it  only  by  the  bark,  and  is,  therefore,  easily  broken  off  by 
the  wind.  It  may  grow  well  and  sometimes  gets  to  be  two  or  three 
inches  in  diameter  before  it  breaks  off.  Whole  orchards  worked  in 
this  way  have  been  a  loss  and  disappointment. 

A  few  growers,  however,  approve  the  almond  and  use  it  with  the 
idea  that  it  gives  larger  fruit.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  Royal 
apricot  will  take  well  on  the  almond  seedling  by  root  grafting  in- 
stead of  budding,  using  the  side  graft  as  described  in  Chafter  IX, 
but  still  caution  is  urged  against  the  use  of  the  almond  as  a  stock 
for  the  apricot — except  by  double  working,  growing  on  the  almond 
seedling  first  a  shoot  from  a  peach  bud  and  then  working  an  apricot 
bud  higher  up  in  the  new  shoot. 

In  addition  to  the  specifications  of  certain  stocks  for  different 
soils,  it  may  be  remarked,  in  a  general  way,  that  the  apricot  on  a 
suitable  root  seems  to  thrive  better  on  a  tolerably  heavy  soil,  with 
enough  sand  to  make  it  work  easily,  than  on  a  very  light  soil.  It 
does  well  on  soil  rather  too  heavy  for  the  peach.  It  also  enjoys 
moisture  better  and  gives  signs  of  distress  unless  its  roots  are  fairly 
supplied  all  during  the  season,  but  it  dislikes  standing  water  and 
should  not  be  planted  on  undrained  situations. 


CULTURAL  CONDITIONS   FOR   THE  APRICOT  217 

PLANTING  THE  APRICOT 

The  apricot  becomes  a  large  tree  in  California,  as  has  already 
been  remarked,  and  it  should  be  given  plenty  of  room.  Twenty-four 
feet  each  way  is  certainly  the  minimum  distance  for  so  large  and 
long-lived  tree,  and  some  orchards  have  been  planted  at  thirty  feet. 
If  nearer  planting  is  done  it  should  be  with  reference  to  subsequent 
removal  of  part  of  the  trees,  which,  however,  is  very  seldom  done. 
Twenty  feet  apart,  with  later  removal  of  half  the  trees  to  double  the 
distance  was  proposed  by  H.  D.  Briggs,  of  Azusa,  in  this  way : 

In  setting  out  an  orchard  it  seems  advisable  to  double  set  the  ground,  as 
an  apricot  twelve  to  fifteen  years  old  should  have  not  less  than  800  to  900 
square  feet  of  ground.  This  can  easily  be  obtained  by  setting  20x20  feet; 
then  when  nine  or  ten  years  old  remove  every  other  tree,  making  them  forty 
feet  in  the  row,  with  rows  twenty  feet  apart,  of  course,  taking  them  out 
diagonally.  The  trees  will  very  quickly  tell  the  orchardist  when  they  are 
too  thick.  When  the  outside  rows  have  twice  the  fruit  of  those  inside  it  is 
quite  evident  that  the  time  spent  in  pruning,  etc.,  on  half  of  the  trees  is  worse 
than  wasted.  I  have  cut  roots  forty  feet  from  a  nine-year-old  tree. 

The  apricot  makes  such  rapid  growth  and  so  much  depends  upon 
giving  it  proper  form,  as  will  be  seen  presently,  that  one  year's 
growth  it  all  that  should  be  allowed  in  the  nursery.  Some  growers 
would  rather  have  a  dormant  bud  than  a  two-year-old  tree,  and 
cases  have  been  reported  from  dormant  buds  outgrowing  yearling 
trees  planted  at  the  same  time  in  the  same  orchard.  But  in  growing 
from  a  dormant  bud  in  the  orchard  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
develop  a  short  trunk,  with  properly-spaced  branches,  by  pinching 
the  side  shoots  near  the  ground.  Trees  started  from  dormant  buds 
and  allowed  to  branch  from  the  ground,  have  developed  very  un- 
satisfactory form,  and  have,  in  some  situations,  lost  their  lower 
branches  by  the  wind.  The  tree  should  have  a  low  head,  but  a  short 
trunk  seems  to  give  a  better  tree,  and  more  elasticity  to  the  branches. 


PRUNING  THE  APRICOT 

Of  all  California  orchard  trees,  the  apricot  seems  most  in  need 
of  the  constant  attention  of  the  orchardist  to  give  it  proper  shape 
and  strength.  It  is  a  rampant  grower,  and  in  its  zealous  haste  for 
size  and  fruitage  it  over-reaches  itself  and  becomes  the  prey  of 
specific  gravity  and  wind  force.  Thousands  of  trees  have  been 
ruined  by  literally  breaking  to  pieces  with  the  weight  of  their  fruit, 
and  being  torn  by  winds  of  only  ordinary  velocity.  Thousands  more 
have  been  rescued  from  such  a  fate  by  bolting  the  branches  to  each 
other.  This  excessive  growth  and  consequent  weakness  of  the 
apricot  is  greater  in  some  parts  of  the  State  than  in  others,  because 
of  the  difference  in  degree  of  forcing  conditions,  but  everywhere 
the  apricot  needs  watchfulness  and  timely  aid  in  building  up  its 
strength.  The  general  principles  to  be  observed  in  securing  branches 
strongly  attached 'to  a  short  trunk  have  already  been  discussed  at 
length  in  Chapter  XII.  The  adjacent  engraving  shows  their  appli- 
cation to  branching  the  apricot. 


218 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


There  has  been  a  very  marked  change  during  the  last  few  years 
in  orunine  the  apricot.  Summer  pruning,  immediately  after  the 
fruit  is  picked,  has  become  much  more  general,  and  winter  pruning 
has  proportionally  decreased.  Young  trees  are  winter  pruned  to 
promote  low  branching  and  short,  stout  limbs;  bearing  trees  are 
summer  pruned  to  promote  fruit  bearing  and  check  wood  growth— 
the  excess  of  bearing  shoots  being  removed  by  thinning  during  the 
winter. 

The  apricot  tree  bears  upon  old  spurs,  like  the  plum ;  also  upon 
the  new  wood,  like  the  peach.  This  fact  has  to  be  borne  in  mind 
when  winter  thinning  of  the  new  growth  is  undertaken. 


Weak  and  strong  branch-placing  of  apricot  tree. 

A  very  clear  record  of  procedure  is  given  by  J.  B.  Neff,  of  Ana- 
heim, Orange  County,  who  built  up  one  of  the  best  apricot  orchards 
in  the  State  as  he  describes : 

Pruning  the  apricot  requires  some  skill  and  considerable  judgment 
Trees  of  four  to  five  feet  in  height  are  preferable  for  planting,  and  when 
planted  should  be  trimmed  to  a  single  stem  and  cut  off  at  eighteen  inches 
from  the  ground.  These  will  throw  out  shoots  vigorously,  and  frequently 
two  or  three  shoots  from  one  point.  These  shoots  should  be  thinned  out, 
leaving  not  more  than  four  or  five,  no  two  of  which  should  come  from  one 
point,  nor  be  directly  opposite.  The  first  shoot  should  start  twelve  inches 
from  the  ground,  the  others  in  such  a  manner  as  to  divide  the  space  and 
make  the  branches  balance,  leaving  the  top  shoot  to  form  the  central  part 
of  the  tree. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  trees  several  times  the  first  year  to 
remove  shoots  that  may  start  where  not  wanted,  but  no  general  heading 
back  should  be  done,  as  it  tends  to  dwarf  the  tree;  though  if  some  of  the 


PRUNING  THE  APRICOT  219 

limbs  are  making  an  overgrowth  they  should  be  pinched  back  to  keep  the 
head  balanced. 

In  the  pruning  of  the  second  year,  the  first  year's  growth  should  be  cut 
back  to  within  five  or  ten  inches  of  the  body  of  the  tree,  and  all  forks 
should  be  cut  out,  even  if  it  necessitates  forming  a  new  head,  as  it  is  much 
better  to  lose  some  growth  on  a  young  tree  than  to  take  the  risk  of  split- 
ting down  when  the  tree  begins  to  bear  fruit. 

The  second  year  will  require  much  more  attention  than  the  first  year,  in 
order  to  keep  off  suckers  and  all  lateral  growth  that  may  start  on  the  under 
side  of  the  new  limbs,  the  object  being  to  make  the  limbs  grow  as  nearly 
upright  as  possible. 

In  pruning  for  the  third  year  the  second  year's  growth  should  now  be 
cut  back  to  within  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  of  the  old  wood,  except  the  cen- 
tral stem,  which  may  be  left  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  long,  depending 
on  the  number  of  laterals  it  may  have  thrown  out.  When  the  new  shoots 
start  they  should  again  be  thinned  down  to  two  or  three  on  each  limb,  and 
all  taken  off  that  end  to  turn  down  or  out  at  right  angles,  but  do  not  take 
off  the  fruit  spurs. 

During  the  third  season's  growth,  go  over  the  trees  about  three  times 
before  July  to  remove  suckers  and  lateral  growth  that  may  start  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  limbs,  as  the  tendency  in  the  third  year  is  to  make  an 
immense  growth  of  downward  laterals,  and  these  must  be  taken  off  so  as 
to  develop  wood  that  is  to  be  left  for  fruit.  If  the  orchard  is  on  good  land 
and  has  been  properly  irrigated  and  cultivated  there  will  be  a  few  speci- 
mens of  the  fruit  the  third  year,  and  as  soon  as  these  are  gathered  the  trees 
should  be  summer  pruned  for  the  first  time,  care  being  taken  that  the  land 
shall  have  been  allowed  to  become  moderately  dry  so  that  the  trees  may  be 
partially  dormant.  If  the  downward  growth  of  the  laterals  has  been  kept 
cut  off,  all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  cut  off  about  one-half  of  all  this  sea- 
son's growth  all  over  the  tree,  using  the  same  judgment  as  before  with  ref- 
erence to  prevailing  winds  and  symmetry  of  tree.  If  this  is  properly  done 
and  water  at  once  turned  on  the  orchard,  a  new  growth  will  be  made  and 
the  fruit  buds  for  next  year  fully  developed. 

The  only  pruning  necessary  in  the  following  winter  will  be  to  take  out 
any  cross  limbs  and  sprouts  that  may  have  been  overlooked  in  the  summer. 

After  the  trees  begin  to  produce  regular  crops  they  will  not  grow  so 
vigorously,  and  the  numerous  prunings  of  the  first  three  years  will  not  be 
necessary,  as  almost  all  can  be  done  by  summer  pruning  until  the  trees  get 
so  old  that  they  need  old  wood  taken  out. 

Vase-Form  With  Less  Shortening. — The  foregoing  is  a  careful 
outline  of  the  method  of  short-cutting  of  the  tree  until  it  comes  into 
bearing  which  has  been  generally  practiced  in  California.  There 
has  always  been  variation  in  practice  in  the  way  of  less  shortening 
in  of  main  branches.  The  following  is  a  sketch  of  the  way  in  which 
the  140-acre  Losse  apricot  orchard  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  was 
brought  to  an  age  of  twelve  years  and  notable  production : 

The  trees  were  cut  back  to  15  or  18  inches  when  set  out  some  ten  or 
twelve  years  ago.  Three  or  four  main  limbs  were  allowed  to  grow  so  as 
to  balance  the  tree  and  were  cut  back  to  about  three  feet  at  the  end  of  the 
season.  About  each  cut  end,  several  new  "leaders"  grew  out  and  at  the 
end  of  the  season  all  but  one  of  these  were  cut  off;  and  it  was  cut  back  a 
little  shorter  than  the  length  on  which  it  grew.  Only  one  new  leader  is 
left  on  each  limb,  because  too  many  would  shade  and  stunt  buds  inside  the 
tree. 

In  selecting  which  of  many  leaders  to  save,  the  upright  growers  are 
preferred,  for  the  weight  of  fruit  will  make  them  bend  over  to  spread  the 
tree  enough.  But  if  there  is  a  space  beside  that  upright  leader,  and  an- 
other limb  grows  close  to  its  other  side,  the  upright  one  is  cut  back  to  the 
old  wood  and  the  one  projecting  into  space  is  reserved.  Every  effort  is  made 
to  leave  no  large  openings  to  the  center  of  the  tree;  but  to  fill  them  thinly 


220 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


with  fruit-bearing  wood.    Each  leader  that  is  left  is  cut  back  according  to  the 
vigor  of  the  tree.    After  a  dry  year,  or  a  heavy  crop,  it  would  be  cut  back 

These  leaders  of  new  wood  may  bloom  but  are  not  likely  to  set  fruit 
that  will  mature.  Their  principal  business  is  to  put  forth  new  spurs  which 
will  fruit  the  year  following.  Only  enough  opportunity  for  new  spurs  should 
be  left  so  all  that  come  may  be  vigorous  enough  to  support  the  fruit  that  sets 
on  them.  New  growth  is  left  long  on  young  trees  in  order  to  get  a  large 
surface  for  fruit  bearing  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  top  of  the  tree  is  shaped  into  a  hemisphere  to  expose  a  large  sur- 
face to  the  direct  sunlight,  and  not  so  thick  but  that  sunlight  may  filter 
to  the  interior  quite  freely.  If  the  interior  is  shaded  too  much,  all  fruit 
wood  there  will  die. 

Mr.  Losse  believed  that  his  success  with  the  Hemskirke  variety 
was  due  to  not  cutting  back  but  simply  thinning  out  interfering, 
surplus,  or  weakened  branches.  He  expected  to  cut  them  back 
every  five  years  severely  enough  to  grow  new  wood. 

Still  Longer  Pruning. — Training  apricots  without  cutting  back 
and  renewal  of  old  trees  which  have  grown  too  high  is  thus  de- 
scribed* by  Mr.  Aratus  Everett  of  Ventura  county : 

In  1893  I  set  out  about  150  acres  three  miles  west  of  the  town  of  Moor- 
park.  This  locality  is  subject  to  spring  frosts.  I  soon  noticed  that  the 
earliest  lower  blossoms  were  often  killed  by  frost  when  those  coming  out 
later,  say  above  ten  feet,  made  a  crop  of  fruit. 

As  I  never  had  approved  of  the  extreme  practice  of  close  heading  back 
of  young  trees,  so  I  left  from  three  to  five  main  branches  to  make  my  trees 
and  headed  back  and  thinned  out  the  inside  branches  only. 

An  acquaintance  of  mine  set  out  about  150  acres  of  apricots  near  Saticoy 
the  same  year  that  mine  were  planted.  These  were  set  on  rich  land.  He  was 
thoroughly  imbuded  with  the  extremely  close  cutting  back  system  of  prun- 
ing young  trees.  At  the  end  of  five  years  each  main  limb  of  my  trees  was 
longer  than  his  whole  tree  and  each  of  those  limbs  bore  more  fruit  than  his 
whole  tree.  From  one  of  my  best  trees  when  it  was  only  four  years  old  we 
gathered  over  500  pounds  of  fine  fruit.  When  this  tree  was  six  years  old  it 
bore  nearly  500  pounds  of  apricots  (green),  and  it  has  borne  heavy  crops 
right  along  and  is  now  (1920)  in  fine  condition. 

When  my  apricot  orchard  was  about  20  years  old  I  had  about  one-quarter 
of  the  large  limbs  that  were  equally  distant  around  the  tree  cut  off  about  ten 
feet  above  the  ground.  A  great  many  sprouts  started  at  the  top  and  some 
lower  down  on  their  limbs.  By  breaking  off  all  but  five  or  six  of  these 
sprouts  while  they  were  small,  the  rest  made  a  strong  growth  which  was 
slightly  headed  back  the  next  year  when  we  cut  away  another  quarter  of  the 
main  limbs.  This  plan  was  repeated  for  five  or  six  years  as  limbs  too  small 
to  cut  away  the  first  year  became  large  enough  after  four  years  more  growth. 

My  old  orchard  is  now  renewed  with  bearing  top  varying  in  age  from  one 
to  five  years.  This  orchard  has  often  made  1,000  tons  of  fresh  fruit  of  good 
quality.  The  trees  are  on  apricot  roots. 

Early  Fall  Pruning. — Fall  pruning,  as  noted  in  Chapter  XII,  is 
the  rule  with  the  apricot  where  summer  pruning  to  repress  growth 
is  not  followed.  It  is  done  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  in  September— 
too  late  to  start  new  shoots.  It  is  held  that  though  there  is  a  loss 
of  nourishment  to  the  tree  by  early  removal  of  green  leaves,  the 
early  pruned  trees  stay  green  later  and  so  perhaps  make  up  this  loss, 
besides  using  the  energy  more  profitably  for  the  grower  by  filling 
out  the  fruit  buds. 

•California  Cultivator.  Jan.  24,  1920. 


TO  GET  SIZE  IN  APRICOTS  221 

Winter  Pruning  of  Bearing  Trees. — The  evident  defect  of  many 
old  apricot  orchards  is  the  failure  of  the  low-bearing  wood  and  the 
thicket  of  brush  near  the  ends  of  long  bare  limbs.  Such  trees  need 
renewal  of  the  top  by  vigorous  winter  pruning,  which  should  prefer- 
ably be  done  toward  the  close  of  the  dormant  season  rather  than 
early  in  the  winter  as  formerly.  Old  and  unprofitable  trees  have 
been  reclaimed  in  this  way. 

Winter  pruning  is  still  the  regular  method  in  some  parts  of  the 
State  where  the  conditions  do  not  favor  excessive  growth  of  the  tree 
and  where  summer  pruning  does  not  seem  to  be  called  for.  The 
practice  is  to  remove  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  new  growth  and  thin 
out,  by  removing  entirely  enough  new  and  old  wood  to  prevent  the 
tree  from  becoming  thick  and  brushy.  In  shortening  the  bearing 
shoots  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  larger  fruits  usually  grow 
nearer  to  the  tip  than  to  the  base  of  the  shoot. 


THINNING  THE  APRICOT 

All  free-fruiting  varieties  of  the  apricot  must  be  thinned  to  secure 
size  acceptable  to  purchasers.  It  is  the  experience  of  the  oldest 
growers  that  though  thinning  is  an  expensive  operation,  it  is  very 
profitable.  When  half  the  fruit  is  taken  off  in  thinning,  the  remain- 
der reaches  as  large  aggregate  weight  as  though  the  whole  were 
allowed  to  mature,  and  thinned  fruit  is  worth  about  twice  as  much 
per  pound.  Even  if  less  weight  is  secured,  and  in  most  cases  the 
purpose  should  be  to  get  less  weight,  the  tree  is  spared  the  exhaus- 
tion of  over-bearing  and  the  owner  escapes  a  year  of  little  or  no 
fruit.  A  discussion  of  this  subject  is  given  in  Chapter  XII. 

Where  conditions  are  favorable,  the  tree  will  set  more  fruit  than 
it  can  bring  to  full  size,  and  for  this  reason  thinning  or  spacing  the 
fruit  on  the  twigs  by  hand-picking,  while  the  fruit  is  about  the  size 
of  a  pigeon's  egg,  is  almost  a  universal  practice  among  the  best 
commercial  growers.  This  is  necessary  to  bring  the  individual 
fruits  to  the  diameters  required  by  canners  or  overland  shippers  and 
which  they  scale  in  price  according  to  size :  Extras,  2^4  inches ;  No. 
1,  2  inches  ;  No.  2,  2y2  inches.  Fruit  of  less  size  is  hard  of  sale  unless 
the  crop  happens  to  be  very  small.  It  has  also  been  found  that  thin- 
ning to  regulate  size  is  quite  as  important  when  the  fruit  is  to  be 
dried  by  the  grower  as  when  sold  as  fresh  fruit. 


IRRIGATION  OF  THE  APRICOT 

Whether  the  apricot  shall  be  irrigated  or  not  is  answered  in  the 
chapter  on  irrigation.  In  many  locations,  with  proper  pruning, 
thinning  and  cultivation,  perfectly  satisfactory  fruit  can  be  grown 
with  the  usual  rainfall.  In  others  a  single  winter  irrigation  will 
satisfy  all  the  needs  of  the  tree;  in  others  a  single  irrigation  just 
after  fruit  picking  and  summer  pruning  will  carry  the  tree  through. 
It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  as  the  trees  advance  in  age  some  supple- 
ment to  the  average  rainfall  is  often  desirable  and  in  dry  years 


222  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

irrigation  is  the  saving  of  two  crops.  Some  idea  of  the  amount  of 
water  used  can  be  had  from  the  chapter  on  irrigation.  The  follow- 
ing account  by  Mr.  Neff  applies  to  this  practice  in  Orange  County, 
which  is  an  average  situation  as  to  rainfall  and  atmospheric  humid- 
ity, and  is  as  good  a  general  statement  as  could  be  made : 

If  rains  are  copious,  winter  irrigation  may  be  dispensed  ^with  during  the 
first  two  or  three  years  after  planting  the  orchard,  but  when  the  trees  reach 
the  age  of  bearing  fruit  the  rain  water  should  be  supplemented  by  irrigation 
water  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly  wet  5  feet  deep,  and  in  order  to  do  this,  at 
least  20  inches  of  water,  including  rainfall,  must  be  put  on  the  land.  Three 
irrigations  should  be  given  the  trees  during  the  first  summer,  but  it  is  not 
necessary  to  wet  more  than  a  strip  5  or  6  feet  wide  along  the  tree  rows.  The 
orchard  should  have  three  irrigations  during  the  second  summer  and  a  strip 
12  feet  wide  should  be  watered,  as  the  roots  are  reaching  farther  and  the  trees 
require  a  greater  amount  of  water.  The  irrigation  for  the  first  two  years 
should  always  be  done  before  the  trees  show  any  want  of  water,  so  as  to 
keep  them  going  vigorously. 

All  the  space  between  the  trees  should  be  watered  the  third  year  and 
afterward;  but  two  irrigations  will  be  sufficient  for  the  summer.  The  best 
time  for  the  summer  irrigation  of  bearing  apricot  trees  is  when  the  fruit 
is  about  half  grown,  which  is  usually  about  the  second  or  third  week  in  May. 

If  well  watered  at  this  time  the  fruit  grows  to  its  largest,  and  has  time 
to  ripen  slowly  as  the  ground  gradually  dries,  until  it  has  all  the  sugar 
which  will  go  into  the  fruit.  An  orchard  in  full  bearing  that  has  been  well 
watered  in  the  winter  should  now  have  as  much  as  full  100  inches  of  water 
for  two  hours  on  each  acre  (equal  to  four  acre-inches). 

The  second  irrigation  should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  sum- 
mer pruning  is  done,  in  order  to  start  the  trees  growing  and  develop  the 
fruit  buds  for  the  next  year.  This  will  not  require  so  much  water  as  the 
irrigation  in  May,  but  ought  to  be  as  much  as  100  inches  of  water  for  one 
hour  on  each  acre. 

Winter  irrigation  of  apricots  on  deep  soils,  as  supplementary  to 
rainfall  and  largely  reducing  summer  irrigation,  is  a  very  satisfac- 
tory recourse  in  some  districts. 

DISEASES   OF  THE  APRICOT 

Though  the  apricot  tree,  as  has  been  said,  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  healthiest  fruit  trees,  it  is  subject  to  some  maladies.  Trees  perish 
from  being  set  in  unsuitable  situations,  and  in  these  cases,  if  the  evil 
be  stagnant  water  in  soil,  or  penetration  to  alkaline  subsoil,  the 
root  shows  it.  Sometimes,  however,  a  branch  or  a  whole  tree  withers 
and  dies  without  apparent  cause  early  in  the  summer,  and  while  the 
root  is  still  sound.  The  disease  is  evidently  acute,  but  its  cause  is 
not  known,  nor  a  remedy  proposed.  It  is  an  old  trouble  of  the 
apricot,  and  not  peculiar  to  California.  Such  dying  branches  should 
be  cleanly  cut  away. 

The  so-called  "gum  disease"  sometimes  causes  injury  to  trees. 
Some  forms  of  gumming  have  recently  demonstrated  to  be  due  to 
bacterial  invasion.  When  gumming  spots  appear  on  the  bark  the 
best  treatment  is  to  cut  away  the  diseased  bark  down  to  healthy 
wood  during  the  dormant  season  and  cover  the  wound  with  asphal- 
tum  or  common  lead  and  oil  paint,  putting  on  sparingly  so  as  not 
to  flow  over  healthy  bark. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  APRICOT  223 

There  are  several  troubles  affecting  the  twigs,  foliage  and  fruits 
which  are  reduced  by  the  following  preventive  treatment.  For 
bearing  trees  spray  with  heavy  Bordeaux  mixture  (6-8-50)  or  lime 
sulphur  (1-12)  between  November  15  and  December  15,  to  prevent 
infection  of  the  buds  with  the  Coryneum  (peach  blight)  fungus  and 
also  to  clean  up,  as  far  as  possible,  the  spores  of  this  fungus  and 
those  of  the  brown  rot  (Monilia).  During  winter  pruning  remove 
all  dead  twigs  and  small  branches  and  as  pink-color  appears  in 
swelling  bloom  buds,  spray  with  lime-sulphur  (1-10)  or  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture  when  the  blossoms  are  opening. 

For  twig  injury  caused  by  frost  and  generally  called  "sour 
sap,"  a  heavy  coating  of  whitewash  applied  about  November  15 
and  renewed,  if  necessary,  during  the  winter,  is  believed  to  be  the 
best  preventive. 

There  is  prevalent  in  some  districts  a  trouble  called  "black 
heart" ;  a  pith  disease  which  sometimes  does  great  injury.  No  treat- 
ment except  that  of  pruning  back  to  healthy  wood  has  thus  far 
been  proposed.  Root  knot  is  also  a  serious  trouble  of  the  apricot  as 
of  several  other  trees.  It  will  be  considered  in  the  chapter  devoted 
to  disease  of  fruit  trees. 

Until  recently  the  apricot  has  been  generally  free  from  scale  in- 
sects, and  it  is  not  affected  by  those  species  which  are  worst  on  some 
other  fruit  trees,  but  recently  it  has  been  seriously  infested  in  some 
cases  with  black  and  brown  scales,  which  will  be  considered  in  a 
later  chapter. 

The  ripe  apricot  is  sometimes  seriously  assailed  by  the  diabrotica, 
a  small  green  beetle,  with  twelve  black  spots  upon  its  wing  covers. 
Driving  the  insects  away  with  smoke  smudges  has  been  used  to  some 
extent.  Fortunately,  the  insect  only  occasionnally  occurs  in  large 
numbers. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  APRICOT 

Though  nearly  all  standard  varieties  of  the  apricot  have  been 
introduced  and  planted  in  this  State,  comparatively  few  are  found 
on  the  list  of  the  orchard  planters.  Many  local  seedlings  have  been 
brought  to  notice  and  propagated  to  some  extent  but  finally  aban- 
doned, and  the  disposition  is  to  restrict  planting  to  a  few  old 
varieties. 

At  the  conferences  of  the  growers,  canners  and  nurserymen  in 
1920  (which  has  been  noted  in  Chapter  XVI),  the  Blenheim,  Royal 
and  Tilton  were  approved  for  commercial  planting,  Hemskirke  and 
Routier's  Peach  additional  for  home  orchards  and  Moorpark  for 
drying  (in  locations  where  it  does  well).  The  canners  recom- 
mended that  for  the  coast  districts  100  per  cent  Blenheim  be 
planted,  interior  San  Joaquin  Valley  100  per  cent  TiJton,  interior 
Sacramento  Valley  50  per  cent  Blenheim,  50  per  cent  Tilton.  The 
following  are  now  commercially  grown  in  California: 

*  Royal. — A  French  variety,  for  many  years  the  leading  California  apricot 
and  now  dividing  first  honors  with  the  Blenheim.  Of  large  size  (when  well 
thinned  out),  free  stone,  fine  color  and  flavor,  good  bearer,  and  fruit  ripens 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

evenly  when  well  grown;  a  favorite  with  the  canners,  and  an  excellent 
varietv  for  drying.  Fruit  roundish,  large,  oval,  slightly  compressed;  skin 
dull  yellow  with  orange  check,  very  faintly  tinged  with  red,  and  a  shallow 
suture;  flesh  pale  orange,  firm  and  juicy,  with  a  rich  vinous  flavor. 

The  Derby  Royal  is  grown  in  the  Winters  district;  like  the  standard 
Royal  but  two  weeks  earlier. 

The  Barry  is  grown  in  Alameda  County  as  an  improved  Royal. 

•  Blenheim  or  Shipley. — This  is  a  valuable  variety  in  this  State,  standing 
with  the  Royal  in  popularity;  was  described  by  John  Rock  as  follows:  "A 
very  good  variety,  above  medium,  oval;  orange,  with  a  deep  yellow,  juicy 
and  tolerably  rich  flesh;  vigorous  grower  and  regular,  prolific  bearer."  This 
behavior  of  the  variety  was  first  demonstrated  fully  in  the  University  or- 
chard at  Berkeley,  where  it  was  for  years  the  best  of  twenty  varieties.  It 
is  now  popular  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  Fruit  runs  a  little  larger  than  the 
Royal  and  is  usually  better  distributed  on  the  tree,  but  it  must  be  well 
thinned.  This  variety  has  been  approved  by  canners.  Ripens  a  little  later 
than  the  Royal. 

Losse  Blenheim  and  Knobel  Blemheim  are  selected  strains  growing  in 

Santa  Clara  Valley. 

Thirty  years  ago  Royal  and  Blenheim  were  considered  different  varieties 
and  distinguishable.  At  present  (1921)  they  are  propagated  and  sold  indis- 
criminately by  many  nurseries,  and  a  promological  problem  of  original 
identity  or  diversity  presses  for  solution. 

Hemskirke. — A  fine  English  variety  quite  widely  grown  in  California; 
ripens  later  than  Royal;  described  by  Downing  as  follows:  "Fruit  large, 
roundish,  but  considerably  compressed  or  flattened  on  its  sides;  skin  orange, 
with  red  cheek;  flesh  bright  orange,  tender,  rather  more  juicy  and  sprightly 
than  the  Moorpark,  with  rich,  lucious,  plum-like  flavor;  stone  not  perforate, 
rather  small  and  kernel  bitter."  Esteemed  in  California,  because  the  tree 
is  more  hardy  and  a  more  regular  bearer  than  the  Moorpark,  and  the  fruit 
ripens  evenly  on  both  sides.  Sometimes  drops  worse  than  other  varieties. 

^  Peach.— A  variety  from  Piedmont  of  the  largest  size,  about  two  inches  in 
diameter,  roundish,  rather  flattened,  and  somewhat  compressed  on  its  sides, 
with  a  well-marked  suture;  skin  yellow  in  the  shade,  but  deeply  orange 
mottled  with  brown  on  the  sunny  side;  flesh  of  a  fine  yellow,  saffron  .color, 
juicy,  rich,  and  highly  flavored;  stone  can  be  penetrated  like  Moorpark,  and 
has  bitter  kernel.  This  has  been  a  very  successful  sort  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  State  especially,  and  a  favorite  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  but  is  now 
in  less  favor  because  of  rapid  ripening  and  inferior  appearance  in  canning 
and  drying.  It  ripens  just  ahead  of  the  Moorpark. 

Routier/s  Peach. — Originated  with  Joseph  Routier,  near  Sacramento. 
Large,  yellow  in  shade;  deep  orange,  mottled  or  splashed  with  red  in  the 
sun;  flesh  juicy  and  rich,  high  flavor  and  a  good  market  variety.  Blooms  a 
week  later  than  Peach.  Very  popular  in  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
Valleys. 

Moorpark. — A  standard  of  excellence  and  an  old  variety  which  originated 
in  England.  Fruit  large,  roundish,  about  two  inches  and  a  quarter  in  diam- 
eter each  way;  rather  larger  on  one  side  of  the  suture  than  on  the  other; 
skin  organe  in  the  shade,  but  deep  orange  or  brownish  red  in  the  sun, 
marked  with  numerous  dark  specks  and  dots;  flesh  quite  firm,  bright  orange, 
parting  free  from  the  stone,  quite  juicy,  with  a  rich  and  luscious  flavor; 
stone  peculiarly  perforated  along  the  back,  where  a  pin  may  be  pushed 
through;  kernel  bitter.  In  California  the  Moorepark  reaches  grand  size,  but 
has  the  fault  of  ripening  unevenly  in  most  localities.  The  tree  is  tender  and 
bears  irregularly,  which  leads  to  its  rejection  by  most  planters,  though 
some  growers  cling  to  it  because  of  its  size  and  quality  and  occasional  grand 
crops.  The  San  Jose  districts  lead  in  the  production  of  this  variety,  and 
in  some~parts  of  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  the  Moorpark  seems  to  ripen  uni- 
formly. The  same  behavior  is  reported  from  localities  in  the  upper  San 
Joaquin  Valley,  where  it  also  seems  to  be  a  more  regular  bearer.  The 
variety  is  almost  wholly  rejected  in  Southern  California. 


Plate  IX. — Profuse  bearing  of  vine  by  long  pruning. 
(See  page  311.) 


VARIETIES   OF  THE  APRICOT  225 

Newcastle. — Originated  with  C.  M.  Silva  &  Son,  of  Newcastle,  Placer 
County,  in  1881;  size  medium,  round,  with  spherical  pit;  freestone;  not  quite 
as  large  as  the  Royal,  nor  quite  as  rich  in  flavor,  but  more  highly  colored; 
rather  darker  on  the  side  to  the  sun.  Early,  regular  and  good  bearer,  a 
medium  grower,  being  more  upright  than  the  Royal.  Its  time  of  ripening  has 
been  reported  as  seventeen  days  earlier  than  the  Early  Golden,  and  twenty- 
five  days  earlier  than  the  Royal.  Especially  profitable  in  Imperial  Valley. 

c  Tilton. — Chance  seedling  first  noticed  about  1885  on  place  of  J.  E.  Tiiton, 
near  Hanford,  Kings  County,  and  distinguished  by  regular  bearing.  Prop- 
agated and  introduced  by  J.  W.  Barstow,  of  Hanford.  Fruit  large;  free- 
stone; symmetrical,  ripening  evenly  and  one  week  to  ten  days  later  than 
Royal.  Tree  vigorous  and  prolific.  Widely  planted  recently  and  very 
promising,  though  condemned  for  shy  bearing  in  some  places.  Colors  in 
advance  of  ripening  and  is  often  picked  too  green  for  best  quality  in  drying. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE   CHERRY 

Although  the  amount  of  cherries  grown  in  this  State  is  small  as 
compared  with  the  aggregate  weights  of  some  other  fruits,  the 
cherry,  from  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  size  and  quality  of  the 
product,  is  entitled  to  rank  as  one  of  the  grand  fruits  of  California. 
The  size  of  the  California-grown  cherry  is  a  matter  of  pride  with 
the  residents,  and  a  marvel  to  visitors.  It  is  related  that,  many 
years  ago,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Eastern  pomologists,  who 
was  taken  to  an  Alameda  County  cherry  orchard  during  picking 
time,  could  not  recognize  the  varieties,  though  he  had  himself  prop- 
agated and  shipped  to  California  the  very  trees  which  were  bearing 
the  fruit,  the  size  of  which  so  far  surpassed  all  his  mental  standards. 
And  quality  is  commensurate  with  size.  Whatever  disagreement 
there  may  be  concerning  the  flavors  of  our  other  fruits  as  compared 
with  Eastern,  the  richness  and  excellence  of  the  California  cherry 
has  never  been  impeached.  Recently  the  shipment  of  cherries  to 
Eastern  markets  and  the  extension  of  the  canning  interest,  have 
considerably  enlarged  the  opportunity  for  profitable  growth  of  the 
fruit. 

Famous  Old  Tnees. — The  longevity  and  productiveness  of  the 
cherry  tree  in  this  State  is  naturally  of  interest.  Cherries  that  were 
planted  in  some  of  the  earliest  settled  parts  of  the  State  are  still  in 
full  vigor.  One  of  the  famous  trees  is  a  Black  Tartarian,  which  was 
brought  from  France  by  Dr.  L.  E.  Miller,  and  planted  by  him  in  1854, 
on  land  afterwards  owned  by  Robert  Hector  in  Placer  County,  just 
below  Rattlesnake  Bar,  on  the  American  River,  about  eight  hundred 
feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  described  as  above  seventy  feet  in  height, 
the  branches  covering  a  space  between  seventy  and  seventy-five 
feet  in  diameter.  The  trunk  branches  about  six  feet  above  the 
ground,  and  at  that  point  has  a  girth  of  over  ten  feet.  A  close  record 
of  its  crop,  kept  for  a  number  of  years  when  the  tree  was  over  thirty 
years  of  age,  showed  that  it  yielded  from  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half 
a  year.  Such  trees  are  too  large  to  be  profitable,  for  the  fruit  has 
to  be  picked  with  the  aid  of  extension  ladders  securely  guyed,  by 
men  slung  in  swings  from  such  ladders  or  the  forks  of  the  tree.  At 
last  reports  there  were  about  fifty  of  these  large  trees.  Other  large 
trees  were  to  be  seen  near  Woodside,  San  Mateo  County,  and  near 
Oroville  and  Chico  in  Butte  County,  some  of  which  have  borne  a 
ton  of  fruit  in  favorable  seasons. 

LOCALITIES   FOR  THE   CHERRY 

In  California  there  are  many  districts  in  which  the  cherry  does 
not  do  well,  and  situations  for  the  fruit  must  therefore  be  selected 
with  discrimination.  The  chief  product  is  made  in  the  coast  valleys 


LOCATIONS  AND  SOILS  FOR  CHERRIES  227 

adjacent  to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  including  its  extension  east 
of  the  Coast  Range,  known  as  Suisun  Bay,  for  in  all  these  regions 
there  is  a  modification  of  climate  due  to  the  influence  of  ocean  tem- 
perature and  moisture.  Away  from  these  influences  the  cherry  also 
thrives  on  the  alluvial  bottoms  of  large  rivers  and  their  tributary 
creeks,  both  on  the  low  lands  of  the  valleys  and  the  foothills,  while 
on  broad  valley  plains  and  foothill  slopes  it  is  not  usually  satis- 
factory. In  the  mountain  valleys  cherries  also  thrive  in  suitable 
soils  which  are  kept  reasonably  moist  by  irrigation  or  cultivation 
as  may  be  required  to  do  it. 

How  far  atmospheric  conditions  which  are  beyond  control  in- 
fluence the  growth  and  fruitage  of  the  cherry,  can  not  yet  be  fully 
determined,  but  ample  trial  seems  to  demonstrate  the  unsatisfactory 
character  of  the  tree,  manifested  in  small  fruit  and  sunburned 
foliage,  on  the  plains  of  interior  valleys,  although  the  soil  is  kept 
moist  enough.  There  is,  however,  still  the  chance  of  securing 
varieties  of  the  fruit  which  have  been  developed  under  conditions 
similar  to  those  prevailing  in  the  interior  of  California.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  Russian  cherries,  which  are  largely  grown  in  a  region 
subject  to  high  summer  heat  and  dry  air,  will  succeed  in  parts  of 
California  where  the  varieties  originating  in  West  Europe  fail. 
Though  this  was  suggested  long  ago,  the  effort  has  not  yej 
made  to  demonstrate  it. 

SOILS  FOR  THE  CHERRY 

The  cherry  thrives  in  free  deep  soil,  in  which  water  does  not 
stand  too  near  the  surface.  It  delights  in  deep  deposits  from  old 
water  courses,  and  does  not  dislike  a  moderate  amount  of  sand.  A 
loam  underlaid  by  a  sandy  subsoil  is  acceptable  if  it  is  not  allowed 
to  dry  out  in  the  late  summer,  but  a  loam  underlaid  by  clay  has 
shown  its  unfitness  by  the  early  failure  of  the  trees,  because  of 
standing  water  in  the  rainy  season,  while  those  on  deep  loam  near 
by  have  remained  vigorous  and  profitable.  The  trees  are,  however, 
more  resistant  of  too  retentive  soil,  if  a  wise  choice  of  roots  is  made, 
as  will  be  discussed  presently. 

On  the  foothills  the  cherry  thrives  in  the  light,  mellow  soil  and 
fails  in  the  tight  clay  either  in  soil  or  subsoil,  as  it  does  in  the  adobe 
of  lower  lands ;  and  yet  a  clay  loam  of  no  great  depth  upon  a  clay 
subsoil  may  grow  good  trees  if  the  clay  be  so  disposed  that  surplus 
water  from  winter  rains  can  escape  and  water  is  at  hand  to  guard 
against  summer  drouth.  Commercial  orchards  should  have  a  good 
depth  of  sufficiently  retentive  soil.  The  great  cherry  trees  just 
mentioned  are  growing  right  on  the  bank  of  the  American  River, 
where  the  soil  is  a  pure,  sandy  loam,  in  some  places  over  sixty  feet 
deep,  as  proved  by,  an  old  shaft  once  dug  near  the  center  of  the 
orchard. 

But  though  the  cherry  dislikes  a  wet  soil,  it  is  particular  about 
its  water  supply  and  insists  upon  enough,  its  requirements  being 
greater  than  some  other  trees.  During  the  dry  year  1898-99,  also  in 
1912-13,  trees  came  into  distress  where  they  had  never  suffered 


228 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


before,  and  many  large  valuable  trees  died.  The  only  new  condition 
they  encountered  was  lack  of  soil  moisture.  It  thus  appears  that 
while  the  cherry  is  undoubtedly  injured  by  excess  of  water  in  the 
soil  it  is  still  very  exacting  in  its  requirement  of  an  adequate  supply. 
If  this  cannot  be  retained  in  the  soil  by  cultivation,  irrigation  must 
be  resorted  to.  Thus  the  cherry  growers  in  the  famous  Willows 
district  of  San  Jose,  usually  find  it  an  advantage  to  give  their  trees 
an  irrigation  between  the  spring  rains  and  the  ripening  of  the  fruit, 
and  another  irrigation  after  the  fruit  is  gathered. 

Irregularity  in  the  moisture  supply  also  causes  the  cherry  to 
bloom  and  fruit  unseasonably.  There  has  been  bloom  in  October 
and  ripe  fruit  in  January,  due  to  the  fact  that  trees  became  dormant 
in  late  summer  from  soil-drouth.  January  cherries  may  be  evidences 
of  salubrity  but  they  betoken  poor  horticulture. 

These  facts  show  that  the  cherry  must  have  water  enough  or  it 
will  not  succeed.  Sometimes  young  trees  which  have  made  a  good 
summer  growth  die  outright  on  leachy  soils  which  dry  out  before  the 
fall  rains  begin.  On  the  other  hand,  there  must  not  be  excessive 
moisture  in  the  soil  either  from  irrigation  or  by  moisture.  Cherry 
trees  in  Southern  California,  planted  with  orange  trees  and  given 
similar  irrigation,  have  failed  utterly.  Planting  on  naturally  moist 
land  in  low  places  has  also  failed,  and  observed  facts  some  time  ago 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  at  the  south  the  cherry  should  be  planted 
on  well-drained  land,  which  could  be  irrigated  (as  the  behavior  of 
the  tree  indicated  its  need  of  water),  rather  than  on  naturally  moist 
land,  because  of  the  likelihood  of  excessive  moisture  in  such  situa- 
tions. More  recent  experience  has  declared  mellow,  well-drained 
soils,  of  the  higher  lands  well  adapted  to  the  cherry  and  on  such 
soils,  when  well  cultivated,  cherries  have  done  well  with  little  irri- 
gation at  Pasadena,  Pomona  and  elsewhere.  The  commercial  cherry 
product  of  Southern  California  comes,  however,  from  mountain  val- 
leys and  high  plateaux — the  chief  regions  being  the  Yacaipa  Valley 
and  the  Beaumont  District  in  San  Bernardino  County,  the  Mesa 
Grande  region  in  the  interior  of  San  Diego  County,  and  other  sec- 
tions with  similar  conditions. 

In  California,  as  elsewhere,  the  Dukes  and  Morellos  may  succeed 
where  the  Hearts  and  Bigarreaux  fail.  The  May  Duke  seems  espe- 
cially hardy,  and  bears  well  in  Nevada,  where  other  sorts  fail  utterly. 

Delayed  Fruiting  of  Cherry  Trees. — Though  the  cherry  in  favor- 
able situations  bears  early,  the  grower,  especially  on  strong,  rich 
lands,  will  often  have  many  years  of  disappointment  from  falling 
blossoms  and  fruit.  During  this  time  the  trees  will  be  making  mar- 
velous wood  growth,  and  this  apparently  suppresses  the  fruiting 
function.  Usually  these  trees  will  ultimately  bear  when  their  ex- 
uberant growth  declines.  They  can  be  thrown  into  fruit  sooner  by 
allowing  the  trees  to  go  uncultivated,  or  by  root  pruning,  through 
digging  a  trench  around  about  eight  feet  from  the  tree,  and  severing 
the  roots  thus  encountered,  or  by  summer  pruning.  Because  of  this 
over-growth,  growers  give  such  strong  soil  to  the  apple  or  the  pear 
rather  than  the  cherry.  Sometimes  the  non-bearing  of  the  cherry  is 


CHERRIES  NEED  THE  BEES  229 

inexplicable.     Though  everything  seems  to  be  right,  and  the  blos- 
soms are  profuse,  the  fruit  will  not  stick. 

CROSS-POLLINATION  OF  CHERRIES 

Lack  of  bearing  is  often  due  to  improper  association  of  varieties 
in  planting.  Experiments  in  cross-pollination  of  cherry  varieties 
were  conducted  from  1916  to  1920  in  several  cherry  districts,  under 
direction  of  Dr.  W.  L.  Howard  of  the  University  of  California.  The 
following  is  an  outline  of  observations : 

The  Black  Tartarian,  Burr's  Seedling,  Pontiac,  Black  Republican,  Rock- 
port  and  Governor  Wood  will  pollinate  with  the  Royal  Ann,  and  the  Royal 
Ann  will  pollinate  the  Pontiac. 

The  Black  Tartarian,  Burr's  Seedling,  Royal  Ann  and  Governor  Wood 
varieties  may  be  used  with  the  Rockport. 

The  Black  Tartarian  and  Pontiac  may  be  used  on  the  Bing  and  the  Black 
Tartarian  pollinates  the  Advance. 

Black  Tartarian  and  Black  Republican  cross  well,  the  former  being  also 
the  best  pollenizer  for  the  Purple  Guigne,  Chapman,  Advance  and  Black- 
heart. 

Black  Tartarian  and  Pontiac  cross  the  Lambert,  the  former  being  pref- 
erable. Royal  Ann's  best  performance  was  with  Pontiac. 

It  is  fortunate  that  the  few  cherry  varieties  which  are  commer- 
cially grown  in  California  will  cross-pollinate  each  other,  and  the 
planter  need  not  have  recourse  to  several  varieties  named  above 
which  are  of  no  commercial  account.  These  are,  however,  desirable 
as  garden  cherries  for  amateur  planting. 

There  is  full  demonstration  that  keeping  bees  in  the  vicinity  of 
cherry  orchards  has  increased  the  bearing.  But  varieties  must  be 
provided  which  will  act  as  cross-pollinizers. 


EXPOSURES   FOR  THE   CHERRY 

Exposures  for  the  cherry  are  chosen  both  with  reference  to  pro- 
tection from  frost  injury  and  to  early  ripening  of  the  fruit.  The 
cherry  blooms  early;  though  hardly  as  venturesome  as  the  apricot 
and  almond.  In  protected  situations,  guarded  from  cold  northerly 
winds,  and  open  to  sunshine  on  the  south  and  southeast,  the  fruit 
advances  to  maturity  very  rapidly.  In  Vaca  Valley  about  a  month 
of  good  weather  after  the  blossoming  will  ripen  an  early  cherry  and 
ripe  cherries  have  been  shipped  as  early  as  March  31.  The  pioneer 
cherry  growers  of  Vaca  Valley  went  there  from  old  homes  in 
Napa  Valley,  because  they  could  gather  and  market  cherries  in  their 
new  locations  before  the  same  varieties  were  ripe  in  Napa  Valley. 
They  chose  places  protected  on  the  north  and  west  by  steep  hills. 
The  two  things  to  secure  are,  apparently,  protection  from  the  sweep 
of  cold  winds  and  elevation  above  the  deposits  of  cold  air,  which 
occur  in  depressed  places. 

In  localities  where  fruit  ripens  late,  as  near  the  coast,  there  is 
no  need  to  seek  forcing  conditions,  for  the  extra  early  varieties 
should  not  be  planted  except  for  family  use.  Early  varieties  are 


230 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


comparatively  poor  in  quality,  and  will  not  sell  profitably,  as  they 
will  reach  the  market  alongside  the  better  later  sorts  from  earlier 
districts.  The  places  for  the  cherry  in  the  later  districts  is  on  the 
most  proper  soil,  according  to  the  requirements  which  have  been 
laid  down,  avoiding,  however,  so  far  as  possible,  wind-swept  spots, 
and  seeking  amelioration  of  direct  ocean  influences  by  elevation  or 
intervention  of  hills  and  windbreaks.  4, 


PROPAGATION  AND  PLANTING  THE  CHERRY 

In  the  chapter  on  propagation  is  given  a  successful  method  of 
growing  cherry  seedlings.  About  three-fourths  of  California  cherry 
trees  are  propagated  by  budding  on  seedlings  of  the  Black  Mazzard. 
The  Mahaleb  root  is  still  more  hardy  than  the  Mazzard  and  is  less 
subject  to  injury  by  standing  water  in  the  soil  during  the  winter 
season.  It  is  also  more  hardy  against  injury  in  summer  drouth  on 
shallow  soils,  which  is  one  of  the  causes  of  die-back  of  the  cherry 
tree  in  some  parts  of  the  State.  While  there  may  be  particular  places 
in  which  the  Mahaleb  is  the  better  root,  the  conclusions  of  fifty  years' 
experience  in  California  cherry  growing,  which  approve  the  Maz- 
zard, are  on  the  whole  trustworthy.  The  Mazzard  is  a  better  grower 
and,  where  moisture  conditions  are  fairly  good,  leaves  little  to  be 
desired.  The  Mahaleb,  however,  though  credited  with  a  dwarfing 
influence,  does  make  a  good-sized  tree  under  our  conditions.  It 
seems  a  fair  general  conclusion  that  Mazzard  roots  make  larger 
trees,  but  Mahaleb  roots  make  hardier  trees  which  bear  younger. 
The  Mahaleb  is  more  popular  in  the  interior  than  in  the  coast 
valleys. 

The  planting  of  the  cherry  is  covered  by  the  general  considera- 
tions already  given  for  the  planting  of  orchards.  The  distance  which 
cherries  should  be  set  apart  is  a  disputed  point  among  planters. 
When  planted  twenty  feet  apart  the  trees  have  interlaced  their 
branches  when  sixteen  years  old,  and  the  spaces  between  the  rows 
have  been  covered  in  like  colonnades.  In  the  Hayward  region  the 
branches  of  twelve-year-old  trees  set  twenty-eight  feet  apart  have 
nearly  reached  the  other,  though  continually  cut  back.  Much  de- 
pends in  the  matter  of  distance  upon  the  manner  of  handling  the 
trees.  The  trees  can  be  grown  much  nearer  together  by  continuous 
pruning  than  where  the  usual  way  of  cutting  back  for  the  first  few 
years  and  letting  the  tree  take  its  natural  growth  after  that,  is  fol- 
lowed. James  E.  Gedney,  of  Mesa  Grande,  San  Diego  County, 
practiced  close  planting  and  cutting  back  which  may  work  better 
on  his  upland  than  on  deeper,  moister  soils.  He  says : 

I  plant  my  trees  twenty  feet  apart  each  way.  My  method  is  to  plant  thus 
closely  and  then  keep  my  trees  low,  by  cutting  back  every  year;  this  facili- 
tates gathering  the  fruit  very  much.  I  prefer  this  way  to  setting  the  trees 
farther  apart  and  allowing  them  to  attain  too  great  a  height.  By  the  former 
method  I  secure  fully  as  good,  if  not  better,  results  per  acre,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  difference  in  gathering  the  fruit.  Another  advantage  in  keeping  the 
trees  headed  low  is  that  the  wind  does  not  affect  them  nearly  as  much  as 
it  does  tall  trees. 


PRUNING  THE  CHERRY  231 

The  best  distances  are  24  or  28  feet  on  such  deep  soils  as  have 
been  described  as  best  befitting  the  tree  and,  though  one  may  fix  his 
distance  in  planting  according  to  the  method  of  pruning  he  pro- 
poses to  follow,  he  should  remember  that  the  cherry  is  naturally  a 
large  tree,  and  most  old  orchards  are  now  over-crowded. 

As  with  other  trees,  orchard  planters  prefer  trees  with  one  year's 
growth  on  the  bud  in  the  nursery,  because  they  usually  get,  then,  a 
straight  switch  with  well  developed  buds  all  the  way  down,  and  the 
head  can  be  formed  as  desired.  For  garden  planting,  older  trees, 
properly  pruned  in  the  nursery,  can  be  used  to  advantage. 

PRUNING  THE   CHERRY 

All  our  best  growers  agree  in  the  advantage  of  a  low  head  for 
the  cherry,  and  all  aim  to  have  trunks  of  young  trees  from  the 
ground  up  to  the  limbs  literally  covered  all  around  with  leaves, 
which  completely  shelter  the  bark  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  In 
planting,  therefore,  the  side  buds  are  carefully  preserved — not  to  be 
grown  into  branches,  but  to  be  cut  or  pinched  back  when  they  have 
come  out  a  few  inches,  leaving  just  growth  enough  to  clothe  the 
tree  with  a  covering  of  its  own  foliage.  These  spurs  not  only  furnish 
leaves  to  shade  the  trunk,  but  soon  become  fruit  spurs,  and  bear  well. 

Low  Heading  with  a  Central  Stem. — Some  of  the  trees  in  the 
older  orchards  have  been  shaped  by  carrying  up  a  leader  with  a 
regular  system  of  side  branches.  Head  back  at  planting  to  two  feet, 
pinching  off  the  shoots  below  the  head  as  stated,  and  allowing  the 
shoots  which  form  the  head  to  grow  larger,  but  they,  too,  are  all  to 
be  pinched  except  the  leader,  which  is  allowed  to  grow  as  long  as 
it  pleases  during  the  summer.  During  fall  or  winter  pruning  cut 
back  the  leader  to  about  twelve  or  sixteen  inches  from  its  starting 
point  and  cut  back  the  side  branches  to  about  six  or  eight  inches. 
This  is  done  year  after  year,  cutting  back  and  pruning  out  the 
side  shoots,  pinching  the  laterals,  and  allowing  the  leader  to  grow, 
never  interfering  with  it  until  the  winter  pruning  and  always  letting 
it  predominate  over  the  side  shoots.  By  cutting  short,  wood  is  in- 
creased, but  at  the  end  of  six  years  the  tree  goes  into  fruit  very 
rapidly.  As  the  tree  increases  in  fruit  it  decreases  in  wood,  and  by 
the  time  it  is  ten  or  twelve  years  old  there  will  be  but  little  cutting 
to  do,  except  to  shorten  in  and  thin  out,  and  this  requires  some 
judgment  and  experience,  to  know  where  to  cut,  and  when  to  cut. 
To  shorten  in,  never  cut  down  to  an  old  fruit  spur.  It  is  very  dif- 
ficult to  get  healthy  wood  out  of  such ;  but  whenever  you  can  find 
last  year's  wood,  there  you  can  cut  with  safety  anything  that  is  less 
than  one  inch  in  diameter. 

This  system  of  pruning  must  be  accompanied  by  constant  pinch- 
ing during  the  summer  time.  It  should  commence  when  the  lower 
shoots  are  about  six  inches  long,  and  be  followed  up  closely  all 
through  the  growing  season.  Those  on  the  trunk  should  never  get 
longer  than  eight  or  ten  inches,  under  any  circumstances.  After 
these  are  pinched,  let  the  trees  rest  ten  or  fifteen  days,  or  until  the 


232 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


branches  in  the  top  get  a  good  start.  Then  pinch  everything  clean 
but  the  leader,  in  every  main  branch  in  the  tree.  The  leader  takes 
its  own  way  all  through  the  growing  season,  to  prevent  the  effects 
of  over-pinching  or  checking  the  growth.  If  only  the  side  shoots  are 
kept  back,  the  leader  or  head  of  the  branches  receives  the  current  or 
flow  of  sap  and  maintains  and  carries  on  life  and  vitality  in  the 
tree.  One  object  in  pinching  or  spur  pruning  is  to  keep  back  sur- 
plus wood  and  create  fruit  spurs,  throwing  all  the  little  twigs  and 
branches  into  fruit,  thereby  utilizing  all  the  wood  the  tree  can  pro- 
duce, not  allowing  it  to  grow  at  the  tree's  expense,  and  then  have  to 
cut  it  off.  And  another  object  in  side-shoot  pruning  is  to  make  the 
tree  produce  fine  large  cherries,  all  closely  nestling  around  the  big 
wood,  and  no  long,  slim  branches  hanging  down  like  weeping  willow. 
This  method  is  commended  to  those  who  like  a  tree  with  a  cen- 
tral leader  and  are  willing  to  give  their  orchards  such  constant 
attention.  Unless  pinching  and  consequent  multiplication  of  shoots 
and  foliage  is  fathfully  followed  such  a  tree  is  apt  to  become  tall 
and  rangy  and  to  expose  the  bark  all  the  way  up  to  sunburn  and 
borers. 

THE  USUAL  METHOD  OF  PRUNING  THE  CHERRY 

As  has  been  said,  all  cherry  growers  agree  on  low  heading  and 
on  the  advantage  of  pinching  the  lowest  shoots  as  soon  as  they  make 
a  bunch  of  leaves.  In  forming  the  head,  and  in  after  treatment,  the 
usual  method  is  quite  different  from  that  we  have  described.  It  fol- 
lows the  vase  or  goblet  form,  which  has  been  discussed  at  length  in 
the  chapter  on  pruning.  Of  the  application  of  this  method  to  the 
cherry,  W.  W.  Smith,  in  an  address  before  the  State  Horticultural 
Society,  said : 

The  cherry  may  be  pruned  the  same  as  any  other  deciduous  fruit  tree 
until  it  is  about  five  years  old;  after  that  the  less  pruning  the  better,  except 
when  necessary  to  cut  out  a  dead  or  crossing  branch.  Pruning  the  cherry 
is  more  or  less  likely  to  produce  gum  (and  this,  decay)  and  should  be  avoid- 
ed as  much  as  possible.  Cherry  trees,  however,  should  be  trained  with  low 
heads  not  to  exceed  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground  to  the  first  branches; 
fifteen  inches  is  better.  From  three  to  five  branches  are  enough  to  form  the 
head  of  the  tree;  all  others  should  be  removed  early.  Three  are  better  than 
five;  two  make  a  forked  tree,  which  is  likely  to  split  in  after  years. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  season  we  have  a  neat  little  tree  with  three  to  five 
branches.  During  the  following  winter  these  branches  should  be  cut  back 
to  six  to  eight  inches.  The  next  season  these  should  be  allowed  to  produce 
two  branches  each  (no  more);  then,  at  the  end  of  the  second  season  from 
planting  out,  we  have  a  tree  with  from  six  to  ten  branches.  The  following 
winter  the  new  growth  should  be  cut  back  again  to  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches— according  to  the  amount  of  growth  the  tree  makes— the  less  the 
growth  the  more  you  cut.  The  same  process  should  be  repeated  the  follow- 
ing winter,  treating  each  branch  as  an  individual  tree,  until  the  tree  is  about 
five  years  old;  it  takes  at  least  five  years  to  get  the  head  of  a  cherry  well 
established.  After  this,  as  some  varieties  will  persist  in  throwing  out  branches 
near  the  ground,  they  should  be  removed  during  the  summer.  At  this  age 
the  tree,  if  well  grown,  will  have  top  enough  to  shade  its  body  from  the  sun, 
and  there  is  no  further  need  of  branches  on  the  main  trunk. 

If  necessary  to  remove  large  branches  it  should  be  done  in  midsummer, 
as  that  is  the  only  season  when  the  gum  is  not  more  or  less  exuded.  We 


DISEASES   OF   THE   CHERRY  233 

made  it  a  rule  to  go  over  and  dress  up  and  prune  out  cherry  orchard1,  im- 
mediately after  the  crop  is  gathered — which  in  our  part  of  the  State  is  the 
last  of  May.  All  wounds  made  then  by  the  removal  of  branches  or  other- 
wise will  heal  over  the  same  season.  All  large  wounds  made  at  any  time, 
however,  should  be  coated  over  with  paint. 

The  method  thus  described  by  Mr.  Smith  is  that  by  which  prob- 
ably nine-tenths  of  the  cherry  trees  of  this  State  are  shaped. 

In  selecting  the  shoots  to  form  the  head  of  the  young  tree  they 
should  be  as  far  apart  as  possible  on  the  short  stem  and  on  different 
sides,  as  explained  in  detail  in  Chapter  XII.  It  is  especially  desir- 
able to  avoid  the  basin  which  is  so  often  formed  in  old  cherry  trees 
by  growth  of  three  or  four  main  limbs  closing  up  to  form  a  central 
cavity,  which  will  be  discussed  on  a  following  page. 

In  the  cherry  tree  there  should  be  the  same  observation  as  to 
cutting  inside  and  outside  buds  as  with  other  trees ;  in  fact,  the  out- 
side bud  is  the  rule,  because  so  many  varieties  make  a  directly 
upward  growth.  In  removing  limbs,  cutting  to  the  collar  or  swell- 
ing at  the  base  of  the  limb  is  especially  important,  also  the  covering 
of  the  wound  to  prevent  checking  of  the  wood. 

GRAFTING  OVER  THE  CHERRY 

Since  canning  of  cherries  began  on  a  large  scale,  there  has  been 
a  vastly  increased  demand  for  white  cherries.  The  Royal  Ann  (a 
local  name  for  Napoleon  Bigarreau)  has  been  the  favorite.  Other 
white  storts  are  also  used  for  canning.  This  rise  in  favor  of  the  white 
cherries  has  vastly  increased  their  proportionate  production  as 
compared  with  the  choice  black  and  red  varieties,  which  are  still 
popular  as  a  table  fruit. 

It  is  the  experience  of  growers  that  the  cherry  is  grafted  over  as 
easily  as  the  pear  or  apple,  if  the  tree  is  healthy.  In  large  trees  as 
many  as  fifty  or  one  hundred  grafts  may  be  set,  choosing  the  smaller 
limbs,  even  if  you  have  to  go  pretty  high  in  the  tree.  J.  W.  Cassidy, 
of  Petaluma,  used  to  advise  grafting  before  the  sap  begins  to  flow 
in  the  winter,  or  if  not  done  then,  wait  until  the  buds  are  well  ad- 
vanced or  the  tree  in  bloom.  He  had  trees  which  were  over  thirty 
years  old  before  they  were  re-headed,  and  they  made  fine  tops  of 
new  and  healthy  wood,  and  produced  abundantly.  The  cherry  is 
grafted  by  the  usual  top-grafting  methods  described  in  Chapter  |X. 

PESTS  AND   DISEASES  OF  THE  CHERRY 

The  disease  of  the  cherry  which  is  most  heard  of  is  the  "gum," 
or  overflow  and  condensation  of  sap,  which,  if  left  to  itself,  often 
induces  decay  of  adjacent  bark  and  wood.  Without  attempting  to 
explain  the  causes  of  the  unhealthy  exudations,  which  are  several, 
it  may  be  said  that  prompt  treatment  of  certain  manifestations  is 
desirable,  and  in  others  the  tree  should  be  cleansed  from  the  flow. 
Where  the  gum  exudes  on  the  side  of  trunk  or  limb,  the  thin  outer 
bark  should  be  pared  away  with  a  sharp  knife,  the  accumulation  of 
gum  and  sap  removed,  and  the  wound  painted  with  asphaltum  or 
lead  and  oil  paint,  or  covered  with  grafting  wax.  A  rational  treat- 


234 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


ment  of  infectious  gumming  of  the  cherry,  studied  closely  by  Prof. 
H.  P.  Barss,  of  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  is  as  follows : 

The  disease  starts  out  late  in  winter,  enlarging  old  cankers  and  becom- 
inc  a  source  of  new  infection.  It  is  caused  by  organisms  which  live  over 
winter  in  the  discolored  bark  at  the  edges  of  the  old  cankers.  The  gumming 
is  simply  incidental  and  is  not  always  noticeable,  neither  does  gumming 
always  indicate  the  disease.  The  only  remedy  is  to  cut  all  tha  bark  and  wood 
close  to  the  disease,  taking  enough  to  be  sure  to  get  all  the  organisms  newly 
working  in  bark  not  yet  discolored.  Then  wash  with  a  1  to  1000  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate  prepared  under  direction  of  the  druggist  who  sells  the 
tablets  and  apply  pruning  paint  or  white  lead  mixed  with  raw  (not  boiled) 
linseed  oil.  Close  watch  through  the  spring  and  summer  for  new  cankers  or 
blighted  spurs  and  twigs  will  probably  reveal  some  to  be  cut  out.  Always 


Twelve-year-old  cherry  trees  with  acute  and  wide  angled  crotches. 

dip  cutting  tools  in  the  sublimate  solution,  which  is  deadly  poison  to  bacteria 
and  human  begins.  The  disease  on  twigs  and  branches  is  easily  handled 
without  great  loss  by  cutting  them  out. 

Gum  in  the  crotch  should  be  cleanly  brushed  out  when  softened 
by  the  winter  rains.  If  allowed  to  remain,  it  becomes  sour  and 
offensive  and  may  injure  the  tree.  In  places  where  two  or  three 
limbs  come  out  closely  together  a  kind  of  cup  is  formed  (as  just 
mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  pruning),  which  will  hold  the  gum 
from  one  year's  end  to  another,  and  in  its  soft  state,  leaves,  sticks, 
cherry  pits,  dust,  and  dirt  will  stock  and  hang  and  sometimes  the 
mass  becomes  very  foul.  By  this  collection  also,  a  nest  is  made  for 
all  manner  of  insects,  bugs  and  worms.  Another  evil  in  letting  the 
gum  stay  on  is,  if  the  rain  does  not  wash  it  off  clean,  it  runs  down 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  makes  the  bark  look  bad,  and  if  it  is  very 
thick  on  the  bark  when  it  dries,  it  will  contract  and  crack  the  bark 
crosswise,  and  is  very  injurious  to  the  tree. 


IRRIGATION    OF    CHERRIES  235 

Gumming  in  the  crotch  can  be  largely  avoided  by  starting  the 
young  cherry  tree  as  advocated  in  the  chapter  on  pruning.  Branches 
which  emerge  from  the  trunk  at  separate  points  and  at  wide  angles 
seldom  gum ;  those  which  are  crowded  together  or  emerge  at  acute 
angles  gum  badly,  as  suggested  by  the  adjacent  engraving.  In 
shaping  young  trees  a  gumming  joint  sometimes  may  be  clearly 
cut  out  and  those  branches  selected  to  remain  which  start  out  at  a 
wider  angle ;  in  older  trees  there  is  nothing  to  do  but  keep  the  fork 
clean,  as  already  described. 

There  are  cases  reported  in  which  gumming  of  old  trees  has 
been  stopped  by  allowing  the  ground  to  lie  uncultivated,  weeds 
being  cut  down  with  the  hoe.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  cherry  thrives 
with  good  cultivation. 

Die-back  of  the  Cherry. — The  dying  back  of  cherry  branches  is 
more  or  less  common  in  all  regions,  and  the  immediate  cause  thereof 
is  not  known.  It  is  apparently  sometimes  a  root  trouble,  as  is  the 
dying  back  of  other  fruit  trees.  This  might  have  resulted  from 
standing  water  in  the  winter  in  the  soil,  although  the  same  condition 
may  result  from  lack  of  sufficient  moisture  during  the  late  summer 
and  autumn.  Anything  which  causes  the  destruction  of  the  root 
hairs  is  apt  to  cause  die-back  and  other  forms  of  unthrift  in  the  top. 
Early  vegetative  activity  in  the  branch,  followed  by  frost,  seems  also 
to  occasion  die-back  in  some  cases.  Fortunately,  this  can  occur 
without  injury  to  the  rest  of  the  tree,  though  it  is  sometimes  and  in 
some  places  destructive  to  the  tree  in  the  end.  The  only  treatment 
is  removal  of  the  affected  wood,  and  this  should  be  done  during  the 
growing  season,  as  soon  as  signs  of  injury  appear. 

The  Gopher. — One  of  the  most  dangerous  foes  of  the  cherry  is 
the  gopher,  for  he  seldom  takes  less  than  the  whole  tree,  young  or 
old.  Traces  of  his  presence  should  be  constantly  watched  for,  and 
killing  methods  described  in  a  later  chapter  adopted.  If  a  tree  is 
seen  to  wit  suddenly,  the  proability  is  that  a  gopher  has  girdled 
it.  Covering  the  wound  sometimes  saves  the  tree,  but  not  usually. 

Insects  injuring  the  cherry  will  be  mentioned  in  a  subsequent 
chapter. 

IRRIGATION    OF    THE    CHERRY 

As  already  stated,  the  cherry  is  very  sensitive  to  drying  out  of 
the  soil  and  should  be  protected  against  it  by  irrigation  when  neces- 
sary. In  the  chief  cherry  regions  the  local  rainfall  is  sufficient  to 
mature  the  crop,  and  the  stress  comes  later  in  the  season.  In  that 
case  a  good  irrigation  after  the  fruit  is  gathered  may  be  quite 
enough  to  keep  the  tree  growing  until  the  fruit  buds  for  the  fol- 
lowing year  are  plumped  out  well.  If  not,  as  learned  by  local  ob- 
servation, a  late  summer  irrigation  must  be  given.  Where  regular 
irrigation  is  required,  it  is  usual  to  irrigate  every  four  weeks  after 
dry  weather  comes  on,  until  just  before  the  fruit  begins  to  color  at 
two-thirds  of  full  size.  This  makes  the  cherries  fill  out ;  but  no  more 
water  is  given  until  after  picking,  as  that  would  make  the  fruit  too 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

soft  to  carry  well.   Fall  irrigation  is  continued  as  required  by  local 
conditions  to  keep  the  foliage  active  sufficiently  late  in  the  season. 

VARIETIES    OF    CHERRY 

Many  varieties  of  the  cherry  have  been  tested  in  this  State,  and 
many  have  been  abandoned  from  one  cause  or  another.  The  claims 
to  value  upon  which  a  variety  is  judged  are  several:  Extra  earli- 
ness,  an  important  consideration  in  early  districts  for  shipment,  and 
elsewhere  for  local  sale  or  family  use ;  firmness  to  withstand  mechan- 
ical injury  by  jarring  in  transit  and  durability  to  escape  decay 
during  the  long  journey  to  distant  markets ;  firmness  and  fixed  solor 
to  stand  processing  in  the  cannery,  and  to  prevent  coloring  the  juice ; 
lateness  to  extend  the  cherry  season. 

In  classification  of  cherries  it  was  originally  considered  that 
there  were  four  classes  of  cherries.  The  Hearts  were  the  tender  and 
half-tender  sweet  cherries,  while  the  Bigarreaux  were  the  firm- 
fleshed  ones ;  but  these  have  been  so  intermingled  and  blended 
together  by  hybridization  that  no  distinct  line  can  now  be  drawn 
separating  them.  There  is  really  but  one  class  of  these,  whose  main 
characteristic  is  the  large,  vigorous  growth  of  the  tree.  The  Duke 
and  Morello  cherries,  also  wanting  a  natural  division,  really  con- 
stitute but  one  class. 

The  cherries  chiefly  grown  for  fruit  shipping  and  for  sale  to 
canners  are  enumerated  in  Chapter  XVI.  The  following  list  in- 
cludes the  varieties  commended  for  propagation  by  the  1920  con- 
ferences of  growers,  canners  and  nurserymen :  Bing,  Black 
Tartarian,  Burbank,  Chapman,  Lambert,  Black  Oregon,  Royal  Ann, 
Gov.  Wood,  Montmarency  (sour),  Centennial  and  Giant  were 
added  for  home  orchards. 

BIGARREAUX  AND  HEARTS 

Early  Purple  Guigne. — Small  to  medium  size;  purple;  tender,  juicy,  and 
sweet.  This  variety  is  being  displaced  by  Chapman  and  Burbank. 

Knight's  Early  Black. — "Large,  black,  tender,  juicy,  rich,  and  excellent; 
high  flavor;  a  shy  bearer  until  the  trees  attain  age." 

Rockport  Bigarreau. — Large,  pale  amber  in  the  shade,  light  red  in  the 
sun;  half  tender,  sweet  and  good;  a  very  excellent  and  handsome  cherry; 
good  bearer;  formerly  esteemed  for  canning  and  shipping.  Declining  in 
favor. 

Cleveland  Bigarreau. — A  thrifty,  strong,  spreading  grower,  and  produc- 
tive large;  clear  red  and  yellow;  juicy,  sweet,  and  rich. 

Black  Tartarian.'—  Fruit  of  the  largest  size,  bright  purplish  black.  Flesh 
purplish,  thick,  juicy,  very  rich  and  delicious.  Tree  a  remarkably  vigorous 
erect,  and  beautiful  grower,  and  an  immense  bearer;  the  best  of  the  black 
cherries. 

Governor  V/ood.— Large;  light  yellow  shaded  with  bright  red;  flesh 
nearly  tender,  juicy,  sweet,  rich  and  delicious;  a  vigorous  grower  and  very 
productive.  Increasing  in  favor. 

Black  Eagle. — A  very  excellent  English  variety,  ripening  in  June;  large 
size,  deep  purple,  or  nearly  black;  flesh  deep  purple,  tender,  with  a  rich, 
high-flavored  juice. 

Mezel,  Monstreuses  de  (Great  Bigarreau). — A  foreign  variety  of  the 
largest  size;  dark  red  or  quite  black; 'firm  and  juicy;  late. 


VARIETIES   OF  THE  CHERRY  237 

Pontiac. — Large;  darjc  purplish  red;  half  tender,  juicy,  and  agreeable. 

Napoleon  Bigarreau  (Royal  Ann). — A  magnificent  cherry  of  the  largest 
size;  pale  yellow,  becoming  amber  in  shade,  richly  dotted  and  spotted  with 
deep  red,  and  with  a  bright  red  cheek;  flesh  very  firm,  juicy  and  sweet.  Tree 
a  free  grower  and  an  enormous  bearer,  when  properly  pollinated.  The  great 
commercial  cherry  of  California. 

DUKES  AND   MORELLOS 

Early  Richmond  (Kentish). — An  early  red,  acid  cherry;  valuable  for 
cooking  early  in  the  season. 

May  Duke. — An  old,  well-known,  excellent  variety;  large,  dark  red, 
juicy,  subacid,  rich. 

English  Morello. — Large,  dark  red,  nearly  black;  tender,  juicy,  rich,  acid, 
productive  and  late. 

Belle  Magnifique. — Fruit  large,  roundish,  inclined  to  heart-shape;  skin  a 
fine  bright  red;  flesh  juicy,  tender,  with  sprightly  subacid  flavor;  one  of  the 
best  of  its  class;  a  fine  table  fruit  when  fully  ripe. 

Montmorency. — Fruit  large,  roundish  ovate,  reddish  amber;  flesh  tender, 
mildly  acid,  uncolored;  the  choice  of  canners  for  a  sour  cherry. 

PACIFIC   COAST    SEEDLINGS 

California  Advance. — Large,  black  and  early.  Introduced  by  Leonard 
Coates. 

Chapman. — A  seedling  of  Black  Tartarian;  very  early;  black;  sweet,  and 
a  great  bearer.  Introduced  by  Leonard  Coates.  Gaining  in  favor. 

Early  Burbank. — Originated  by  Luther  Burbank;  a  seedling  of  Early 
Purple  Guigne  and  sold  in  1903  to  a  group  of  Vacaville  growers.  Very  early, 
earlier  than  its  parent  variety.  Large,  rich  deep  crimson,  resembling  Black 
Tartarian  in  quality.  Tree  medium  upright  grower,  large  leaves,  prolific. 

Lewelling — Black  Republican*  (Black  Oregon). — "Seedling  by  Seth  Lewel- 
ling,  Milwaukee,  Oregon,  from  seed  planted  in  1860;  first  fruited  in  orchard 
in  1864.  Widely  distributed  in  California.  Large,  black,  sweet,  with  purple 
flesh;  ripens  ten  days  after  Black  Tartarian." — James  Shinn.  "Large,  late 
black  cherry,  good  flavor,  long  keeper;  dries  and  ships  well.  Seems  to 
succeeds  better  on  foothills  than  in  the  valley." — Robert  Williamson.  "Sup- 
posed to  be  a  cross  between  Napoleon  Bigarreau  and  Black  Tartarian,  hav- 
ing the  solid  flesh  of  the  former  and  the  color  of  the  latter;  very  late." — 
John  Rock.  "I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  Black  Republican  and  Lincoln 
came  down  from  the  seed  of  the  Black  Eagle,  but  I  have  little  idea  of  what 
variety  they  were  crossed  with." — Seth  Lewelling. 

BingT—  Originated  by  Seth  Lewelling,  from  seed  of  Black  Republican. 
"Fruit  large,  dark  brown  or  black,  very  fine,  late;  a  good  shipping  variety." — 
Seth  Lewelling.  Tree  vigorous,  and  foliage  heavy.  Fruit  ripens  so  that 
trees  can  be  cleaned  at  one  picking. 

Centennial. — A  seedling  of  Napoleon  Bigarreau,  raised  by  Mr.  Henry 
Chapman  in  Napa  Valley,  and  fruited  by  him  for  the  first  time  in  1876. 
Propagated  and  introduced  by  Leonard  Coates,  then  of  Napa,  in  1885.  It  is 
larger  than  its  parent,  more  oblate  in  form,  and  beautifully  marbled  and 
splashed  with  crimson  on  a  pale  yellow  ground;  exceptionally  sweet  and  of 
remarkable  keeping  quality.  Little  planted  recently,  because  of  superiority 
of  Royal  Ann  for  canning;  commended  for  family  orchards. 

Lambert.— Seedling  of  J.  H.  Lambert,  Milwaukee,  Oregon,  1887;  pre- 
sented to  Oregon  State  Horticultural  Society;  right  to  propagate  sold  to 
Oregon  Nursery  Co.,  1896,  and  introduced  by  this  company;  very  large, 
roundish,  heart-shaped;  stem  long,  slender,  suture  medium  depth,  acid; 
smooth,  glossy,  dark  purplish,  flesh  dark  purplish  red,  firm,  flavor  rich', 
quality  good.  Ripens  ten  days  to  two  weeks  after  Black  Tartarian. 


CHAPTER   XX 

THE  PEACH 

From  the  first  years  of  the  American  occupation  for  about  forty 
years  the  peach  was  the  leading  deciduous  fruit  grown  in  California. 
In  the  later  '90s  grain  and  other  field  products  were  low  priced  and 
people  were  told  that  cured  prunes  could  be  put  up  in  sacks  more 
cheaply  than  wheat.  So  they  took  to  planting  prune  orchards  all 
through  the  wheat  districts  of  the  great  valley,  and  even  carried 
the  trees  where  no  one  would  think  of  planting  wheat — cutting  up 
shallow-clay  upland  sheep  pastures  and  even  yucca  sand  wastes 
into  prune-growing  colonies.  Figures  of  prune  trees  in  orchards 
rushed  far  beyond  the  peach  figures.  This  over-planting  of  prunes 
naturally  brought  loss  and  disappointment,  and  interest  turned 
again  to  peach  planting,  so  that  in  1907  the  peach  had  secured 
notable  advance  beyond  the  prune.  The  peach  held  the  leadership 
until  1915  when  the  demand  for  dried  peaches  fell  below  the  cost  of 
production,  planting  was  arrested  and  some  orchards  sacrificed. 
The  situation  was,  however,  radically  changed  in  1917  by  the  organ- 
ization of  the  peach-growers'  association  and  by  the  rapid  advance 
of  prices  under  such  control.  Still  as  the  prune  experienced  no 
such  set-back  planting  proceeded  and  the  relation  of  the  two  fruits 
in  1920  is  shown  in  Chapter  VI.  It  is,  however,  not  at  all  certain 
that  the  peach  will  not  regain  ascendancy  over  the  prune.  Still, 
although  the  peach  now  stands  below  the  prune  in  California  pro- 
duction, the  California  peach  still  has  national  leadership,  for  the 
report  of  peach  production  in  1918,  by  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Esti- 
mates of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  placed  the 
national  product  of  peaches  in  1919  at  29,461,000  bushels,  of  which 
California  produced  16,268,000  bushels— or  3,000,000  bushels  more 
than  all  other  states  combined. 

The  peach  was  the  first  fruit  to  ripen  on  the  improved  trees 
brought  here  by  the  early  American  settlers,  and  the  magnificence 
of  the  peach  was  consequently  the  key-note  of  the  refrain  which 
greeted  the  ears  of  the  world  in  which  the  California  gold  cry  was 
ringing  early  in  the  fifties.  In  fact,  the  gold  from  the  mine  and  the 
gold  from  the  tree  were  very  nearly  related.  In  old  Coloma,  where 
gold  was  discovered,  there  was  a  peach  tree  which  bore  four  hun- 
dred and  fifty  peaches  in  1854,  which  sold  for  $3.00  each,  or  $1,350 
for  the  crop  of  one  tree,  and  in  1855,  six  trees  bore  one  thousand 
one  hundred  peaches,  which  sold  for  $1.00  each.  Some  of  these 
pioneer  trees  are  said  to  be  still  living  and  bearing  fruit. 

LONGEVITY    OF   THE    PEACH    IN    CALIFORNIA 

There  are  many  other  facts  to  establish  the  claim  that  the  peach 
tree,  if  planted  in  a  suitable  soil  and  situation  and  cared  for  with 
any  devotion  and  skill,  is  not  a  short-lived  tree  in  California.  Cali- 


THE   PEACH   IN   CALIFORNIA  239 

fornia  is  too  young  to  mark  limits  of  duration,  but  there  are  in- 
stances in  the  earliest-settled  places  in  the  State,  where  peach  trees 
above  fifty  years  old  are  still  vigorous  and  productive.  Some  trees 
have,  in  fact,  gone  along  in  thrift  until  they  have  a  bark  below  which 
looks  like  that  of  a  forest  tree,  and  framework  of  main  branches 
sound  and  stalwart  throughout  because  they  have  never  been 
allowed  to  sunburn  until  protected  by  their  own  roughness,  and 
have  never  been  pruned  with  an  axe,  and  never  lost  a  limb  nor  had 
a  wound  into  which  decay  could  penetrate  and  descend  to  the  root. 
When  the  peach  has  a  fair  chance  in  its  aerial  parts  and  is  in  a  soil 
which  favors  health  of  the  roots,  it  shows  itself  to  be  very  long- 
lived  in  California.  When  trees  break  to  pieces  and  show  decay 
wounds,  they  are  in  bad  places,  and  have  suffered  through  natural 
stress  or  have  been  weakened  by  cultural  errors. 

Renewal  by  Cutting  Back. — In  favorable  soils  the  peach  is 
stronger  and  longer  lived  in  the  root  than  in  the  top,  and  some- 
times triumphs  over  neglect  by  discarding  old,  wind-broken,  sun- 
burned and  bark-bound  branches,  and  forms  a  new  head  of  its  own. 
Such  renewal  is  sometimes  very  rapid.  In  the  interior  valley  new 
shoots  on  a  cut-back  Muir  tree  have  grown  twelve  feet  in  one  sea- 
son, with  a  thickness  of  one  and  one-half  inches  at  the  base.  Such 
shoots  will  bear  the  following  summer  and  proper  selection  should 
be  made  from  them  to  shape  the  new  tree — all  others  being  removed. 
Cutting  back  for  a  new  head  kills  some  trees,  probably  those  which 
through  hardship  are  weak  in  the  root,  but  most  peach  trees  take 
to  it  kindly.  This  is  generally  done  by  heading  back  all  the  limbs 
to  a  foot  or  two  from  their  start  from  the  trunk  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  dormant  season  and  whitewashing  the  stumps  thoroughly. 
Some  growers  advocate  a  gradual  renewal,  cutting  back  one  main 
branch  a  year  so  that  the  loss  of  a  crop  may  not  occur.  Peach  trees 
are  also  cut  back  for  grafting  or  budding  over,  as  will  be  described 
presently. 

It  is  through  this  disposition  to  renewal  of  good  wood  that  the 
intelligent  system  of  pruning  which  is  now  prevalent,  ministers  to 
the  longevity  as  well  as  the  profitability  of  the  tree,  aiding  it  to 
constantly  renew  its  youth  by  restraining  its  exuberance,  and  at  the 
same  time  furnishing  it  sound  new  wood  on  which  to  grow  its  fruit 
foliage.  But  while  these  are  facts,  there  is  some  difference  in 
opinion  as  to  the  point  at  which  an  old  tree  becomes  less  valuable 
than  a  young  one.  Along  the  Sacramento  River  some  count  about 
a  dozen  good  crops  as  the  limit,  and  thus  replace  the  trees  when 
about  fifteen  years  of  age.  This  is  a  point  which  may  vary  greatly, 
according  to  local  conditions. 

Early  Productiveness. — Quite  as  important  as  the  longevity  of 
the  peach  tree  are  the  facts  of  its  rapid  growth  and  early  produc- 
tiveness. It  is  the  first  of  our  fruit  trees  to  attain  size  and  yield  a 
profitable  crop.  In  localities  best  suited  to  its  growth  it  will  mature 
some  fruit  the  second  summer  in  the  orchard  if  the  small  shoots  are 
not  pruned  away  from  the  main  branches,  and  during  the  third 
summer  averages  of  forty  to  fifty  pounds  per  tree  have  been  secured 


240 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


from  considerable  acreages.  These  facts  are  stated  to  show  what 
the  peach  of  good  variety  may  do  in  a  good  situation  and  soil  and 
with  the  best  of  care.  Of  course  they  are  not  to  be  taken  as  average 
results,  although  greater  than  those  given  are  sometimes  attained. 
For  example,  on  the  rich,  alluvial  land  near  Visalia,  an  Admiral 
Dewey  yearling  tree  planted  in  March,  1904,  had  in  October,  1905, 
attained  these  dimensions:  Near  the  ground  the  trunk  was  eleven 
and  three-quarter  inches  in  circumferences,  branching  two  feet  from 
the  ground  it  had  four  main  branches,  each  seven  inches  in  circum- 
ference; height  of  tree,  twelve  feet;  spread  of  branches,  ten  feet. 
It  grew  near  a  crack  in  a  cement  ditch  and  so  had  all  the  moisture 
it  could  use,  and  being  in  a  free,  open  soil  was  not  impaired  by 
standing  water. 

As  for  possible  productiveness  of  the  peach,  one  Susquehanna 
tree  in  Kern  County  yielded  twenty-seven  forty-five  pound  picking- 
boxes — twelve  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  in  one  crop — about  four 
times  as  much  as  good  trees  may  average. 

LOCALITIES    FOR    THE    PEACH 

The  peach  has  a  wide  range  in  California,  and  finds  many  dis- 
tricts suited  to  it  in  the  several  ways  in  which  the  trade  delights  in 
it.  As  compared  with  the  apricot,  the  peach  thrives  in  the  sheltered 
valleys  of  the  district  north  of  the  bay  and  west  of  the  Coast  Range, 
in  which  the  apricot  is  of  little  commercial  moment ;  it  yields  those 
peerlessly  beautiful  "mountain  peaches"  from  one  to  two  thousand 
feet  higher  in  the  Sierra  foothills  than  the  apricot  can  be  trusted ;  it 
goes  everywhere  in  the  lower  foothills  and  over  the  great  valleys 
that  the  apricot  will  go,  and  beyond  it  also,  because  it  is  less  restless 
in  the  spring  and  escapes  some  frosts  which  injure  apricots. 
Counted  from  trees  in  orchard  the  peach  is  about  three  times  as 
great  as  the  apricot. 

Nearly  every  county  in  California  reports  the  possession  of  peach 
trees.  Above  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  feet  on  the  sides  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  they  may  be  subject  to  winter  killing,  and  lower  still 
the  careful  choice  of  situation  has  to  be  made  to  avoid  frost  at 
blooming  time — the  peach  in  such  places  being  subjected  to  some 
dangers  which  beset  it  in  the  Eastern  States.  Below  these  points, 
however,  lies  the  great  fruit  belt  of  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra,  where 
the  peach  is  the  chief  fruit  grown  and  its  excellence  is  proverbial. 
Size,  beauty,  richness,  delicacy  of  flavor  and  firmness,  which  endures 
carriage  to  the  most  distant  markets,  are  all  characteristics  of  the 
foothill  peaches  of  California. 

In  the  great  interior  valleys  of  the  State  wherever  proper  con- 
dition of  soil  and  water  supply  can  be  found,  the  peach  also  thrives, 
the  tree  making  a  wonderfully  quick  and  large  growth,  and  the 
fruit  attaining  great  size.  The  San  Joaquin  Valley  is  the  greatest 
peach  district  in  the  State. 

In  the  small  valleys  on  the  west  of  the  great  valley  and  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Coast  Range,  there  are  also  extensive  areas 
suited  to  the  peach,  and  sheltered  places  on  the  eastern  and  western 


LOCATIONS  FOR  THE  PEACH  241 

edges  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  have  produced  the  earliest  fruit  for 
a  long  series  of  years.  Recently  the  contest  for  the  earliest  fruit 
of  these  districts,  with  the  foothill  district  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Sacramento  Valley  and  special  locations  in  the  upper  San  Joaquin 
Valley,  has  been  quite  close. 

In  the  coast  valleys,  opening  upon  San  Francisco  Bay  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  the  peach  is  also  a  leading  fruit.  Its  success  is  great- 
est, however,  where  good  shelter  is  had  from  direct  coast  influences. 
Even  where  open  to  these  influences,  good  peaches  can  be  grown  by 
choosing  the  smaller  range  of  varieties,  which  do  well  by  protecting 
the  trees  from  harsh  winds,  and  by  seeking  elevation  above  de- 
pressed valleys,  whose  frosts  are  frequent.  The  occurrence  of  curl- 
leaf  is  a  factor  of  much  importance,  which  will  be  considered  pres- 
ently. In  the  coast  counties  north  of  the  Russian  River  Valley  the 
danger  to  the  peach  from  unfavorable  atmospheric  conditions  in- 
crease as  one  goes  northward,  and  situations  must  be  chosen  with 
greater  care.  And  yet  by  such  exercise  of  care,  peaches  for  home 
use  and  local  markets  can  be  successfully  grown. 

South  of  San  Francisco  Bay  the  coast  influences  soften  as  you 
proceed  southward,  and  the  peach  draws  nearer  to  the  ocean,  choos- 
ing, however,  elevations  and  avoiding  broad,  wind-swept  areas  and 
narrow  defiles  where  drafts  and  fogs  are  frequent.  At  considerable 
elevations,  as  on  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains,  some  varieties  of 
peaches  are  notably  excellent.  The  general  rule  holds  with  the  peach, 
as  with  other  fruits,  that  coast  influences  retard  ripening  and  the* 
season  of  the  fruit  is  late. 

In  some  valleys  and  at  elevations  in  Southern  California  the 
peach  is  largely  grown  and  high  excellence  attained  while  on  the 
mesas  and  plains  there  is  often  too  high  a  temperature  which  starts 
growth  out  of  season  and  follows  with  a  dormacy  and  die-back  when 
the  tree  ought  to  be  most  active.  It  has  recently  been  demon- 
strated that  varieties  like  Luken's  Honey,  descended  from  the  Peen- 
to  or  flat  peach  of  China,  resists  such  irregularities  better  than  the 
common  sorts  which  are  largely  of  Persian  origin. 

SOILS  AND  EXPOSURES  FOR  THE  PEACH 

Though  the  suitability  of  soils  for  the  peach  can  be  somewhat 
extended  by  the  choice  of  stock  for  budding  upon,  as  will  be  con- 
sidered presently,  its  range  of  soils  is  narrower  than  that  of  the 
apricot.  The  best  peach  soils  are  light,  deep,  sandy  loams,  rather 
dry  than  moist,  but  under  all  circumstances  well  drained.  It  will 
thrive  on  land  with  a  considerable  mixture  of  coarse  sand  or  gravel, 
providing  it  contains  also  needed  elements  of  fertility ;  for  the  rapid 
growth  and  heavy  fruitage  of  the  peach  requires  abundant  nutrition. 
Though  it  accepts  coarse  materials  both  in  soil  and  subsoil,  it 
relishes  fine  sediment  and  perhaps  finds  no  more  congenial  location 
than  in  the  deep,  sandy  loam,  or  sedimentary  deposit  bordering  the 
creek  beds  of  our  warm  valleys,  and  will  send  its  roots  deep  to 
secure  long  life  and  abundant  fruitage.  Such  soils,  whether  along 


242  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

existing  streams  or  deposited  by  prehistoric  water  courses,  which 
have  left  their  mark  by  the  elevated  ridges  of  rich  sediment  above 
the  prevailing  valley  soils,  are  warm,  deep,  and  thoroughly  drained, 
and  delight  the  peach.  Peaches  are  grown  very  successfully  on 
what  is  called  hardpan  in  some  parts  of  Fresno  County,  providing 
the  hardpan  is  blasted  as  described  in  Chapter  XL  In  these  situa- 
tions the  hardpan  is  near  the  surface  and  has  a  deep  free  soil  below 
it  into  which  the  roots  can  extend. 

At  elevations  on  the  hillsides  there  are  free  loams  which  result 
from  decomposition  of  the  underlying  rocks,  and  on  them  the  peach 
thrives,  both  where  the  soils  themselves  are  deep  and  where  the 
underlying  rock  is  loose  and  open,  permeable  by  roots  and  affording 
escape  for  water.  Success  has  been  reported  even  when  holes  are 
partly  excavated  in  these  rotten  rocks  as  in  the  soft  sand  rock  on 
the  hills  east  of  Vaca  Valley,  or  in  the  broken  chalk  rock  in  what 
is  called  Blackburn  Gulch,  near  Santa  Cruz.  The  superior  warmth 
of  such  soils  is  supposed  to  minister  to  earlier  ripening  of  the  fruit, 
though  the  escape  from  cold  air  by  elevation  is  no  doubt  a  greater 
factor  to  the  end. 

The  influences  of  comparatively  slight  difference  in  elevation  is 
very  marked.  E.  R.  Thurbar,  of  Pleasant  Valley,  Solano  County, 
had  for  many  years  a  plot  of  peach  trees  on  a  natural  terrace  about 
seventy-five  feet  higher  than  the  general  level  of  his  orchard.  On 
the  terrace  peaches  ripened  and  were  disposed  of  before  the  same 
varieties  ripened  in  the  orchard  below. 

As  in  the  valley  a  short  distance  to  water  is  to  be  avoided,  so  on 
the  hills  too  great  percolation  from  higher  levels  is  undesirable.  Of 
course,  natural  defects  of  this  kind  can  be  corrected  by  adequate 
under-drainage. 

Still,  though  such  be  the  general  soil  conditions  best  suited  to  the 
peach,  the  tree  can  be  well  grown  for  home  use  or  local  markets  on 
somewhat  heavier  soil,  providing  there  is  good  drainage,  but  drain- 
age must  be  insisted  upon,  for  thousands  of  trees  have  perished 
because  planted  in  retentive  soils  without  drainage.  Alkaline  soils 
which  are  usually  rather  heavy  should,  however,  be  avoided,  as  the 
peach,  when  grown  on  its  own  roots,  seems  to  be  of  all  fruits  most 
sensitive  to  alkali. 

As  to  exposures  for  the  peach  the  same  rules  hold  as  for  other 
fruits  which  are  liable  to  injury  when  in  bloom  or  young  foliage. 
Thus  low  places  where  cold  air  settles  should  be  avoided,  also  low 
gulches  through  which  cold  drafts  prevail.  In  frosty  situations  an 
incline  away  from  the  morning  sun  will  often  allow  the  trees  to 
escape  serious  injury. 

PROPAGATION  AND  PLANTING 

Nine-tenths  of  California  peach  trees  are  grown  on  peach  roots. 
The  chapter  on  propagation  gives  the  general  method  of  growing 
and  budding  peach  seedlings.  In  selecting  pits,  preference  is  usually 
given  to  those  from  strong-growing,  yellow  peaches,  at  least  for 


PROPAGATION   OF  THE  PEACH  243 

working  on  the  same  colored  fruits,  while  others  use  pits  of  the 
Morris  White,  others  the  Strawberry,  and  others  still  will  use  only 
pits  from  vigorous  seedling  trees.  In  this  State  the  peach  is  usually 
so  healthy  and  vigorous,  and  the  "yollows"  not  known,  that  less 
care  may  be  needed  in  selecting  pits ;  still  there  is  certainly  nothing 
lost  by  making  every  effort  for  a  good  stock. 

The  hand-shell  and  sweet  almonds  have  long  been  used  as  a  stock 
for  the  peach.  It  is  held  that  they  give  a  hardier,  stronger  root,  in 
dry  coarse  soils  especially,  but  neither  have  been  largely  used. 

When  it  is  desired  to  grow  the  peach  on  moister  soil  than  suits 
its  own  roots,  the  St.  Julian  plum  may  be  used.  The  Myrobalan 
has  been  used  to  some  extent,  but  experience  generally  does  not 
favor  any  plum  stock  for  the  peach  and  our  largest  propagators 
have  abandoned  its  use. 

The  so-called  "peach-almond"  has  often  been  urged  as  a  stock 
for  the  peach  but  has  been  little  used,  as  nurserymen  claim  that  the 
growth  of  its  seedlings  are  less  uniform  and  satisfactory  than  the 
straight  peach  and  straight  almond.  It  is  a  fruit  having  the  pit  of  a 
peach  but  the  perricarp  of  the  almond,  that  is  tough  and  tasteless 
and  disposed  to  split  like  an  almond  hull.  Early  in  the  fifties  a 
chance  hybrid  of  this  sort  appeared  in  the  nursery  of  W.  B.  West, 
of  Stockton,  and  its  pits  were  used  for  nursery  seedlings  which, 
when  budded  to  the  peach,  produced  good  trees.  Trees  bearing  the 
peach-almond  are  found  here  and  there  all  over  the  State.  Mr. 
Burbank  produced  a  hybrid  of  the  Wager  peach  and  the  Languedoc 
almond. 

Distance  in  Orchard. — Distance  observed  in  planting  peach 
orchards  differs  greatly,  according  to  the  views  of  different  growers. 
Regarding  the  peach  as  a  catch  crop  to  plant  between  apricot,  pear, 
cherry,  walnut,  fig  or  other  slow-growing,  larger  trees,  the  trees 
may  be  set  comparatively  close ;  that  is,  with  the  latter  trees  at 
thirty  to  forty  feet,  and  alternate  rows  of  peach  to  be  removed  at 
the  end  of  ten  to  fifteen  years.  If  the  peach  is  to  have  the  ground 
to  itself,  some  planters  plant  at  eighteen  feet  in  equilateral  tri- 
angles, or  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  on  the  squares,  the  present 
tendency  of  the  peach,  as  with  other  trees,  being  to  give  more  room 
than  was  the  custom  a  few  years  ago. 

Age  of  Trees. — In  planting  peach  orchards  yearling  trees  are 
generally  preferred,  though  June  buds  are  freely  used  and  more  are 
planted  in  dormant  bud  than  of  any  other  kind  of  fruit  trees.  The 
reason  for  this  is  easily  found  in  the  disposition  of  the  peach  to 
make  a  tree  the  first  year  from  the  bud.  It  springs  almost  at  once 
into  a  full  outfit  of  laterals.  Some  growers  employ  this  disposition 
to  form  a  head  the  first  year  in  the  nursery.  When  the  bud  has 
grown  out  eighteen  inches,  pinch  it  off  at  the  top  and  force  out  lat- 
erals, which  make  long  growth  the  same  season.  When  planted  out 
in  orchard  the  following  winter,  cut  back  to  ten  or  twelve  inches. 
In  this  way  anyone  can  get  a  yearling  with  the  equivalent  of  a  two- 
year-old  head  on  it.  The  common  practice  is,  however,  to  let  the 


244 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


growth  from  the  bud  proceed  as  it  chooses,  and  when  the  yearling 
is  set  in  orchard,  cut  back  to  a  single  bud  the  laterals  which  are  de- 
sired to  form  the  head  and  removing  others.  If  there  is  a  dormant 
bud  on  the  stem  where  a  branch  is  desired  and  it  is  obstinate  in  not 
starting,  a  cross-cut  through  the  bark  just  above  it  may  concentrate 
pressure  and  force  it  out.  Proper  starting  of  the  young  tree  is  pro- 
moted by  cutting  away  cleanly  all  laterals  which  have  grown  from 
stem-buds.  In  such  cutting  back  the  dormant  buds  at  the  base  of 
such  laterals  should  be  preserved.  The  development  of  form  from 
a  yearling  branched  in  the  nursery  is  illustrated  in  Chapter  XII. 

Planting  Dormant  Buds. — The  chapter  on  planting  describes  the 
planting  of  yearling  trees.  The  lifting  of  dormant  buds  from  the 
home  nursery  and  planting  in  orchard  is  described  by  P.  W.  Butler, 
of  Placer  County,  as  follows : 

Have  the  ground  prepared  and  stakes  placed  in  position  in  the  orchard 
in  early  February,  if  possible,  and  begin  the  planting  at  once,  while  the 
trees  are  in  dormant  bud.  Take  no  more  trees  from  the  nursery  than  can 
be  planted  in  half  a  day.  Plow  a  furrow  on  each  side  of  the  row,  six  inches 
from  the  trees,  turning  the  soil  from  them,  then  two  men  with  heavy  spades 
or  shovels,  one  on  each  side  of  the  tree,  can  readily  take  it  up  without 
breaking  many  of  the  roots;  and  what  are  so  broken  should  be  smoothly 
trimmed  with  a  sharp  knife.  Place  the  trees  in  a  tub  of  water,  near  where 
they  are  to  be  planted,  and  take  them  from  it  only  a  few  at  a  time.  Put 
them  in  a  basket  or  box  and  cover  with  wet  sack,  that  they  may  be  kept 
moist  until-  placed  in  the  ground. 

On  planting  place  the  bud  one  inch  below  the  level  of  the  ground,  but 
do  not  cover  it  until  after  it  has  grown  to  the  height  of  a  few  inches.  The 
stock  should  be  cut  off  at  the  bud  with  a  thin,  sharp  knife  (and  not  with 
shears,  as  is  often  done,  as  the  latter  method  will  sometimes  split  the 
tree),  when  it  will  take  in  moisture  and  not  heal  readily. 

Some  growers  do  not  cut  back  the  young  seedling  tree  until 
growth  has  started  out  well  on  the  dormant  bud,  girdling  the  bark 
above  the  bud  to  force  its  growth.  The  tender  shoot  is  protected 
somewhat  by  the  old  stem  to  which  it  can  be  tied.  The  removal  of 
the  old  stem  should  not  be  too  long  delayed,  for  the  wound  by  its 
amputation  should  heal  over  the  first  summer. 

Rather  more  care  is  needed  in  handling  dormant  buds  both  in 
planting  and  in  their  young  life  in  the  orchard.  Lookout  must  be 
kept  for  suckers  and  against  injury  in  cultivation.  Success  with 
dormant  buds  is  notable.  In  good  hands  they  commonly  outgrow 
yearlings  planted  at  the  same  time,  and  the  percentage  of  loss  from 
failure  of  the  bud  to  start  is  very  small.  Of  course,  every  bud 
should  be  examined  before  planting,  to  see  that  it  has  a  healthy 
color. 

In  the  selection  of  peach  trees  for  planting,  a  clean,  healthy  root 
only  should  be  taken.  During  recent  years  there  have  been  a  good 
many  young  roots  affected  with  knots  or  swellings  from  some  ob- 
scure cause.  Such  trees  should  be  burned.  If  planted,  the  knot 
sometimes  grows  to  an  enormous  size  and  little  or  no  top  growth  is 
made. 


SHAPING  THE  PEACH  TREE  245 

PRUNING  THE  PEACH 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  peach  will  carry  a  top  of  great 
fruiting  longevity  if  the  grower  will  do  justice  to  the  tree  by  regu- 
lar shortening  of  the  growth  and  forcing  out  new  wood,  upon  which 
alone  fruit  is  found.  Not  only  does  regular  pruning  do  this,  but  it 
promotes  longevity  and  vigor  in  the  framework  of  the  tree  upon 
which  these  bearing  shoots  come.  Left  unpruned,  the  peach  soon 
becomes  bark-bound,  and  the  bark  itself  becomes  hardened  and 
brittle.  Lower  shoots  are  apt  to  dwindle,  and  the  tree  becomes  an 
umbrella  of  foliage  and  fruit  held  aloft  by  bare  branches  bark- 
burned  by  the  sun,  invaded  by  borers,  exuding  gum,  covered  with 
moss  and  lichens — a  picture  of  distress  and  unprofitability  because 
its  owner  does  not  give  the  tree  a  chance  to  re-invigorate  itself  with 
large  fresh  leaves  from  the  new  wood  which  alone  can  carry  them. 

Vase-Form  with  Continuous  Leaders. — The  common  vase  form 
of  the  peach  tree  is  amply  described  in  Capter  XII,  where  it  is 
used  to  illustrate  the  development  of  the  prevailing  California 
method  of  shaping  fruit  trees.  Recently  there  has  appeared  a  dif- 
ferent form  which,  though  not  new,  is  being  given  local  names.  It 
consists  in  building  the  tree  with  continuous  ribs  or  leaders,  a  va- 
riation in  the  vase-form  which  has  been  used  in  Europe  for  centu- 
ries, perhaps.  The  following  very  clear  account  of  it  is  prepared  by 
Mr.  C.  F.  Collins,  horticultural  commissioner  of  Tulare  County : 

Another  method  of  vase  form,  known  locally  as  the  Sims  method,  has 
been  practiced  for  many  years  by  William  Sims,  of  Farmerville,  and  is 
now  practiced  by  the  California  Fruit  Canners'  Association  in  its  large  or- 
chard near  here,  by  Hunt  Bros,  in  their  orchards  near  Exeter,  and  by 
many  individual  growers  in  that  vicinity.  The  trees  are  cut  back  to  18 
inches  at  planting,  and  at  the  first  winter's  pruning  four  or  five  of  the  most 
upright-growing  branches  are  left  to  form  the  head.  These  are  cut  to  a 
uniform  height  and  as  great  a  length  as  the  season's  growth  will  allow. 
On  a  vigorous  tree  this  will  be  about  6  feet.  All  laterals  are  removed 
from  these. 

The  second  winter  retain  one  strong  upright  branch  emerging  from 
near  the  end  of  each  branch  of  previous  season's  growth,  and  remove  all 
laterals  from  the  tree  larger  than  a  lead  pencil.  Top  these  main  branches 
at  a  uniform  height  of  10  or  12  feet  from  the  ground,  according  to  the 
growth  made.  Sometimes  a  lateral  is  allowed  to  grow  from  one  of  these 
main  limbs  to  fill  in  an  open  space  in  the  outline  of  the  tree.  At  the  end 
of  the  second  winter's  pruning,  we  have  a  low-headed  tree  with  four  or  five 
main  branches  10  or  12  feet  long,  and  so  upright  that  the  tree  is  only  6  or 
7  feet  across  the  top.  Enough  small  laterals  are  left  for  abundant  shade. 
After  this  each  season  remove  all  large  laterals,  leaving  only  the  small 
fruiting  wood,  and  cut  this  back  to  the  required  amount. 

Some  of  the  claims  made  for  this  system  are  that  no  propping  is  re- 
quired to  support  the  limbs,  and  as  these  are  so  nearly  perpendicular  in 
growth  the  orchard  is  more  easily  worked  close  to  the  trees  and  the  trees 
are  more  easily  kept  down  to  a  proper  height  than  when  pruned  by  the 
ordinary  method.  This  system  certainly  works  admirably  in  the  sections 
where  it  is  used,  and  in  my  opinion,  on  true  peach  soil,  where  the  trees 
are  vigorous  and  grow  large,  strong  limbs,  it  is  far  superior  to  the  old 
vase  form,  but  it  is  a  question  if  it  would  prove  as  satisfactory  in  many  of 
our  orchards  where  the  trees  make  a  more  feeble  growth,  and  especially 
with  a  tree  of  as  slender  a  growth  as  the  Muir.  Of  course,  with  a  less 
vigorous  tree  it  might  require  three  or  even  four  years  to  get  the  tree  to 
a  proper  height  by  this  method. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Special  Points  on  Peach  Pruning.— Whatever  plan  for  low,  vase- 
form  be  adopted,  there  are  variations  in  the  use  of  it  by  successful 
peach  growers  in  various  parts  of  the  State.  A  few  instances  will 
be  given : 

In  pruning  the  peach  I  have  found  it  a  great  advantage  not  to  cut  the 
new  wood  until  after  it  has  done  its  work.  This  is  my  method:  A  new 
shoot  grows  out  to  three  feet  this  year.  Don't  cut  it  back  next  winter;  but 
let  it  grow.  There  will  be  a  few  peaches  on  it  and  a  great  many  strong 
buds  will  develop  to  set  and  mature  a  crop  the  following  year.  After  that 
crop  is  off,  cut  the  whole  shoot  back  to  the  main  branch.  Other  buds 
will  grow  from  about  the  same  place  and  below  it  on  the  big  limbs  to  go 
through  the  same  cycle.  While  this  shoot  is  bearing  its  heavy  crop,  others 
will  be  growing  and  setting  fruit  buds  for  the  year  when  the  first  men- 
tioned one  has  been  cut  off. 

When  you  cut  off  a  new  shoot  several  others  start  next  season  near  the 
cut,  and  draw  all  the  sap  from  the  buds  below.  They  are  stunted  and 
probably  killed.  The  several  new  shoots  use  a  lot  of  sap  that  ought  to  go 
to  fruit,  for  it  is  well  known  that  the  cutting  back  stimulates  undue  wood 
growth.  You  will  have  your  trouble  of  cutting  back  year  after  year;  and 
as  time  goes  on,  you  build  the  tree  higher  and  higher  out  of  the  reach  of 
fruit  pickers.  By  my  method  after  a  tree  is  large  as  convenient  to  prune 
and  pick  from,  the  fruit  is  forced  out  all  along  the  limbs  where  it  can  be 
most  securely  held  up  and  most  thoroughly  nourished.  The  tree  does  not 
grow  appreciably  higher,  there  is  very  little  waste  wood  growth,  for  the 
shoots  unpruned  grow  only  a  very  few  inches  and  that  few  inches  is  good 
for  the  production  of  necessary  leaves.  If  the  tree  seems  too  prolific,  take 
out  more  wood — always  at  its  junction  with  the  limb  from  which  it 
springs.  The  tree  is  kept  open  enough  always  to  supply  light  to  the  inner 
fruit  spurs,  but  enough  new  wood  is  left  to  protect  it  from  sunburn.  New 
spurs  are  constantly  growing  among  the  bearing  ones,  so  that  the  old 
limbs  continue  to  bear.  Should  the  new  spurs  get  a  little  too  thin,  or  the 
tree  seem  to  need  more  leaves,  a  few  shoots  may  be  cut  back  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  providing  new  wood. — Ed.  Ames,  Newcastle. 

Unless  the  growth  is  systematically  cut  back  it  will  be  spindly  and  will 
not  come  low  down  on  the  limbs  which  could  hold  the  weight  of  fruit  de- 
sired. Without  proper  cutting  back,  the  new  growth  will  come  from  the 
terminals  of  last  season's  growth  and  on  ordinary  soil  will  be  short,  weak, 
and  spindly,  and  the  following  year  will  produce  little  fruit.  If  such  a 
tree  is  on  low,  moist  soil,  the  growth  from  terminals  will  be  longer  and 
will  set  more  fruit,  but  will  be  so  spindly  that  it  cannot  hold  up  or  mature 
the  crop  it  sets.  Cutting  back  the  new  growth  stiffens  it  and  the  limb  it 
comes  from.  After  a  tree  is  mature,  the  wood  which  bore  fruit  last  year 
should  be  removed  so  far  as  practicable;  and  where  new  growth  is  too 
thick  it  should  be  thinned.  This,  with  the  cutting  back  of  new  wood,  will 
force  new  growth  throughout  the  tree. 

In  the  cutting  back,  the  habit  of  the  variety  in  locating  fruit  buds  must 
be  observed.  With  Elbertas  and  Muirs  fruit  buds  are  made  near  the  junc- 
tions with  larger  branches,  so  cutting  back  of  fruit  laterals  only  is  neces- 
sary, and  they  may  be  cut  pretty  short,  especially  far  out  on  a  branch. 
With  Lovells  the  branch  itself  may  perfectly  be  cut  back,  leaving  fewer 
laterals  and  these  considerably  longer,  because  their  fruit  buds  are  scarce 
near  the  junctions.— C.  B.  Weeks,  Red  Bluff. 

The  peach  is  renewed  every  year  by  cutting  into  the  older  wood  so  that 
there  will  be  ample  growth  of  yx>ung  shoots  which  bear  the  coming  crop, 
and  this  cutting  is  more  severe  after  the  tree  has  reached  maturity,  in 
order  to  get  the  desired  result.  The  tree  should  not  be  allowed  to  become 
too  large  or  straggling  but  should  be  pruned  so  that  young  growth  is 
always  plentiful  from  the  bottom  up.  While  growth  is  very  vigorous  a 
summer  thinning  of  surplus  inside  growth  is  beneficial.— Leonard  Coates, 
Morgan  Hill. 


HOW  TO  GET  LARGE  PEACHES  247 

Spur  Pruning  Peaches. — Peach  varieties  vary  in  their  tendency 
to  set  fruit  buds  close  to  the  base  of  new  growth.  On  this  charac- 
teristic depends  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  severity  of  pruning 
back  new  growth.  F.  C.  Dyer,  of  Ontario,  has  spur-bearing  Lemon 
clings,  looking  almost  as  rough  as  pear  trees.  They  bear  fruit  buds 
to  the  very  base  of  the  new  growth.  If  the  trees  are  old,  not  over  a 
few  inches  of  growth  are  added  to  the  spurs  each  year  beyond  the 
fruits,  though  two  or  three  feet  of  last  season's  growth  are  cut  out 
of  the  tops.  This  lack  of  vegetative  vigor  makes  it  desirable  to 
shorten  back  the  spurs  to  not  over  three  fruit  buds,  since  only  one 
fruit  is  desired  per  spur  and  since  such  winter  pruning  on  such  old 
trees  does  not  induce  too  vigorous  wood  growth.  This  is  somewhat 
true  of  the  down-turning  branches  of  most  any  variety.  All  the 
fruit  wood  possible  is  developed  and  saved  along  the  main  limbs. 
If  spurs  are  too  thick,  they  are  thinned  out  to  prevent  shading  the 
rest.  Practically  all  of  the  new  top  growth  was  cut  off  from  the 
Lemon  clings.  Lovells  can  be  pruned  back  to  spurs  almost  as  short, 
Muirs  a  little  longer,  while  Tuscans  bear  fruit  buds  only  close  to 
the  tips  which  must  be  left  on,  or  the  branches  thinned  out.  The 
bearing  habits  of  varieties  must  be  observed  by  the  grower. 


THINNING  PEACHES 

Thinning  out  fruit  on  the  peach  tree  is  not  only  the  secret  of  ob- 
taining good,  marketable  fruit,  but  joins  hands  with  pruning  in  pre- 
serving the  health  and  future  production  of  the  tree.  The  import- 
ance of  thinning  has  been  urged  in  a  previous  chapter,  but  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  very  strong  statement,  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Cane,  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Peach  Growers — the  co-operative  association  of  the  produc- 
ers of  the  fruit : 

The  weight  of  fruit  will  be  approximately  the  same  whether  the  tree  is 
thinned  severely,  lightly  or  not  at  all,  but  the  great  advantage  in  thinning 
properly  is  the  greatly  increased  size  of  the  fruit,  the  larger  sugar  content 
and  the  minimum  expense  of  harvesting  and  curing.  The  cost  of  thinning 
is  overcome  at  picking  time  when  in  handling  one  large  peach  the  pickers 
get  the  same  weight  as  if  they  had  handled  four  small  ones.  There  is  a 
similar  gain  in  time  required  to  cut  a  ton  onto  the  trays.  Our  records 
show  that  the  weight  of  one  extra  fancy  dried  Muir  is  equal  to  three  and 
three-quarters  standard  grade  Muirs. 

Since  size  and  quality  are  so  important  in  dried  peaches,  everything 
possible  should  be  done  to  increase  the  diameter  of  the  fruit.  Perhaps  the 
ideal  distance  of  peaches  when  properly  thinned  should  be  about  two  and 
one-half  times  their  diameter  when  matured.  This  would  mean  that  the 
peaches  should  be  six  to  eight  inches  apart  when  thinning  is  complete. 
In  thinning,  see  that  the  undersized  specimens,  which  are  certain  to  fall 
later,  are  removed,  or  at  least  allowed  for,  in  spacing  those  that  are  to 
remain. 

The  time  for  thinning  peaches  is  as  soon  as  one  can  be  sure  which 
are  likely  to  remain  on  the  tree  and  which  will  drop  off  of  their 
own  accord.  Nothing  can  be  gained  by  trying  to  separate  doubles. 
Remove  them  if  there  are  enough  singles  to  make  the  crop. 


248 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

IRRIGATION  OF  THE  PEACH 


As  the  peach  is  the  greatest  deciduous  fruit  of  the  interior  val- 
leys and  foothills,  it  is  also  the  deciduous  fruit  which  is  chiefly 
grown  with  irrigation.  Most  of  the  specific  conclusions  set  forth  in 
Chapter  XV  are  based  upon  experience  with  the  peach  and  the 
reader  is  advised  to  consider  them  from  that  point  o{  view.  One  of 
the  most  important  points  of  success  in  irrigating  the  peach  is  to  use 
enough  water  earlier  in  its  growth  so  that  application  need  not  be 
made  within  about  three  weeks  of  ripening.  Enough  water  before 
that  will  usually  insure  size  on  properly  thinned  trees  and  the  with- 
holding of  water  near  ripening  will  secure  good  quality.  After  the 
crop  is  gathered,  irrigation  can  be  resumed  to  continue  the  late 
summer  growth  for  next  year's  fruit  buds  and  to  save  the  tree  from 
injury  during  the  long  autumn  drouth.  Very  great  disappointment 
in  thrift  and  bearing  of  peaches  has  resulted  from  lack  of  irriga- 
tion in  the  early  autumn  in  the  interior  valley.  Even  in  places 
where  the  trees  make  a  good  crop  by  rainfall  or  underflow,  there 
may  be  great  injury  to  the  tree  by  inadequate  soil  moisture  during 
the  remainder  of  the  growing  season. 

There  is  some  variation  in  practice  of  irrigation  in  relation  to 
maturity  of  the  peach.  It  is  held  that  peaches  for  drying  should  not 
be  irrigated  during  the  last  three  or  four  weeks  before  maturity — if 
possible  to  get  size  without  it.  Peaches  for  shipping  and  canning 
may  be  irrigated  later,  say  two  or  even  one  week  before  picking. 
Cling  peaches  will  take  water  late  more  safely  than  freestones. 

WORKING  OVER  PEACH  TREES 

The  fashion  in  peaches  changes  from  time  to  time  according  to 
the  demands  of  the  canners  or  the  market  for  dried  fruit.  The 
grower  often  finds  varieties  which  he  first  selected,  less  healthy,  less 
productive,  or,  for  other  reasons,  less  desirable  than  others.  There 
is,  therefore,  often  occasion  for  working  over  trees.  Budding  is 
often  resorted  to,  buds  being  successfully  set  in  quite  old  wood, 
providing  buds  from  well-matured  wood  are  taken.  Wood  buds 
from  young  trees  unaccompanied  by  fruit  are  best,  but  because  of 
•greater  certainty  of  securing  the  variety  desired,  it  is  common  to 
take  wood  and  fruit  buds  together  from  bearing  trees.  A  larger  cut 
of  bud  and  adjacent  bark  is  taken  when  working  in  old  bark  than 
for  use  on  seedlings.  The  best  time  to  bud  peaches  in  the  old  bark 
is  as  early  in  the  summer  as  well  plumped  buds  can  be  had  on  the 
new  growth,  and  this  can  be  hastened  by  pinching  the  tips  of  the 
shoots  which  it  is  desired  to  take  buds  from.  Such  .buds  should  be 
forced  to  grow  by  cross  cuts  in  the  stock  above  the  buds  or  by 
breaking  down  part  of  it  when  the  bud  is  seen  to  have  "taken"— 
cutting  away  cleanly  when  the  bud  has  made  a  few  inches  of  growth. 
Some  growers  thus  bud  and  break  part  of  the  branches,  allowing 
others  to  remain  unworked,  to  maintain  the  growing  processes  of 
the  tree.  These  branches  and  those  in  which  buds  have  not  taken, 
are  cut  off  and  grafted  the  following  spring.  The  almond  is  sucess- 


DISEASES   OF  THE   PEACH  249 

fully  grafted  over  the  peach,  and  this  course  has  been  followed  with 
thousands  of  unproductive  almonds. 

Peach  and  almond  trees  are  also  worked  over  by  beheading  the 
trees  at  the  close  of  the  dormant  season  and  budding  into  the  new 
shoots  late  in  the  summer — allowing  the  buds  to  remain  dormant 
until  the  following  spring,  when  the  buds  are  started  by  cutting 
back  to  them  as  in  the  case  of  budded  seedlings.  As  this  wastes  a 
year,  budding  in  old  bark  for  immediate  growth  is  usually  pre- 
ferred. 

Grafting  the  Peach. — Grafting  the  peach  by  the  ordinary  top- 
grafting  with  a  cleft  graft  seldom  succeeds.  A  side  graft  with  saw 
and  knife  is  better.  It  is  described  by  J.  W.  Mills,  an  experienced 
peach  grower  of  Yuba  County,  as  follows : 

Saw  grafting  is  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  cleft  grafting,  for  it  does 
away  with  all  difficulties  arising  from  splitting,  and  there  is  no  cavity  left 
in  the  heart  of  the  limb  or  tree.  The  process  is  to  saw  off  the  limb  at  the 
desired  place  as  in  cleft  grafting,  then  saw  across  the  corner  and  down 
the  side  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  and  trim  out  with  a  sharp  knife. 
Place  the  knife  blade  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  saw  cut,  a  little  farther 
from  the  edge  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and  by  pressing  on  the  knife 
the  whole  sides  of  the  crevice  will  be  trimmed  smoothly  at  one  stroke;  this 
operation  repeated  on  the  other  side  of  the  saw  cut  will  make  a  neat  notch 
in  the  end  of  a  solid  limb.  By  cutting  a  little  deeper  from  the  saw  cut  at 
the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and  if  the  amateur  does  not  trim  his  scion  at 
the  right  angle,  he  can  insert  it  gently  in  the  crevice  or  notch  and  see  just 
where  to  trim.  If  he  is  so  slow  that  the  fresh  cut  shows  signs  of  discol- 
oration, he  can  make  a  fresh  surface  by  placing  the  knife  parallel  to  the 
edges  and  shaving  off  a  thin  slice.  He  still  retains  the  same  angle,  but 
the  scion  will  set  a  little  deeper,  which  is  no  objection.  By  cutting  a  thin 
layer  off  the  top  of  the  stump  next  to  the  notch  will  show  exactly  where 
the  inside  layer  of  the  bark  is.  The  inside  of  the  scion  must  be  even 
with  the  inside  layer  of  the  bark  of  the  stump  or  limb  that  is  being 
grafted.  If  the  scion  is  inclined  slightly  out  or  in  at  the  top,  it  will  make 
a  correct  union  at  some  point  and  be  sure  to  grow.  If  the  inclination  is 
very  slight  the  union  will  extend  over  considerable  length,  and  will  make  a 
much  better  start  than  if  the  union  is  at  only  one  point,  owing  to  the  en- 
larged surface  through  which  the  sap  is  transmitted.  One  of  the  most 
important  points  in  grafting  is  to  have  good  wax  and  go  over  the  grafts 
a  few  days  after  they  are  put  in  and  rewax  them. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PEACH 

4 

Curl-Leaf. — The  most  prevalent  trouble  with  the  peach  tree  in 
California  is  the  curl-leaf.  It  was  noticed  from  the  first  planting 
of  peach  trees  by  Americans,  nearly  sixty  years  ago,  and  free  con- 
jecture as  to  its  cause  was  indulged  in  until  it  was  shown  to  be  a 
specific  fungus,  and  its  prevention  by  washes  of  fungicidal  charac- 
ter demonstrated.  The  treatment  will  be  described  in  the  chapter 
on  tree  diseases.  The  facts  of  its  occurrence  may  be  stated  as  fol- 
lows: 

Curl-leaf  is  much  more  prevalent  in  some  sections  than  others, 
and  in  one  place  than  another  in  the  same  section,  and  some  sections 
are  practically  free  from  it.  Some  varieties  are  much  more  subject 
to  curl-leaf  than  others ;  genarrly  speaking,  some  curl  nearly  every- 


250 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


where,  others  curl  in  one  place  and  not  in  another,  others  are  prac- 
tically* free  from  curl  in  all  situations. 

Curl-leaf  occurs  in  various  degrees.  Mild  cases  do  not  seem  to 
injure  either  tree  or  fruit;  severe  cases  destroy  the  fruit  and  some- 
times the  tree  itself.  The  disease  is  almost  always  at  its  height 
when  the  young  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  small  peas.  If  the  curl  is 
"bad,"  the  fruit  will  fall  to  the  ground,  there  not  being  healthy 
leaves  enough  to  afford  the  required  support.  If,  however,  the 
curl  is  moderate  and  partial,  only  a  part  and  sometimes  none  of  the 
fruit  will  be  lost.  The  disease,  as  is  well  known,  is  of  brief  duration, 
say  twelve  to  twenty  days,  after  which  the  tree  resumes  a  healthy 
appearance  in  every  respect,  and  if  the  fruit  has  been  able  to  sur- 
vive the  ordeal,  it  also  appears  to  grow  and  become  as  perfect  as  if 
no  check  had  been  given  to  its  growth.  But  it  is  better  to  save  the 
tree  the  burden  of  a  new  foliage  growth. 

Mildew. — This  disease,  which  occurs  in  the  form  of  whitish 
felted  patches  on  leaf  and  twig  early  in  the  spring,  and  finally  af- 
fects the  fruit,  has  long  been  troublesome  in  this  State,  and  occurs 
on  certain  susceptible  varieties  in  many  localities  from  the  coast  to 
the  Sierra  foothills.  Observation  in  this  State  has  fully  affirmed 
the  statement  of  Downing,  that  the  serrate,  glandless-leaved  varie- 
ties are  liable,  and  those  with  good  glands  on  the  leaf  stems  are  free. 

The  conclusion  would  be  that  where  mildew  prevails,  varieties 
with  serrate,  glandless  leaves  should  be  avoided.  But  it  has  been 
found  that  some  glandless-leaved  varieties,  although  subject  to  mil- 
dew, resist  curl-leaf.  Therefore  it  may  be  worth  while  to  combat 
the  mildew.  This  has  been  done  effectually  by  treatment  which  will 
be  described  in  a  later  chapter. 

As  with  curl-leaf,  mildew  is  prevalent  some  years  and  slight  in 
others. 

Peach  Blight. — The  most  serious  disease  which  has  thus  far 
stricken  the  peach  in  California  is  locally  known  as  the  "peach 
blight,"  the  work  of  a  shot-hole  fungus  (coryneum).  This  also  has 
been  satisfactorily  checked  by  spraying,  as  will  be  described  in  the 
Chapter  on  Diseases  of  Trees  and  Vines. 

Split-Pit — A  common  trouble  of  the  peach  known  as  "split-pit," 
has  recently  been  studied  by  the  California  Experiment  Station  and 
the  tentative  conclusion  has  been  reached  that  split-pits  are  psysio- 
logical  phenomena  and  not  caused  by  disease  germs.  Whether  this 
abnormal  growth  is  due  to  weakness  of  variety  or  to  cultural  condi- 
tions is  not  determined.  It  is  true  that  varieties  differ  in  amount 
of  splitting,  and  selection  is  being  made  to  some  extent  on  that 
basis. 

Insects  infesting  the  peach  are  discussed  in  Chapter  XLI. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  PEACH 

Nearly  all  varieties  of  the  peach  have  been  tried  in  California, 
and,  as  with  other  fruits,  it  has  been  found  that  varieties  must  be 
chosen  with  reference  to  their  success  in  special  locations.  Choice 


BEST  COMMERCIAL  PEACHES 


251 


is,  however,  chiefly  made  according  to  the  purpose  of  the  grower, 
whether  for  early  marketing,  for  sale  to  canners,  for  drying,  or  for 
distant  shipment  or  for  late  marketing.  As  with  apples,  there  is 
little  use  of  planting  early  varieties  (unless  it  be  for  home  or  local 
use)  except  in  very  early  regions.  An  early  peach  from  a  late  re- 
gion is  killed  by  competition  with  better  middle  season  sorts  from 
the  earlier  regions. 

In  an  early  region  one  can  plant  early,  middle,  and  late  varieties 
to  advantage,  and  thus  secure  a  very  long-fruiting  season.  The 
peach  season  in  interior  districts  begins  about  the  first  of  June  and 
continues  to  the  end  of  November  with  local  seedlings — giving  six 
months  of  peaches.  Of  course,  the  very  early  and  very  late  sorts 
are  only  of  use  for  marketing  as  table  fruit.  The  most  important 
series  is  a  fine  succession  of  mid-season  peaches  suitable  either  for 
canning,  drying  or  distant  shipment.  Such  a  selection  can  be  made 
from  the  tables  and  descriptions  which  will  be  given  later. 

Color  is  a  most  important  item  in  the  peach.  While  canners  and 
Eastern  shippers  use  the  beautiful  white  peaches  to  advantage,  the 
fashion  for  canning  and  drying  is  now  strong  in  support  of  the  yel- 
low-fleshed clingstone  varieties.  The  yellow  freestone  peaches  are 
also  in  greatest  demand.  The  color  about  the  pit  is  also  an  impor- 
tant point.  Canners  demand  a  peach,  whether  white  or  yellow, 
which  is  almost  free  from  color  at  the  pit,  because  the  extraction 
of  the  red  color  dyes  the  juice ;  in  drying,  the  demand  just  now  is 
for  a  yellow  peach  with  a  red  center,  because  the  colors  give  the 
dried  fruit  a  more  attractive  appearance.  Of  course  there  is  a  mar- 
ket for  dried  white  peaches  but  the  preference  is  for  yellow. 

The  peaches  chiefly  grown  in  California  are  named  in  Chapter 
XVI. 

PEACHES  COMMERCIALLY  APPROVED  IN  CALIFORNIA 

The  1920  conferences  of  growers,  canners  and  nursery  men  spe- 
cially mentioned  in  Chapter  XVI  gave  particular  attention  to  the 
commercial  aspects  of  peach  varieties  and  reached  the  following 
conclusions : 

Free-stone  Peaches 

Approved  for  Shipping:  Alexander,  Decker,  Early  Crawford,  St.  John, 
Elberta,  Kale's  Early,  Early  Elberta,  J.  H.  Hale,  Mayflower,  Triumph, 
Wheatland,  Salway. 

Approved  for  Drying:  Lovell  (recommended  for  25  per  cent  of  area 
planted),  Muir  (recommended  for  75  per  cent). 

Approved  for  Canning:  The  recommendation  of  the  canners  is  that 
there  be  planted  70  per  cent  Lovell,  10  per  cent  Muir,  10  per  cent  Elberta, 
10  per  cent  Salway,  and  that  for  canning  freestones  all  othes  varieties  be 
eliminated. 

Cling-stone  Peaches 

Approved  for  Canning:  Albright,  Libbee,  Levi,  McDevitt,  Pelora, 
Peak's,  Phillips,  Sims,  Tuscan. 

Trie  canners  recommended  the  planting  of  Phillips  40  per  cent,  Tuscan 
25  per  cent,  Pelora  and  Peark's  10  per  cent,  Albright  5  per  cent,  Sims  and 
Libbee  10  per  cent,  Levi  5  per  cent,  McDevitt  5  per  cent.  Hauss  recom- 
mended for  Sutter  County. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

These  are  all  yellow  clingstones,  and  other  varieties  of  the  same  type 
will  be  substituted  for  several  of  those  named  in  different  sections.  Can- 
ners  do  not  desire  white  clingstones  of  any  variety. 

PEACHES  CHIEFLY  GROWN  IN  CALIFORNIA 

The  following  are  the  peaches  chiefly  grown  in  California,  ar- 
ranged approximately  in  the  order  of  ripening : 

Briggs'  Red  May  (California). — Originated  a  chance  seedling  in  nursery 
row  on  the  farm  of  John  G.  Briggs,  on  the  Feather  River,  about  one  mile 
from  Yuba  City,  about  1870.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  round;  white  skin, 
with  rich,  red  cheek;  partially  free;  subject  to  mildew.  Commercially 
condemned. 

Mayflower.^Introduced  to  the  Pacific  Coast  by  California  Nursery  Co. 
as  "the  earliest  peach  known,"  and  it  still  holds  that  title.  Red  all  over, 
with  white  flesh  of  excellent  flavor.  As  large  as  Alexander  and  ripens  two 
weeks  earlier.  June. 

Sneed. — Large,  creamy  white,  with  blush  cheek;  tender,  juicy;  valu- 
able for  early  shipping.  June.  Discarded  commercially. 

Alexander  (Illinois). — Most  widely  grown  as  best  early  variety.  Fruit 
medium  to  large;  greenish  white,  nearly  covered  with  deep  red;  flesh  firm, 
juicy,  and  sweet;  bears  transportation  well;  pit  is  partly  free. 

Triumph  (Georgia). — Medium  sized,  early,  yellow,  partial  cling;  very 
good. 

Admiral  Dewey. — Large;  yellow  with  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow;  perfect 
freestone;  flavor  good.  One  of  the  best  early  yellows.  Ripens  soon  after 
""friumph.  July.  Discarded  commercially. 

Honey  (Lukens). — Medium,  oblong,  pointed,  white  mottled  carmine; 
very  sweet;  related  to  Peen-to.  Approved  in  Southern  California. 

Peen-to. — Flat  peach  or  saucer  peach  of  China;  good  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

Early  Imperial  (California).— Originated  by  W.  W.  Smith,  Vacaville, 
and  planted  to  secure  a  yellow  freestone  earlier  or  larger  than  St.  John. 
Most  growers  find  it  no  improvement  on  St.  John.  July. 

Yellow  St.  John  (New  Orleans).  —  Earliest  yellow  peach;  averages 
smaller  than  Yellow  Crawford,  but  classed  as  large;  roundish,  orange  yel- 
low with  deep  red  cheek;  juicy,  sweet  and  high  flavored;  freestone.  June 
and  July. 

Hale's  Early''  (Ohio). — Medium  to  large,  nearly  round;  skin  greenish, 
mostly  covered  and  mottled  with  red  when  ripe;  flesh  white,  melting, 
juicy,  rich  and  sweet;  fair  for  local  market  and  shipping;  widely  grown; 
freestone.  July. 

Strawberryv(New  Jersey). — Medium  size,  oval;  stem  cavity  deeply  sunk; 
suture  extending  half  way  round;  skin  almost  wholly  marbled  with  deep 
red;  flesh  whitish,  juicy,  rich  and  delicate;  tree  healthy. 

Foster  (Massachusetts).  —  Uniformly  large,  slightly  flattened;  slight 
suture;  stern  moderately  depressed;  flesh  yellow,  very  rich  and  juicy,  color 
deep  orange,  dark  red  in  the  sun;  freestone;  tree  hardy  and  productive; 
very  widely  grown  in  California  and  popular.  Ripens  before  Early  Craw- 
ford, which  it  sometimes  resembles,  but  is  of  better  quality.  Very  largely 
grown  to  displace  Yellow  Crawford. 

Crawford's  Early  (New  Jersey).— Very  large,  oblong,  swollen,  point  at 
the  top  prominent,  suture  shallow;  skin  yellow,  with  red  cheek;  flesh  yel- 
low, rich  and  excellent;  freestone;  tree  very  healthy  and  productive;  once 
the  most  largely  planted  variety  in  California,  now  declining  in  popularity. 

George  the  Fourth  (New  York).— Large,  round,  deeply  divided  by  broad 
suture;  sides  unequal;  skin  pale  yellowish  white,  dotted  with  red  and  red 
cheek;  flesh  pale,  red  at  pit,  from  which  it  parts  freely;  quality  good. 
Somewhat  troubled  with  curl-leaf.  Chiefly  grown  in  Southern  California. 


VARIETIES   OF  THE  PEACH  253 

Mary's  Choice  (New  Jersey). — Large,  yellow,  resembling  Early  Craw- 
ford, but  ripening  later. 

Tuskena*  (Alabama  or  Mississippi).  —  Wrongly  called  "Tuscan"  and 
"Tustin"  cling  in  this  State;  largely  planted  in  the  interior  valleys  and  foot- 
hills; very  large  yellow  cling;  the  earliest  fine  cling  variety;  very  valu- 
able for  early  shipping.  Ripens  with  Crawford's  Early.  Very  largely 
planted.  Improved  selections  being  claimed. 

Ontario.— Known  as  "round  Tuscan"  and  "flat  Tuscan"  in  Southern 
California  and  given  distinctive  name  by  A.  P.  Weldon  of  Ontario. 

Oldmixon  Free  (American). — Large,  roundish  or  slightly  oval;  greenish 
or  yellowish  white,  marbled  with  red;  flesh  white,  tender,  and  excellent, 
juicy  and  rich;  high  flavor. 

Libbee  Cling. — Originated  in  Selma,  commences  to  ripen  shortly  after 
the  Tuscan.  The  skin  is  highly  colored  and  the  flesh  deep  yellow;  fruit 
very  large.  The  tree  is  of  exceptionally  robust  habit  and  a  heavy  producer. 

Blood  Cling. — Large;  skin  deep  claret  with  deep  red  veins,  downy;  flesh 
deep  red,  very  juicy,  vinous  and  refreshing;  esteemed  for  pickling  and  pre- 
serving. September. 

Morris  White. — Large,  oval;  skin  white  with  creamy  tint  when  fully 
ripe;  flesh  white  to  the  stone,  which  is  free;  melting,  juicy,  sweet  and  rich; 
especially  good  for  home  use  and  canning;  somewhat  subject  to  curl-leaf. 

Muir  (California). — Originated  as  chance  seedling  on  the  place  of  John 
Muir,  near  Silveyville,  named  and  first  propagated  by  G.  W.  Thissell,  of 
Winters.  Fruit  large  to  very  large;  perfect  freestone;  flesh  clear  yellow, 
very  dense,  rich  and  sweet;  pit  small;  tree  a  good  bearer  and  strong  grow- 
er, if  on  rich  soil,  to  which  it  is  best  adapted;  free  from  curl  in  Vacaville 
district;  fruit  a  good  shipper  and  canner,  and  peculiarly  adapted  to  drying 
because  of  exceptional  sweetness  and  density  of  flesh;  yield,  one  pound 
dry  from  less  than  five  pounds  fresh.  One  of  the  best  California  seedlings. 
Claimed  by  some  to  be  identical  with  Wager. 

Muir  variations  with  large  flowers,  with  fruit  like  Muir,  but  not  split- 
ting at  pit,  reported  by  W.  A.  Rosander,  Kingsburg;  A.  S.  Coon,  Fresno, 
and  H.  R.  Shaw,  Selma. 

Muir  Cling  by  W.  R.  Fletcher,  Green  Valley,  Sonoma  County.  Com- 
mended by  Green  Valley  Cannery. 

Wheatland  (New  York). — Large,  roundish;  skin  golden  yellow,  shaded 
with  crimson;  flesh  yellow,  rather  firm,  juicy,  sweet,  and  of  fine  quality. 

Elberta'"( Georgia). — Very  large;  round-oval  with  deep  suture;  golden- 
yellow,  faint  red  stripes;  flesh  yellow,  fine,  juicy,  rich  and  sweet;  tree  pro- 
lific; perfect  freestone.  Largely  grown  for  fresh  fruit  shipping;  not  pre- 
ferred by  canners.  Several  types  are  being  introduced,  called  "Early," 
"Fay,"  "June"  Elbertas. 

J.  H.  Hale.v — Valuable  for  shipping  and  drying,  not  for  canning;  smooth 
skin,  almost  fuzzless;  very  firm;  ships  almost  like  an  apple;  yellow  free- 
stone; flesh  tender,  excellent  quality;  larger  than  the  Elberta  and  ripening 
about  the  same  period. 

Crawford's  Late' (New  Jersey). — Very  large,  roundish,  yellow  with  dark 
red  cheek;  flesh  deep  yellow,  juicy,  and  melting;  flavor  rich  and  excellent; 
a  popular  and  widely-grown  variety,  but  very  subject  to  curl-leaf  in  some 
localities;  freestone. 

Lemon  Clingstone v  (South  Carolina). — Large,  lemon-shaped  or  oblong, 
having  large,  projecting,  swollen  point  like  a  lemon;  skin  fine  yellow; 
flesh  firm,  yellow  with  sprightly  vinous  subacid;  slightly  red  at  the  pit, 
which  adheres  firmly. 

Orange  Clingstone. — Large,  round;  suture  distinctly  marked  and  ex- 
tending nearly  around  the  fruit;  no  swelling  at  apex,  like  Lemon  Cling- 
stone; deep  orange  color,  with  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  firm,  juicy,  with 
rich  flavor;  somewhat  subject  to  mildew.  Though  largely  grown,  this  va- 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

ricty  has  been  largely  supplanted  by  the  following  sub-varieties,  which  are 
seedlings  from  it. 

Selma  Cling.— Originated  on  Lewis  ranch  at  Selma  and  introduced  by 
Fancher  Creek  Nurseries.  Golden  yellow,  very  uniform;  somewhat  flat- 
tened- slight  color  on  the  sunny  side;  flesh  clear  yellow  to  pit,  fine  grained, 
excellent.  Cans  with  clear  syrup  and  no  rag.  Ripens  between  Tuscan  and 
Phillips.  ^ 

Sellers'  Golden  Cling  (California). — Originated  on  the  farm  of  S.  A. 
Sellers  Contra  Costa  County,  and  introduced  by  James  Shinn.  Very  large, 
rich  golden  color;  tree  healthy;  one  of  the  very  best  of  clings;  ripens  with 
Late  Crawford. 

Runyon's  Orange  Cling  (California). — "Originated  with  Mr.  Sol  Runyon 
on  the  Sacramento  River.  Superior  to  the  common  Orange  Cling.  Run- 
yon's Orange  Cling  has  globose  glands,  and  is  not  subject  to  mildew  like 
the  common  sort.  Fruit  very  large,  yellow,  with  a  dark  crimson  cheek; 
rich,  sugary,  and  vinous  flavor.  Highly  esteemed  and  extensively  planted 
in  the  Sacramento  region  and  elsewhere." — John  Rock. 

Nichols'  Orange  Cling  (California). — Originated  by  Joseph  Nichols,  of 
Niles,  introduced  by  James  Shinn.  Large,  yellow,  with  purple  cheek;  flesh 
yellow  and  good.  Tree  healthy  and  a  heavy  bearer. 

Susquehanna  (Pennsylvania).  —  Large,  nearly  globular,  suture  half- 
round;  skin  rich  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  red;  flesh  yellow,  sweet,  juicy, 
with  rich,  vinous  flavor;  freestone;  tree  healthy.  Very  widely  distributed 
and  popular. 

Lovell  (California). — Originated  as  a  chance  seedling  with  G.  W.  This- 
sell,  and  named  by  him  in  1882;  propagated  by  Leonard  Coates,  of  Napa. 
Yellow,  freestone;  size  uniformly  large,  almost  perfectly  round;  flesh  fine, 
texture  firm,  solid,  clear  yellow  to  pit;  tree  a  good  grower  and  bearer; 
superior  for  canning  and  shipping  and  dries  well.  Said  to  curl  in  some 
places.  "The  richest  peach  I  ever  saw  on  a  tray." — E.  A.  Bonine,  Los  An- 

§eles  County.     The  most  popular  yellow  freestone  for  canning  and  drying. 
ometimes  reported  as  "heavier"  than  the  Muir. 

McKevitt's  Cling  (California). — Originated  as  a  chance  seedling  in  apri- 
cot orchard  planted  by  M.  R.  Miller,  on  place  owned  later  by  A.  McKevitt, 
Vaca  Valley;  named  in  1882  by  nurserymen  who  propagated  it.  A  white 
clingstone;  flesh  very  firm,  fine-grained,  sugary,  and  rich,  high  flavor,  white 
to  the  pit;  skin  strong,  and  fruit  excellent  for  shipping  or  canning;  tree 
remarkably  strong  in  growth  and  free  from  disease. 

Wylie  Cling. — An  old  seedling  by  John  Wylie,  Green  Valley,  Sonoma 
County,  increasing  in  popularity  in  northern  Sonoma  County  as  superior 
to  Orange  Cling  in  not  splitting  at  the  pit,  and  not  dropping  from  the  tree. 

California;  syn.  Edward's  Cling  (California). — "Originated  in  Sacramen- 
to. Very  large,  round,  regular,  nearly  covered  with  dark,  rich  red;  flesh 
deep  yellow;  flavor  delicate,  rich  vinous." — C.  W.  Reed. 

Picquet's  Late  (Georgia). — Large  to  very  large;  round,  sometimes  a 
little  flattened;  yellow,  with  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  melting,  sweet,  rich 
and  fragrant;  freestone;  not  subject  to  curl-leaf. 

Salway  (English).— Large,  roundish  oblate;  suture  broad,  deep,  extend- 
ing beyond  the  apex;  skin  downy,  creamy  yellow,  rich,  clear,  crimson 
cheek;  flesh  deep  yellow,  red  at  the  pit;  juicy,  rich,  sweet,  vinous;  free- 
stone; a  standard  late  peach  in  California;  tree  very  healthy. 

Phillips'  Cling  (California).— Originated  with  Joseph  Phillips,  of  Sutter 
County;  propagated  by  J.  T.  Bogue  of  Marysville.  Fine  large  yellow  cling, 
no  color  at  pit,  which  is  very  small;  exceedingly  rich  and  high  colored; 
described  by  Mr.  Skinner,  superintendent  Marysville  Cannery,  as  the  best 
peach  he  ever  used.  The  most  popular  yellow  clingstone.  Ripens  pro- 
gressively so  that  picking  can  coyer  two  weeks  without  falling  from  tree. 
Requires  good  land  and  ample  moisture.  Haus's  and  Sim's  cling  are  being 
planted  as  "improved  Phillips." 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  PEACH  255 

Heath  (Maryland). — Described  by  Downing  as  the  most  delicious  of  all 
clingstones.  Very  large;  skin  downy,  creamy  white,  with  faint  blush  of 
red;  flesh  greenish  white,  very  tender  and  juicy,  with  most  luscious  flavor, 
best  adapted  to  interior  regions,  or  places  free  from  curl. 

George's  Late  Cling  (California). — "Originated  in  Sacramento.  Large; 
white  flesh;  colored  around  the  pit;  beautiful  yellow  color,  striped  and 
splashed  with  bright  red;  a  very  heavy  and  uniform  bearer;  a  good  ship- 
per, and  in  its  season  of  ripening  there  is  no  peach  grown  in  Placer 
County  that  yields  the  grower  so  much  profit." — P.  W.  Butler.  Subject 
to  mildew. 

Albright's  Cling  (California).  —  "Originated  with  Mr.  Albright,  near 
Placerville.  Very  large;  yellow,  with  bright  cheek;  rarely  equaled  in  qual- 
ity and  flavor.  Described  as  larger,  more  highly  colored,  of  better  flavor, 
better  shape,  and  the  tree  a  more  prolific  bearer  than  the  Orange  cling." — 
P.  W.  Butler.  Endures  long  shipment  even  after  being  well  colored. 

McDevitt  Cling. — "Originated  with  Neal  McDevitt,  of  Placer  County. 
Uniformly  large,  rich,  golden  yellow,  becoming  red  when  ripe;  flesh  very 
firm  and  solid;  superior  in  flavor;  excellent  shipper;  tree  good  and  regu- 
lar bearer. 

Levy's  Late;  syn.  Henrietta  (District  of  Columbia). — Above  average 
size;  yellow  flesh,  red  cheek;  late;  clingstone.  Very  popular  in  San  Joa- 
quin  Valley. 

Bilyeu's  Late  October. — "Large  greenish  white  and  red  cheek;  flesh 
whitish,  freestone;  tree  a  rapid  grower  and  attains  .great  size;  prolific 
bearer;  fruit  ships  well,  and  where  it  will  mature  no  peach  can  take  its 
place;  does  particularly  well  in  the  foothills." — P.  W.  Butler. 

Decker*"  (California). — Grown  for  eastern  shipment,  in  Vaca  Valley,  and 
in  Sutter  and  Butte  counties. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  NECTARINE 

The  nectarine  reaches  perfection  under  California4  conditions,  as 
does  its  close  relative,  the  peach.  The  fruit  is,  in  fact,  as  Downing 
says,  only  a  variety  of  the  peach  with  a  smooth  skin ;  only  a  distinct, 
accidental  variety  of  the  peach ;  and  this  is  rendered  quite  certain, 
since  there  are  several  well-known  examples  on  record  of  both 
peaches  and  nectarines  having  been  produced  on  the  same  branch. 
Nectarine  pits  usually  produce  nectarines  again,  but  they  occasion- 
ally produce  peaches.  Peach  seeds  occasionally  produce  nectarines  ; 
the  Boston  variety  originated  from  a  peach  stone.  All  these  facts 
which  are  recorded  of  relation  between  the  peach  and  nectarine  have 
been  verified  by  California  observation. 

The  practice  of  growing  nectarines  is  also  exactly  like  that  em- 
ployed with  the  peach.  It  is  propagated  and  pruned  in  the  same 
ways.  The  peach  and  nectarines  are  the  same  in  natural  adapta- 
tions and  requiremnts,  and  in  diseases,  so  that  what  has  been  given 
concerning  the  growth  of  the  peach  in  this  State  has  application 
to  the  nectarine. 

The  success  of  the  nectarine  worked  on  almond  stock,  as  has 
been  demonstrated  by  the  experience  of  many,  has  led  to  the  graft- 
ing over  a  good  many  unprofitable  almond  trees  to  nectarine,  though 
this  has  not  been  done  to  the  extent  to  which  the  French  prune  and 
some  other  plums  have  been  worked  on  old  almond  stocks. 

Comparative  Production  of  Nectarine  and  Peach. — It  may  be 

wondered,  considering  the  similarity  of  the  peach  and  the  nectarine, 
why  the  former  comes  so  near  being  our  leading  deciduous  fruit  and 
the  latter  is  the  least  grown,  but  one,  of  all  temperate  zone  fruits, 
only  the  lowly  quince  being  less  in  importance.  The  explanation 
is  that  the  fruit  buyer,  both  in  California  and  at  the  East,  prefers 
the  peach,  whether  it  be  fresh,  or  canned,  or  dried,  and  some  of 
those  who  have  tried  even  a  few  acres  of  nectarines  have  found 
many  occasions  to  wish  the  ground  had  been  given  to  peaches.  How 
much  of  this  preference  is  due  to  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  nectarine, 
and  how  much  to  its  somewhat  different  flavor,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  actually  determine. 

That  the  nectarine  would  advance  in  popular  favor  has  been 
prophesied  for  some  years,  because  of  the  wonderful  excellence  of 
the  nectarine  as  grown  in  our  interior  valleys,  and  the  passing 
beauty  of  the  amber  translucency  of  the  dried  nectarine,  both  when 
sun-dried  and  when  produced  by  machine  evaporators.  The  excel- 
lence of  the  canned  nectarine  has  also  figured  in  the  anticipation. 
It  is,  however,  questionable  how  far  this  anticipation  has  been 
realized,  for  it  is  estimated  that  the  amount  of  dried  nectaries  is 
less  than  two  per  cent  and  of  canned  nectaries  less  than  one-half 
of  one  per  cet  of  the  respective  forms  of  peaches.  Nor  does  the 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  NECTARINE  257 

demand  call  for  change  in  this  proportion,  for  there  is  a  slight 
advantage  in  the  market  value  of  the  peach  even  in  its  great  pre- 
ponderance of  supply.  During  the  last  decade  many  nectaries 
have  been  rooted  out  to  be  replaced  bv  peach  trees,  or  have  been 
grafted  over  into  peaches.  There  are,  however,  some  growers  who 
are  confident  that  the  nectarine  will  in  the  future  rank  much  higher 
in  the  California  fruit  product.  It  would  please  growers  and  fruit 
driers  and  canners  to  popularize  the  nectarine,  for  its  smooth  skin 
makes  it  as  easy  to  handle  as  an  apricot,  and  the  beauty  of  the 
product,  which  certainly  exceeds  that  of  the  peach  and  is  rather 
more  easily  attained,  is  very  gratifying  to  the  producer.  There 
have  recently  been  discerned  some  indications  that  these  things 
may  be  realized,  and  plantings  have  increased. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  NECTARINE 

Varieties  of  the  nectarine,  as  of  the  peach,  show  different  local 
adaptations,  and  are  valued  by  growers  accordingly.  The  varieties 
grown  are,  however,  comparatively  few.  At  the  1920  conferences 
of  growers,  canners  and  nurserymen,  the  Gower  nectarine  was  ap- 
proved for  shipping  and  the  Stanwick  for  drying  and  Advance, 
Boston,  Hardwick,  Victoria  and  Napier  were  placed  in  the  discard. 
Humboldt  and  New  White  were  retained  for  desirability  in  home 
orchards.  The  following  have  been  found  most  satisfactory  in 
California : 

Grower. — Introduced  by  Fancher  Creek  Nursery  and  named  for  E. 
Grower,  of  Selma.  Earliest  of  all  nectarines.  Ripens  with  Early  Crawford 
peach;  fruit  very  firm;  freestone;  ships  like  a  clingstone  peach;  very  early; 
delicious  flavor;  tree  strong  grower,  bears  heavily. 

Advance^ Large,  round,  green,  marked  with  red  and  brown;  flesh 
greenish  white;  /rich  and  well  flavored.  The  earliest  to  ripen. 

Lord  Napier  (English). — Large,  pale,  cream  color  with  dark  red  cheek; 
flesh  white,  melting,  tender  and  juicy,  separating  freely  from  stone;  leaf 
glands  reniform  and  flowers  large.  Especially  commended  as  a  heavy  and 
regular  bearer;  pronounced  best  in  flavor  at  Pomona  Experiment  Station. 

Downtonv  (English). — Leaves  with  reniform  glands;  flowers  small;  fruit 
large,  roundish  oval;  skin  pale  green,  with  deep  violet  red  cheek;  flesh 
pale  green,  slightly  red  at  the  stone,  which  is  free,  melting  rich,  and  very 
good.  / 

Early  Newington  (English). — Leaves  serrated  without  glands,  flowers 
large;  fruit  large,  roundish  ovate,  a  little  enlarged  on  one  side,  and  ter- 
minating with  an  acute  swollen  point;  skin  pale  green,  but  nearly  covered 
with  bright  red  and  coated  with  thin  bloom;  flesh  greenish  white,  but  deep 
red  at  stone,  which  adheres  closely,  juicy,  sugary,  rich,  and  excellent. 

Hardwicke  (English). — Leaves  with  globose  glands;  fruit  very  large; 
roundish,  inclining  to  oval;  skin  pale  green,  with  deep  violet  red  cheek; 
flesh  pale  green,  slightly  marked  with  red  at  the  stone,  melting,  rich,  and 
highly  flavored;  freestone;  a  favorite  in  Southern  California. 

Boston* — Raised  from  a  peach  stone  by  T.  Lewis,  of  Boston;  tree 
hardy  and  productive;  leaves  with  globose  glands;  flowers  small;  fruit 
large  and  handsome,  roundish  oval,  bright  yellow,  with  deep  red  cheek; 
flesh  yellow  to  the  stone  (which  is  small  and  pointed),  sweet,  though  not 
rich,  with  pleasant  and  peculiar  flavor;  freestone;  a  general  favorite  in 
California. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

New  White;  syn.  Large  White. — Leaves  with  reniform  glands;  flowers 
large;  fruit  rather  large,  nearly  round;  skin  white  with  occasionally  slight 
tinge 'of  red;  flesh  white,  tender,  very  juicy,  with  rich,  vinous  flavor;  stone 
small  and  free;  commended  wherever  nectarines  are  grown  in  California 
and  more  freely  planted. 

Stanwick.— Originated  in  England  from  seed  brought  from  Syria.  Large, 
roundish  oval,  slightly  heart-shaped  at  base;  skin  pale,  greenish  white, 
shaded  into  deep,  rich  violet  in  the  sun;  flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  rich, 
sugary,  and  delicious. 

Humboldt.— Very  large,  bright  orange  yellow  vigorously  marked  with 
crimson;  flesh  orange,  tender,  juicy  and  highly  flavored.  Described  as  one 
of  the  best  of  the  newer  varieties.  Ripens  late. 

As  the  future  for  the  nectarine  seems  to  rest  upon  drying  and 
canning  of  the  fruit,  the  light-skinned,  white  or  yellow-fleshed 
varieties  without  color  at  the  stone,  are  most  desirable.  For  drying 
there  has  been  thus  far  a  decided  preference  for  freestone  varieties, 
though  possibly  the  present  popularity  for  cling  peaches  for  drying 
may  extend  to  the  clingstone  nectarines.  Much  color,  however, 
either  in  skin  or  flesh,  will  prevent  the  production  of  the  beautiful 
translucent,  amber  hue  of  the  dried  nectarine,  which  is  attractive 
to  consumers.  Color  in  the  flesh  is,  of  course,  undesirable  in  can- 
ning, because  of  the  discoloration  of  the  syrup.  These  facts  have 
had  much  to  do  in  fixing  the  popularity  of  the  varieties  named  in 
the  foregoing  list. 

The  largest  orchards  of  nectarines  are  in  interior  valley  loca- 
tions, which  are  also  fine  for  the  peach  and  are  perfectly  adapted 
both  to  the  growing  of  the  fruit  and  to  the  open-air,  sun-drying 
of  it. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE   PEAR 

The  oldest  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  California  are  pear  trees,  as 
has  already  been  stated  in  the  account  of  fruits  at  the  old  missions, 
and  some  of  the  trees  are  still  bearing,  though  it  is  about  a  century 
and  a  half  since  their  planting.  Trees  planted  by  pioneers  in  the  old 
mining  districts  have  actually  assumed  semblance  to  adjacent  oaks, 
Notable  instances  are  found  in  the  Stillwater  district  of  Shasta 
County  and  elsewhere.  Near  San  Jose  there  is  a  tree  over  half  a 
century  old,  with  a  trunk  seven  and  a  half  feet  around  and  yielding 
annually  about  fifteen  hundred  pounds  of  fruit,  some  of  which  was 
exhibited  at  the  Columbian  Exposition:^ 

The  pear  withstands  neglect  and  thrives  in  soils  and  situations 
which  other  fruit  trees  would  rebel  against.  It  defies  drouth  and 
excessive  moisture,  and  patiently  proceeds  with  its  fruitage  even 
when  the  soil  is  trampel  almost  to  rocky  hardness  by  cattle,  carry- 
ing its  fruit  and  foliage  aloft  above  their  reach.  And  yet  the  pear 
repays  care  and  good  treatment,  and  receives  them  from  California 
growers,  for  the  pear  has  been  one  of  our  most  profitable  fruits. 
It  is  in  demand  for  canning,  for  drying,  and  for  distant  shipment, 
and  its  long  season  and  the  slow  ripening  after  picking  allow  de- 
liberation in  marketing,  and  admit  of  enjoying  low  rates  for  ship- 
ment by  slow  trains.  One  of  the  most  striking  demonstrations  of 
the  commercial  suitability  of  the  California  pear  is  found  in  success- 
ful marketing  in  London.  Solomons,  who  was  called  "London's 
greatest  fruiterer,"  said  in  1903  that  California  Bartletts  from  Block 
of  Santa  Clara  are  the  "best  in  the  world."  Even  after  crossing 
the  continent  they  seemed  to  endure  shipment  across  the  Atlantic 
better  than  Eastern  pears. 

The  most  obvious  marks  of  the  California  pear  are  size  and 
beauty.  The  most  conspicuous  example  is  the  Bartlett,  which  is 
the  pear  of  California,  judged  by  its  popularity,  fresh,  canned  and 
dried.  When  well  grown,  its  size  is  grand,  and  its  delicate  color, 
aroma  and  richness  unsurpassed.  What  extreme  in  point  of  size 
has  been  reached  is  not  known  to  the  writer,  but  he  saw  at  the 
San  Jose  Horticultural  Fair,  of  1886,  thirteen  Bartlett  pears  grown 
by  A.  Block,  of  Santa  Clara,  which  weighed  fourteen  pounds,  the 
heaviest  of  the  group  weighing  twenty-two  and  one-half  ounces. 
But  there  had  been  larger  Bartletts  than  the  writer  then  saw,  for 
in  1858  a  Bartlett  was  shown  at  Sacramento  which  weighed  27 
ounces  and  was  13%  inches  in  girth,  and  to  meet  incredulity  a  life- 
size  outline  of  the  fruit  was  published  in  the  California  Culturist 
of  December,  1858.  Other  pears  have  made  standard  sizes  in  Cali- 
fornia far  in  advance  of  their  records  elsewhere.  There  was  in 
1870  a  Pound  pear  sent  from  Sacramento  to  the  late  Marshall  P. 
Wilder,  president  of  the  American  Pomological  Society,  which 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

veiehed  four  pounds  and  nine  ounces,  and  was  reported  by  Colonel 
Wider  to  be  larger  than  anything  previously  reported  m  pear 
annals  *  But  California  has  recently  done  even  better,  for  a  pear 
i  near  Marysville  in  1904  was  reported  as  nine  inches  high, 
sixteen  inches  around  the  base  and  five  pounds  in  weight.  Notes 
kept  by  the  writer  include  five  Vicar  of  Wmkfields  weighing  four 
pounds  eight  ounces;  nine  Easter  Beurre  weighing  twenty-four  and 
one-half  pounds,  the  heaviest  single  specimen  weighing  two  and 
three-fourths  pounds ;  thirty-five  Beurre  Clairgeau  weighing  thirty- 
seven  pounds,  the  heaviest  one,  nineteen  ounces ;  Seckel  pears,  nine 
and  three-fourths  inches  in  circumference— Dowmng's  figures  make 
the  Seckel  five  and  seven-eighths  inches  around. 

The  pear  comes  into  bearing  early  if  conditions  have  favored 
the  thrift  and  development  of  the  tree.  It  is  a  long-lived  tree  as 
already  shown  unless  it  is  invaded  by  the  blight.  It  is  the  judg- 
ment of  Hayward  Reed,  whose  pear  orchards  in  Sacramento  and 
Yuba  Counties  have  long  been  among  the  best  known  in  California, 
that  with  variations  due  to  climate,  soil,  drainage,  variety,  etc., 
a  pear  tree  is  mature  at  12  to  15  years  of  age  and  will  average  eight 
or  nine  boxes  of  50  pounds  each.  It  will  pay  for  its  care  at  seven  to 
ten  years  of  age. 

LOCALITIES   FOR  THE   PEAR 

The  pear  has  a  wider  range  than  the  apple  in  local  adaptations. 
It  does  as  well  as  the  apple  in  the  coast  regions,  if  suitable  varieties 
are  grown;  it  thrives  far  better  than  the  apple  in  the  interior  val- 
leys; it  rivals  the  apple  in  the  ascent  of  the  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  and  gains  from  the  altitude,  color  and  late  keeping,  as 
does  the  apple.  By  rejecting  a  few  naturally  tender  varieties,  or 
by  proper  protection  against  the  scab  fungus,  in  regions  where  its 
attacks  are  severe,  one  can  grow  pears  almost  everywhere  in  Cali- 
fornia— providing  pear  blight  can  be  held  in  check,  as  will  be  dis- 
cussed later. 

The  choice  of  location  is  governed  more  by  commercial  consid- 
erations than  by  natural  phenomena.  The  same  facts  which  make 
the  Bartlett  the  favorite  variety  with  planters,  also  should  regulate 
the  choice  of  locality  for  growing  it.  These  facts  were  expressed 
by  the  late  C.  W.  Reed,  of  Sacramento,  who  was  in  his  time  one  of 
the  leading  pear  growers  and  shippers  of  the  State,  as  follows : 

In  the  Sacramento  Valley  proper  there  is  but  one  variety  of  pear  that 
win  justify  extensive  cultivation,  viz.,  the  Bartlett.  While  nearly  all  va- 
rieties may  be  grown  successfully,  and  many  varieties  may  be  desirable 
for  home  purposes,  yet  for  profitable  orchards  we  have  to  confine  ourselves 
to  this  one  variety,  except  in  high  altitudes,  or  localities  where  the  fruit 
only  matures  very  late.  The  reason  for  this  will  be  better  understood  by 
the  inexperienced  if  explained.  The  Bartlett  pear  having  qualities  that 
make  it  a  universal  favorite  for  shipping,  canning,  and  for  domestic  mar- 
ket, no  other  variety  is  wanted  while  it  is  obtainable.  With  the  difference 
in  the  time  of  its  ripening  in  different  localities  that  are  adjacent,  our  mar- 

*Tilton's  Journal  of  Horticulture,  March,  1871,  p.  87.  An  engraving  of  this  fruit, 
natural  size,  was  given  in  the  Pacific  Rural  Press,  November  8,  1873." 


THE   WONDERFUL   BARTLETT  261 

kets  are  supplied  with  this  variety  about  four  months  each  season,  viz., 
July,  August,  September  and  October.  While  this  pear  is  in  the  market, 
any  other  variety  to  compete  with  it  must  sell  at  very  low  prices. 

Of  course  experienced  pear  growers,  whose  taste  would  soon  cloy 
with  a  continuous  diet  of  Bartletts,  and  who  know  fully  the  superior 
quality  of  other  varieties  which  ripen  soon  after  it,  would  dispute 
the  position  taken  by  Mr.  Reed,  but  for  present  California  taste  and 
trade  he  is  undoubtedly  correct.  As  the  canners  and  shippers  and 
local  consumers  all  call  for  Bartletts,  and  as  they  usually  sell  at  the 
East  for  more  than  other  varieties,  the  choice  of  location  to  secure 
a  Bartlett,  either  very  early  or  very  late,  is  the  part  of  wisdom,  for 
either  end  of  the  season  usually  yields  better  prices  than  the  middle. 
The  earliest  Bartletts  come  from  the  interior  valley  sometimes  as 
early  as  the  last  week  in  June;  the  next,  from  the  valleys  adjacent 
to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco ;  the  next,  from  the  higher  foothills  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada ;  and  the  last,  so  far  as  present  experience  goes, 
although  some  coast  and  mountain  situations  are  quite  late,  reach 
the  market  from  the  Vacaville  district.  It  is  an  interesting  fact 
that  this  district,  which  has  long  been  famous  for  marketing  the 
first  early  fruits,  should  also  market  very  late  ones.  It  is  true, 
however,  that  early  fruits  hasten  to  maturity  and  late  fruits  are 
retarded.  Late  fruits  push  along  until  about  midsummer,  then  stop 
growing  for  a  month  or  two  during  the  hottest  weather,  and  after- 
wards proceed  on  their  course  and  finish  up  well.*  W.  W.  Smith, 
of  Vac& Valley,  has  picked  Bartletts  as  late  as  November  19,  but 
that  is  unusually  late.  In  years  with  heavy  late  spring  rains  the 
Bartlett  ripens  earlier  in  the  Vaca  Valley  than  in  ordinary  seasons, 
and  when  the  fruit  sells  well  in  the  East,  the  Bartletts  are  gathered 
green  and  shipped  all  through  the  season,  as  their  first  growth 
usually  makes  them  large  enough  for  this  purpose. 

There  is  produced  in  some  situations  a  "second  crop"  of  Bart- 
letts and  of  other  varieties,  which  is  of  account  when  pears  are 
scarce  and  is  sometimes  dried  with  profit.  For  such  fruit  the  bloom 
appears  upon  the  tips  of  the  shoots  of  the  current  season's  growth. 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  coreless  and  has  led  to  claims  of  "seedless 
pears."  Bartlett  pears  have  actually  been  picked  in  the  foothills 
above  Peatz  in  Butte  County  on  February  25,  1905,  and  described 
as  "fine,  delicious  and  ripe."  This  fact  must  be  regarded  as  a  token 
of  local  climatic  salubrity  and  not  of  economic  or  pomological 
account. 

Bartletts  can  also  be  successfully  held  in  storage  for  a  time  if 
fitted  for  it.  The  experiments  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  conducted  in  Southern  Oregon,  show  that  the  Bartlett 
season  can  be  extended  from  six  to  seven  weeks  by  leaving  the  fruit 
on  the  trees  two  weeks  longer  than  is  at  present  the  practice  and 
by  storing  for  four  or  five  weeks  at  a  temperature  of  32  deg.  or  34 
deg.  F.  after  the  fruit  has  been  precooled. 

•Demonstration  of  the  effect  of  high  heat  in  retarding  the  ripening  of  pears  has  been 
described  by  R.  H.  Taylor  and  E.  L.  Overholser  in  Monthly  Bulletin  California  State  Hor- 
ticultural Commission  for  March,  1919. 


262 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


SOILS  FOR  THE  PEAR 


The  pear,  if  it  is  not  allowed  to  dry  out  entirely,  will  generally 
do  well  on  shallow  soil  and  over  a  tight  clay  hard-pan,  where  most 
other  fruits  would  be  unsatisfactory  or  fail  utterly.  The  trees  will 
thrive  in  clay  loams,  and  even  in  adobe,  if  properly  cultivated.  In 
laying  out  fruit  farms,  which  often  include  a  variety  of  soils,  even 
in  comparatively  small  area,  the  pears  and  plums  (if  on  the  right 
stock,  as  will  be  seen)  should  be  set  in  the  lower,  moister,  stiffer 
soil,  and  other  fruits  on  the  lighter,  warmer,  and  better  drained 
portions.  The  pear,  however,  enjoys  the  better  situation,  though 
it  will  thrive  on  the  poorer.  The  tree  seems  to  attain  its  greater 
growth  and  heavier  bearing  on  the  alluvial  soils  of  the  valleys  and 
near  the  banks  of  rivers  and  streams.  All  pears  will  be  later  in 
maturing  and  have  better  keeping  qualities  if  grown  on  a  clay  sub- 
soil. Thus  it  appears  that  the  pear  will  flourish  whether  the  water 
is  near  or  far  from  the  surface.  On  wet  land  the  apple  is  apt  to  die 
in  a  few  years,  or  become  worthless.  On  dry  land  the  apple  may 
live  longer  than  on  wet  land,  but  the  fruit  will  be  small  and  taste- 
less. But  the  pear  tree  may  bear  good  fruit,  under  both  extreme 
conditions. 

It  has  been  learned  by  experience  that  the  pear  will  flourish  on 
soil  somewhat  alkaline.  At  the  University  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  at  Tulare,  this  subject  was  demonstrated  in  detail.  It  was 
shown  that  though  the  pear  endures  a  certain  amount  of  alkali  its 
limit  of  endurance  may  be  often  exceeded  and  there  is  little  warrant 
to  select  alkali  soil  for  pears,  unless  it  be  to  fill  a  space  that  would 
otherwise  be  vacent  in  the  orchard.  If  it  is  not  too  alkaline  the 
pears  will  thrive.  If  gypsum  be  used  in  planting,  somewhat 
stronger  alkali  will  be  endured  than  otherwise. 

PROPAGATION   AND    PLANTING 

The  use  of  dwarfing  stock  for  the  pear  has  been  nearly  aban- 
doned in  this  State,  though  in  early  years  the  quince  was  largely 
used.  The  most  prominent  orchard  on  quince  stock  is  that  of  A. 
Block,  of  Santa  Clara,  where  may  be  seen  dwarf  trees  originally 
planted  eight  feet  apart  in  squares,  but  now  wider  spaced  by  re- 
moving part  of  the  trees;  the  remainder  doing  exceedingly  well 
under  liberal  manuring  and  irrigation.  It  would,  however,  require 
special  investigation  to  determine  whether  these  trees  are  still  de- 
pendent upon  the  quince  or  whether  they  have  developed  roots  from 
the  pear  wood  above. 

It  is  quite  possibe  that,  at  least  for  gardens,  there  may  be  in 
the  future  more  use  made  of  dwarf  trees;  but  for  commercial 
orchards  there  appears  no  need  of  dwarfing.  The  common  con- 
clusion is  that  it  is  better  to  have  fewer  trees  and  larger  ones,  but 
since  the  pear  blight  became  an  issue  in  this  State  the  quince 
has  been  advocated  as  a  means  of  maintaining  a  sound  root  and 
keeping  the  warfare  above  ground.  The  best  known  dwarf  pear 
orchard  of  recent  planting  is  that  of  the  Hillgirt  Orchards  in  the 


PROPAGATING  PEARS  263 


Alhambra  Valley  near  Martinez  in  Contra  Costa  County.  The 
reasons  for  resort  to  the  quince  root  and  the  results  are  thus  given 
by  Mr.  Frank  T.  Swett : 

The  Bartlett  does  not  make  good  union  with  the  quince  root,  but  by 
working  Beurre  Hardy  on  the  quince  root,  and  Bartlett  on  the  Hardy,  per- 
fect unions  are  obtained.  We  have  a  three-story  pear  tree: root,  quince; 
stem  to  a  height  of  12  inches,  Beurre  Hardy;  top,  Bartlett.  We  had  a 
commercial  crop  of  a  box  to  the  tree,  or  170  boxes  to  the  acre  at  the  sixth 
year.  Since  then,  we  have  had  five  good  crops  of  pears.  Standard  trees 
alongside  are  only  just  beginning  to  bear  commercial  crops.  We  have, 
therefore,  had  an  income  for  five  years  which  would  not  have  come  to  us 
on  this  land  with  standard  trees.  In  1907  we  picked  1200  boxes  of  fine, 
clean,  shapely  pears  from  three  acres  of  dwarfs.  Our  trees  are  planted  16 
feet  apart.  I  think  14  feet  apart  would  be  a  little  better,  giving  221  trees 
to  the  acre  instead  of  170.  The  trees  are  stocky  and  strong.  They  are 
from  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter  a  foot  above  the  ground.  They  are  about 
10  to  12  feet  high,  and  are  broad  and  spreading. 

There  are  some  cultural  advantages  of  the  dwarf  trees.  Our  men  prune 
about  60  of  these  trees  a  day  as  against  16  to  20  standard  trees.  Spraying 
can  be  more  thoroughly  done,  as  the  trees  are  close  to  the  ground.  Most 
of  the  pears  are  picked  without  the  use  of  a  ladder,  and  only  a  short 
ladder  is  required  to  gather  the  pears  higher  up.  I  have  seen  a  good 
picker  picking  at  the  rate  of  60  boxes  a  day  on  these  dwarfs,  where  the 
average  rate  on  standard  trees  was  20  boxes  a  clay.  We  resorted  to  the 
quince  root  to  escape  the  root  aphis,  but  the  quince  root  is  not  as  resistant 
to  oak  fungus  as  the  French  root,  and  where  this  fungus  is  a  menace, 
dwarfs  should  not  be  planted.  Dwarf  trees  suffer  just  as  severely  from 
blight  as  standard  trees. 

The  following  varieties  are  commended  for  cultivation  on  quince 
stock  as  dwarfs,  experience  proving  them  vigorous  growers  and 
abundant  bearers  in  suitable  localities :  Bartlett  (by  double  work- 
ing), Beurre  Hardy,  Doyenne  du  Cornice,  Duchess  d'Angouleme, 
Glout  Morceau,  Pound,  Beurre  Diel,  White  Doyenne,  Easter  Beurre, 
Winter  Nelis,  P.  Barry,  Winter  Bartlett. 

Blight-Proof  Roots. — But  the  pear  is  usually  grown  in  California 
by  budding  or  grafting  on  its  own  roots ;  that  is  upon  pear  seed- 
lings. Formerly  these  were  almost  exclusively  imported  from 
France,  but  in  1918  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  nursery  trees 
were  grown  on  Japanese  stock,  and  in  1921  seedlings  of  European 
species  are  almost  wholly  abandoned.  The  seedlings  of  the  Sand 
pear,  of  Asia  (Pyrus  serotina),  are  being  demonstrated  to  be  in- 
ferior to  other  Asiatic  species  which  are  being  introduced  and  bid 
fair  to  become  a  main  reliance.  Very  interesting  pamphlets  describ- 
ing these  new  species  were  published  in  1918  and  in  1920  by  Mr. 
A.  L.  Wisker  of  Grass  Valley,  California,  who  is  commending  the 
growing  of  ussuriensis  seedlings  to  be  top-grafted  in  the  orchard 
after  attaining  some  size. 

It  is,  however,  not  demonstrated  that  these  Asiatic  species  will  be 
our  only  reliance  in  the  future,  for  even  if  some  of  them  do  furnish 
a  resistant  root  they  may  not  make  a  good  stem  and,  therefore,  it  is 
proposed  to  bud  or  graft  some  other  resistant  wood  to  make  a  trunk 
and  top  work  the  Bartlett  upon  such  a  trunk  so  that  only  the 
branches  shall  be  susceptible  to  blight.  Such  a  trunk  is  commended 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

by  Dr.  W.  L.  Howard  of  the  University  of  California  in  the  use  of 
the  variety  named  "Surprise,"  whose  resistance  is  demonstrated: 

The  Surprise  is  even  more  blight  resistant  than  the  Japanese  pear  and 
makes  a  beautiful  tree,  and  the  plan  to  follow  would  be  to  grow  the  Sur- 
prise on  the  Japanese  root  until  the  trees  are  perhaps  four  years  old,  or 
until  all  of  the  main  scaffold  branches  have  been  formed.  These  may  then 
be  top-worked  to  Bartlett.  In  this  way,  even  though  blight  did  get  into 
the  trees,  it  would  not  be  possible  to  lose  more  than  one  of  the  main 
branches,  and  if  care  were  taken  this  could  be  again  top-worked  on  the 
original  Surprise  stump. 

Distance  in  Planting. — If  the  pears  are  to  have  the  whole 
ground,  it  is  usual  to  plant  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  apart 
on  the  square.  As  the  tree  is  slower  to  attain  size  and  full  bearing 
than  the  stone  fruits,  and  as  it  is  a  long-lived  tree,  the  pears  are 
sometimes  set  twenty-four  feet  with  plums  in  quincunx.  Peaches 
and  apricots  are  also  set  between  pears  sometimes,  when  the  soil 
chosen  for  pears  suits  them  also. 


PRUNING 

Usually  the  pear  is  grown  in  the  vase  form,  as  described  in  the 
general  chapter  on  pruning.  With  regular,  upright  growers,  head- 
ing low  and  cutting  to  outside  buds  results  in  a  handsome,  gently- 
spreading  top,  and  effectually  curbs  the  disposition  which  some 
varieties,  notably  the  Bartlett,  have  to  run  straight  up  with  main 
branches  crowded  together. 

The  development  of  the  vase-form  with  a  few  continuous  leaders, 
in  a  general  way  as  prescribed  for  the  peach  in  Chapter  XX,  is 
practicable.  Such  leaders  are  to  be  covered  with  short,  fruit- 
bearing  laterals.  Thinning  and  shortening  of  laterals  can  be  done 
by  summer  pruning. 

As  with  other  fruit  trees,  the  pear  must  be  studied  and  pruning 
must  be  done  with  an  understanding  of  the  habit  of  the  variety 
under  treatment.  Irregular  and  wayward  growers,  which,  in  windy 
places,  also  have  their  rambling  disposition  promoted  by  prevailing 
winds,  often  give  the  grower  much  perplexity.  The  general  rules 
of  cutting  to  an  outside  bud  to  spread  the  tree,  to  an  inside  bud  to 
raise  and  concentrate  it,  and  to  an  outside  bud  one  year  and  an 
inside  bud  the  next,  if  a  limb  is  desired  to  continue  in  a  certain 
course,  are  all  helpful  to  the  pruner.  But  with  some  pears,  of  which 
the  Winter  Nelis  is  a  conspicuous  example,  it  is  exceedingly  hard  to 
shape  the  tree  by  these  general  rules,  and  some  growers  abandon 
all  rules,  merely  shortening  in  where  too  great  extension  is  seen,  or 
to  facilitate  cultivation,  and  trust  to  shaping  the  tree  when  it  shall 
have  finished  its  rampant  growing  period. 

In  the  hot  interior  valleys,  with  the  pear  as  with  the  apple,  care 
must  be  taken  to  prune  so  as  not  to  open  the  tree  too  much  to  the 
sun,  but  to  shorten  in  and  thin  out  only  so  far  as  is  consistent  with 
maintaining  a  good  covering  of  foliage. 

The  pruning  of  bearing  pear  trees  is  much  like  that  of  the 
apple,  to  be  determined  largely  by  the  habit  of  the  tree,  and  to 


IRRIGATION   OF   THE   PEAR  265 

secure  a  fair  amount  of  fruit  on  branches  with  strength  and  stiff- 
ness enough  to  sustain  it. 

Summer  pruning  will  promote  fruiting  either  in  a  young  or  an 
old  tree  and  some  practice  it  to  secure  early  bearing  of  young  trees, 
but  the  common  practice  is  winter  pruning  to  secure  strong  wood 
and  prevent  overbearing. 

THINNING  PEARS 

It  is  quit  important  to  attend  to  thinning  the  fruit  on  over- 
loaded trees.  Even  the  popular  Bartlett  will  often  give  fruit  too 
small  for  profitable  sale  unless  thinned,  though  successive  pickings 
as  the  fruit  reaches  marketable  size,  which  will  be  commended 
presently,  does  to  a  degree  reduce  the  danger  of  overcrowding. 
With  pears,  as  other  fruits,  thinning  should  not  be  done  until  it  is 
seen  that  the  fruit  is  well  set.  Dropping  off  from  natural  causes 
sometimes  thins  the  crop  quite  enough. 


IRRIGATION  OF  THE  PEAR 

In  some  situations  the  pear  needs  irrigation,  though  it  will 
endure  drouth  which  would  destroy  most  other  fruit  trees.  There 
is  no  profit  in  small,  tough  fruit.  As  stated  in  the  chapter  on  irriga- 
tion the  wood  growth  and  fruit  show  whether  proper  moisture 
needs  are  met  or  not.  Early  pears  are  advanced  in  development  by 
irrigation  in  some  parts  of  the  State,  and  this  is  an  important  factor 
in  their  value.  On  the  other  hand,  late  pears  may  be  kept  growing 
to  larger  size  and  later  maturity  by  irrigation.  The  following  is 
an  interesting  concrete  instance : 

Mr.  John  McAlister  of  Santa  Clara  County  got  nearly  double  the  price 
for  his  pears  one  year  because  he  held  them  back  from  ripening  by  timely 
irrigation.  The  weather  in  August  and  September  when  the  Bartletts  and 
Beurre  Hardys  ripen  is  a  little  too  warm  to  accomplish  much  by  irrigation 
except  to  increase  the  size  of  the  fruit.  The  Hardys  were  irrigated  two 
weeks  before  picking  early  in  September;  and  after  they  were  picked,  the 
Cornice,  Winter  Neils,  and  Easter  Beurre  were  irrigated.  The  Cornice 
were  picked  just  before  the  Neils  and  the  Neils  were  three  inches  in  dia- 
meter before  they  needed  to  be  picked  late  in  November.  The  Easter 
Beurres  six  weeks  after  the  Hardys,  which  brought  the  picking  up  to 
January  1.  The  Easter  Beurres  were  3J^,  4,  and  6  inches  in  diameter  at 
that  time.  The  pears  had  been  held  on  the  trees  at  least  a  month  later 
than  other  people,  and  some  of  them  were  held  in  storage  until  March  1 
before  shipping  to  the  eastern  and  coast  markets.  The  pears  are  right  to 
pick  when  they  are  large  enough  and  the  seeds  begin  to  turn  brown;  but 
this  condition  may  be  delayed  and  the  size  increased  by  late  irrigation  un- 
less early  rains  are  ample  enough  to  produce  the  same  effect. 


BLIGHT  OF  THE  PEAR 

The  pear  blight  appeared  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  about  1900. 
In  1904,  after  having  nearly  wiped  out  bearing  trees  in  the  southern 
counties  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  the  disease  began  to  devastate 
the  orchards  along  the  Sacramento  River  through  the  vast  area  of 


266 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


rich  valley  land  which  it  traverses  and  on  which  is  situated  our 
most  extensive  pear  acreage.  In  1905  resolute  warfare  was  made 
upon  the  blight,  with  a  large  appropriation  of  State  funds,  by  the 
plant  disease  experts  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  local  horticultural  authorities.  It  was  probably 
the  greatest  campaign  ever  made  against  a  single  tree  disease, 
although  some  insect  warfares  have  been  greater.  The  outlines  of 
the  plans  followed  and  the  results  attained  are  to  be  found  in  the 
publications  of  the  institutions  engaged.* 

Detailed  information  concerning  the  treatment  of  blight  as  indi- 
cated by  progressive  research  and  experimentation  is  also  to  be 
had  from  these  institutions  and  from  California  horticultural 
journals  which  record  the  latest  methods  and  results  by  pear 
growers  who  are  continually  introducing  new  methods  of  applying 
the  only  treatment  thus  far  found  effective,  and  that  is  cutting  out 
and  burning  the  affected  parts.  The  cutting  must  be  below  the 
parts  seen  to  be  diseased,  even  to  the  roots  of  the  tree,  and  dis- 
infecting the  tools  used  in  one  cut  before  again  cutting  into  the 
tree.f 

It  is  usually  best,  unless  one  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
disease,  to  submit  specimens  of  suspected  blight  to  the  University 
Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley,  for  a  beginner  may  be  easily 
deceived.  However,  that  the  inexperienced  person  may  have  a 
general  idea  of  what  to  look  for,  the  following  outline  of  symptoms 
is  given : 

The  most  obvious  effect  of  blight  to  be  seen  during  the  growing  season, 
is  the  blackening  of  the  leaves  and  soft  wood  to  which  they  are  attached, 
as  though  these  parts  had  been  touched  by  a  flame,  and  from  this  appear- 
ance comes  its  old  common  name,  "fire-blight."  More  specifically,  as  Prof, 
R.  E.  Smith  has  written,  the  leaves,  blossoms  and  young  fruit  wither  and 
turn  black  on  the  affected  portions  but  do  not  fall,  remaining  tightly  at- 
tached to  the  twigs  during  the  winter  after  the  healthy  leaves  have  fallen. 
The  infection  proceeds  downwards  through  the  inner  bark  of  the  twigs 
and  branches,  and  when  working  vigorously  the  blight  kills  the  twigs  or 
whole  branches  very  rapidly.  The  disease  often  runs  down  into  the  large 
limbs,  where  it  remains  alive  over  winter,  producing  the  so-called  "hold- 
over" blight,  which  is  a  source  of  infection  during  the  following  season. 

The  blighted  twigs,  branches  or  trunks  show  a  red,  sappy,  juicy  con- 
ff110*1  °f  the  inner  bark  when  infected  with  the  true  pear  blight  organism. 
If  the  disease  is  fresh  and  active  the  bark  when  cut  into  is  very  juicy,  ex- 
uding the  slightly  sticky  sap  quite  freely  and  showing  bright  red  color  in 
Jhe  inner  bark.  This  symptom  is  of  importance  in  distinguishing  true 
blight  from  such  troubles  as  die-back  from  sour  sap,  crater  blight  and 
other  causes. 

In  the  smaller  twigs  and  branches  the  organism  dries  out  and  becomes 
entirely  dead.  But,  through  the  agency  of  biting  insects  in  the  young 
shoots  and  suckers,  the  disease  frequently  gets  into  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
and  also  down  into  the  roots.  Here  it  spreads  and  causes  the  death  of 

*Report8  of  the  California  Commissioners  of  Horticulture,  1901  to  1906,  including 
Reports  on  California  Fruit  Growers'  Convention  for  1905-6-7,  Horticultural  Commissioner, 
and^rJog110'  P°rt  °f  Plant  Path°l°gist,  University  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  1906 

tThe   character   of  such    a   fight   and    what   it   costs   is   graphically   portrayed   by    E.    A. 
ammon    m  the    Report   of    California    Fruit    Growers'    Convention    of    1909,    and    in    Pacific 
Rural  Press,  June  22,   1910. 


CUTTING   OR   SCRAPING   PEAR    BLIGHT  267 

the  tree  by  slow  degrees,  due  to  the  destruction  of  the  inner  bark  of  the 
trunk  or  main  roots.  In  such  cases  the  leaves  of  affected  trees  take  on  a 
peculiar  bronzy  reddish  coloration  in  the  fall,  which  is  quite  characteristic 
to  the  experienced  eye. 

From  the  "hold-over"  blight  in  the  trunks  and  large  limbs  an  infectious 
sap  exudes  when  growth  starts  in  the  spring,  which  sap  contains  myriads 
of  the  blight  organisms.  This  sap  is  attractive  to  insects,  which,  in  feeding 
upon  it,  get  the  blight  bacteria  upon  their  bodies  and  mouth  parts,  and 
transfer  them  to  the  blossoms  or  green  shoots  of  other  trees,  thus  spread- 
ing the  infection. 

Looking  for  Blight. — The  time  to  see  blight  best  is  while  the 
tree  is  in  leaf.  Discovery  and  cutting  out  should  be  in  mind  all 
summer — especially  should  thorough  work  be  done  in  the  autumn. 
The  leaves  are  still  hanging  on  blighted  twigs;  trees  are  least  sus- 
ceptible to  reinfection  from  careless  cutting  because  they  are  practi- 
cally dormant ;  insects  are  not  so  numerous,  and  the  rain  is  not  yet 
soaking  newly  cut  surfaces  with  drippings  from  other  new  cuts. 
It  is  easy  to  get  around  the  orchard,  and  mud  does  not  hinder  fol- 
lowing root  blight. 

Cutting  Out  Blight. — Cuts  should  usually  be  made  about  a  foot 
below  visible  appearances  of  blight  on  the  bark;  (2)  tools  are  dis- 
infected before  making  the  cut;  (3)  the  wound  immediately  after 
the  cutting  is  sponged  with  a  disinfectant — of  which  the  one  chiefly 
used  is  one  part  of  corrosive  sublimate  to  1000  parts  of  water  by 
weight;  which  is  one  ordinary  tablet  of  corrosive  to  one  pint  of 
water.  Dr.  F.  C.  Reimer  of  Oregon,  the  noted  pear  expert,  recom- 
mends cyanide  of  mercury  to  disinfect  cuts  and  wounds  instead 
of  corrosive  sublimate — 1  gram  of  pure  cyanide  of  mercury  to  500 
grams  of  water  (about  one  pint).  Large  cut  surfaces  should  be 
subsequently  brushed  or  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  lime- 
sulphur  wash. 

Scraping  Instead  of  Cutting. — In  1921  a  new  method  of  checking 
the  progress  of  the  blight  downward  is  being  employed  in  the  treat- 
ment of  larger  branches  and  trunk.  It  is  described  as  follows  :* 

The  new  method  of  control  consists  in  the  scraping  of  the  outer  layer 
of  bark  on  all  infected  areas,  and  it  is  very  essential  to  scrape  for  insur- 
ance at  least  eight  to  ten  inches  above  and  below  all  visible  signs  of  blight. 
The  scraped  area  is  then  painted  or  saturated  with  a  solution  of  cyanide  of 
mercury  (1  to  500).  On  trunk  infections  it  is  found  best  to  scrape  a  little 
closer  to  the  cambium  or  growing  layer  of  bark.  It  is  found  that  the 
cyanide  solution  does  not  penetrate  to  the  cambium  if  too  much  outer 
bark  is  left.  On  working  on  large  areas  disinfecting  should  be  done  sev- 
eral times  during  the  operation  because  the  surface  of  the  bark  becomes 
dry  and  the  solution  cannot  penetrate  to  the  inner  blight.  If  a  mud  paste 
of  cyanide  solution  and  earth  is  put  on  the  scraped  area  it  helps  to  keep 
the  wound  damp  for  some  time  and  the  cyanide  effective  for  a  longer 
period.  Bichloride  solution,  1  to  1000,  is  better  to  use  to  disinfect  tools. 
The  bichloride  solution  and  cyanide  solution  (1  to  500)  may  be  mixed  in 
the  same  bottle  for  convenience. 

Pear  Scab. — The  scab  fungus  which  seriously  affects  some 
varieties,  and  notably  the  Winter  Nelis,  is  identical  with  the  scab 
of  the  apple  and  will  be  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  tree  disease. 


*E.  I.  Power  in  Pacific  Rural  Press,  March  26,   1921. 


268 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  THE  PEAR 

The  pear  is  subject  to  several  grievous  pests  which  must  be 
resolutely  combated  or  circumvented  as  described  in  Chapter 

XLI where  the  identification  of  the  pests  is  determined  by  the 

character  of  the  injury  they  inflict. 

4 

GATHERING  AND  RIPENING  OF  PEARS 

Many  pear  growers  make  the  common  mistake  of  allowing  the 
fruit  to  hang  too  long  on  the  tree,  instead  of  gathering  and  ripening 
in  a  cool,  dark  place.  Pears  should  be  picked  at  the  first  indication 
of  ripeness,  the  first  sign  being  a  tendency  of  the  stem  to  part  from 
the  spur  when  the  pear  is  gently  raised  up.  This  test  applies 
especially  to  the  Bartlett.  Picking  at  this  stage  and  laying  away 
in  the  dark  ripens  up  the  Bartlett  well.  When  picked  at  this  stage 
and  sent  overland  by  slow  freight,  they  ripen  en  route  and  the  boxes 
open  well  on  the  Eastern  markets.  There  are  a  few  varieties  which 
shrivel  if  ripened  under  cover,  but  the  rule  is  a  good  one,  and  the 
grower  will  soon  note  the  exceptions.  Many  desirable  varieties 
have,  no  doubt,  been  pronounced  poor  and  insipid  because  allowed 
to  ripen  on  the  tree.  As  a  rule  pears  are  ready  to  pick  when  of 
proper  size,  seeds  beginning  to  turn  brown,  and  the  flesh  quite  firm. 

Some  pears  size  up  and  ripen  before  others.  Some  get  oversized 
before  the  general  run  are  ready.  If  these  early  pears  are  picked 
first,  with  some  care  not  to  knock  the  others  off,  the  small  ones  left 
will  have  all  the  strength  of  the  tree  to  increase  their  size,  and  the 
earliest  ones  will  not  get  oversized  or  over-ripe.  Fewer  pickers  are 
required  and  the  job,  being  longer,  is  more  attractive. 

To  ripen  well,  pears  should  be  packed  in  tight  boxes  or  inclosed 
in  drawers.  They  do  not  do  as  well  as  apples  on  shelves  open  to 
circulation  of  air.  As  already  stated,  the  oily-skinned  apple  endures 
exposure  and  maintains  a  smooth,  ruddy  cheek  and  sound  heart  in 
spite  of  wind,  rain  and  rough  weather.  The  pear  under  similar  con- 
ditions decays  rapidly. 

POLLINATION  OF  PEARS 

As  very  few  varieties  of  pears  are  largely  grown  in  California 
and  as  the  Bartlett  generally  bears  well  when  grown  in  large  acre- 
ages by  itself,  the  Eastern  claim  that  the  Bartlett  is  self-sterile  does 
not  seem  to  be  justified  in  California  experience.  Recent  observa- 
tions indicate  that  even  at  the  East  the  Bartlett  is  self- fertile  when 
conditions  are  favorable  to  setting  of  the  fruit  and  self-sterile  when 
they  are  otherwise.  As  conditions  are  usually  favorable  in  Cali- 
fornia this  may  be  the  reason  why  its  self-fertility  is  more  conspicu- 
ous here  than  at  the  East. 

The  behavior  of  the  Bartlett  under  systematic  fertilization  has 
been  determined  at  the  University  Farm  at  Davis  and  the  results 
published  in  detail.*  The  conclusions  are  that  the  Bartlett  is  to  a 

"'Pollination  of  the  Bartlett  Pear,"  by  W.  P.  Tufts,  University  of  California  Experi- 
ment Station,  Bulletin  No.  37;  May,  1919. 


POLLINATION   OF   PEARS  269 

limited  degree  self-sterile  (and  in  1920  was  sterile)  under  valley  con- 
ditions and  is  self-sterile  under  foothill  conditions;  therefore,  it  is 
desirable  that  another  variety  should  be  interplanted  with  the  Bart- 
lett  for  cross-pollination.  The  blooming  season  of  eight  varieties 
during  a  period  of  five  years  at  Davis  is  given  as  follows : 

Angouleme    March  16  to  March  28 

Howell March  16  to  March  29 

Easter    March  16  to  March  30 

Clairgeau    March  22  to  March  28 

Cornice    March  29  to  March  31 

Dana's  Honey March  23  to  March  31 

Winter  Nelis  March  22  to  April  2 

Bartlett    March  19  to  April  13 

It  thus  appears  that  the  Bartlett  has  a  very  long  blooming  season 
and  overlaps  the  other  varieties  named — all  of  which  were  demon- 
strated by  hand  tests  to  be  capable  of  cross-pollinating  it  and  to 
receive  the  same  service. 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  PEAR 

Though  large  collections  of  famous  Eastern  and  European  pears 
have  been  brought  to  California,  the  peculiarity  of  the  local  market 
and  demand  for  canning  and  shipping  has  led  to  concentration  upon 
very  few  sorts.*  The  pears  favorably  considered  by  the  1920  con- 
ferences of  growers,  canners  and  nurserymen  for  commercial  plant- 
ing are  the  following:  Bartlett,  Beurre  Bosc,  Beurre  Clairgeau, 
Beurre  d'Anjou,  Beurre  Hardy,  Comet,  Easter  Beurre,  Forelle, 
Glout  Morceau,  Wilder,  Winter  Nelis,  Cornice. 

The  following  descriptive  list,  arranged  approximately  in  the 
order  of  their  ripening  includes  varieties  chiefly  found  in  California 
orchards : 

Harvest;  syn.  Sugar  Pear  (American). — Small,  roundish,  pale  yellow, 
brownish  in  sun,  brown  and  green  dots;  flesh,  whitish,  rather  dry  but 
sweet;  tree  upright,  young  wood  olive  yellow  brown. 

Madeleine v(French). — Medium,  obovate  pyriform,  stalk  long  and  slender, 
set  on  the  side  of  a  small  swelling;  pale  yellowish  green,  rarely  brownish 
blush;  calyx  small,  in  shallow,  furrowed  basin;  flesh  white,  juicy,  delicate. 

Wilder  Early v  (American). — Small  to  medium,  yellow  with  red  cheek; 
sweet,  and  good.  Recently  introduced  and  profitable  for  local  sale  in  San 
Diego  County.  Should  not  be  confused  with  Col.  Wilder,  a  California  seed- 
ling which  has,  gone  out  of  use. 

Bloodgood  (New  York). — Tree  short,  jointed,  deep  reddish  brown  wood; 
fruit  medium  turbinate,  inclining  to  obovate,  thickening  abruptly  in  stalk; 
yellow,  sprinkled  with  russet  dots;  calyx  strong,  open  almost  without  de- 
pression; stalk  obliquely  inserted,  without  depression,  short,  fleshy  at  its 
base;  flesh  yellowish  white,  melting,  sugary,  aromatic;  core  small. 

Clapp's  Favorite  (Massachusetts). — Tree  a  strong  grower;  young  shoots 
dark  reddish  brown;  fruit  large,  slightly  obtuse  pyriform;  pale  lemon  yel- 
low with  brown  dots;  flesh  fine,  melting,  juicy,  with  rich,  sweet  delicate, 
vinous. flavor;  resembles  Bartlett,  but  lacks  musky  flavor. 


*An  illustrated  account  of  the  pears  chiefly  grown  in  California  and  cultural  matters 
also,  is  given  in  an  excellent  publication  by  George  P.  Weldpn  on  "Pear  Culture  in  Cali- 
fornia," published  in  1918  by  the  State  Horticultural  Commission,  Sacramento. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

J 

Lawson;  syn.  Comet  (New  York).— Medium  to  large,  bright  crimson  on 
yellow  ground;  flesh  fine,  rich  and  sweet;  gaining  in  popularity. 

Bartlett  (English).— Tree  a  strong  grower,  early  bearer,  and  healthy; 
fruit  large,  smooth,  clear  yellow,  sometimes  with  delicate  blush;  stalk  mod- 
erately long;  stout  and  inserted  in  shallow  cavity;  calyx  open;  flesh  white, 
fine  grained,  juicy,  buttery;  highly  perfumed  (musky),  vinous  flavor. 

Buerre  Hardy.— Large,  long,  obovate,  sometimes  obscurely  pyriform; 
skin  greenish  with  thin,  brown  russet;  stalk  an  inch  long;  cavity  small, 
uneven,  oblique,  basin  shallow;  buttery,  somewhat  melting,  rich,  slightly 
subacid;  tree  a  strong  grower. 

Flemish  Beauty  (Belgian). — Large,  obovate,  often  obscurely  tapering  to 
the  crown,  very  obtuse,  surface  slightly  rough,  with  some  reddish  brown 
russet  on  pale  yellow  ground;  flesh  juicy,  melting,  and  good  if  picked  early 
and  ripened  in  the  house;  rejected  commercially. 

Seckel  (Pennsylvania). — Rather  small,  regularly  formed,  obovate; 
brownish  green,  becoming  yellowish  brown,  with  russet  red  cheek;  stalk 
slightly  curved,  and  set  in  strifling  depression;  calyx  small  and  set  in  a 
very  slight  depression;  flesh  whitish,  buttery,  very  juicy  and  melting,  with 
peculiarly  rich,  spicy  flavor  and  aroma.  Only  commended  for  home  orchards. 

Howell  (Connecticut). — Rather  large,  roundish  pyriform,  light  waxen 
yellow,  often  with  finely-shaded  cheek  thickly  sprinkled  with  minute  russet 
dots  and  some  russet  patches;  stalk  medium,  without  cavity  and  some- 
times lipped;  sometimes  in  small  cavity;  calyx  open  in  large,  uneven  basin; 
flesh  whitish,  juicy,  brisk,  vinous;  not  desirable  commercially. 

Duchess  d'Angouleme  (France). — Very  large,  oblong  obovate;  somewhat 
uneven,  knobby  surface;  dull  greenish  yellow,  streaked  and  spotted  with 
russet;  stalk  long,  stout,  bent,  deeply  set  in  irregular  cavity;  calyx  set  in 
somewhat  knobby  basin;  flesh  white,  buttery,  and  juicy,  with  rich  flavor. 

Louise  Bonne  of  Jersey  (France). — Large  oblong  pyriform,  a  little  one- 
sided; glassy,  pale  green  in  shade,  brownish  red  in  the  sun,  numerous  gray 
dots;  stalk  curved,  rather  obliquely  inserted,  without  depression,  or  with 
a  fleshy,  enlarged  base;  calyx  open  in  a  shallow  uneven  basin;  flesh  very 
juicy,  and  melting,  rich,  and  excellent;  very  prolific. 

Beurre  Boser  Belgium). — Large  pyriform,  a  little  uneven,  often  tapering 
long  and  gradually  into  the  stalk;  skin  pretty  smooth,  dark  yellow,  dots 
and  streaks  of  cinnamon  russet,  slightly  red  on  one  side;  stalk  long,  rather 
slender,  curved;  calyx  short,  in  shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  melting,  buttery, 
rich,  with  slightly  perfumed  flavor.  Gaining  commercial  favor. 

Beurre  Clairgeau  (France). — Large,  pyriform,  but  with  unequal  sides; 
yellow,  shaded  with  orange  and  crimson,  thickly  covered  with  russet  dots, 
sometimes  sprinkled  with  russet;  stalk  short,  stout  and  fleshy,  inserted  by 
a  lip  at  an  inclination  almost  without  depression;  when  lip  is  absent,  the 
cavity  is  uneven;  calyx  open;  flesh  yellowish,  buttery;  juicy,  granular, 
sugary,  perfumed,  vinous;  apt  to  ripen  early  for  a  winter  pear;  good  com- 
mercially. 

Beurre  d'Anjou  (France). — Large,  obtuse  pyriform;  stem,  short,  thick, 
and  fleshy,  in  a  cavity,  surrounded  by  russet;  calyx  small,  open  in  small 
cavity,  russetted;  skin  greenish,  sprinkled  with  russet,  sometimes  shaded 
with  dull  crimson,  brown  and  crimson  dots;  flesh  whitish,  not  very  fine, 
melting,  juicy,  vinous  flavor,  perfumed;  tree  a  fair  grower,  but  somewhat 
affected  by  fungus;  approved  commercially. 

Dana's  Hovey;  syn.  Winter  Seckel  (Massachusetts). — Small,  obovate, 
obtuse  pyriform;  greenish  yellow  or  pale  yellow,  with  much  russet  and 
brown  dots;  stalks  rather  short;  a  little  curved,  set  in  slight  cavity,  some- 
times lipped;  calyx  open  and  basin  small;  flesh,  yellowish,  juicy,  melting, 
sweet,  aromatic;  commended  for  home  use. 

Doyenne  du  Cornice  '(France). — Large,  varying,  roundisV\j>yriform,  or 
broad,  obtuse  pyriform;  greenish  yellow  becoming  fine  yellow,  shaded  with 
crimson,  slightly  marked  with  russet  spots,  and  thickly  sprinkled  with 
russet  dots;  stalks  short,  stout,  inclined  and  set  in  shallow  cavity,  often 


' 


VARIETIES   OF  THE  PEAR  271 

russetted;  calyx  small,  open,  basin  large,  deep  and  uneven;  flesh  white, 
fine,  melting,  aromatic.  Very  profitable  during  last  few  years  in  eastern 
shipments. 

Glout  Morceau  (Flemish). — Rather  large,  varying  in  form,  but  usually 
short  pyriform,  approaching  obtuse  oval;  nock  very  short  and  obtuse;  body 
large  and  tapering  towards  crown;  often  considerably  ribbed;  green,  be- 
coming pale  greenish  yellow;  stalk  stout,  moderately  sunk;  calyx  large, 
basin  distinct,  rather  irregular;  flesh  white,  fine-grained,  buttery,  melting, 
rich,  sweet,  and  fine  flavor. 

Block's  Acme  (California  seedling,  by  A.  Block,  of  Santa  Clara). — Large 
and  very  handsome,  surpassing  Beurre  Clairgeau  in  size  and  color;  regu- 
larly formed,  pyriform,  skin  pale  yellow,  covered  with  russet  all  over, 
which  becomes  a  fine  glowing  red  on  the  side  exposed  to  the  sun;  flesh 
white,  crisp,  and /melting,  juicy,  sweet  and  slightly  musky. 

Winter  Nelis  (Belgium). — Medium,  roundish,  obovate,  narrowed  in  near 

the  stalk;  yellowish  green,  dotted  with  gray  russet  and  a  good  deal  covered 

ith  russet;  stalk  rather  long,  bent,  and  set  in  narrow  cavity;  calyx  open 

in  shallow  basin;  flesh  yellowish  white,  fine  grained,  buttery,  very  melting, 

and  full  of  rich,  sweet,  aromatic  juice;  an  old  standard  late  pear. 

Forelle. — Medium  size,  handsome,  greenish  yellow;  brilliant  red  cheek 
with  brown  spots;  quality  good;  often  very  profitable  for  shipping,  but  not 
a  free  bearer. 

P.  Barry  (California  seedling,  by  B.  S.  Fox). — Fruit  large,  elongated 
pyriform,  a  little  obtuse;  skin  deep  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  a  rich  golden 
russet;  stalk  of  medium  length  and  thickness,  set  rather  obliquely  on 
a  medium  cavity,  sometimes  by  a  lip;  flesh  whitish,  fine,  juicy,  melting, 
sweet,  slightly  vinous  and  rich.  Not  justifying  expectations  commercially. 

Easter  Beurre  (France). — Large,  roundish,  obovate  obtuse,  often  rather 
square  in  figure;  yellowish  green,  sprinkled  with  many  russet  dots  and 
some  russet  patches;  stalk  rather  short,  stout,  set  in  an  abruptly  sunken 
obtuse  cavity;  calyx  small,  closed,  but  little  snug  among  plaited  folds  of 
angular  basin;  flesh  white,  fine  grained,  very  buttery,  melting,  and  juicy, 
sweet,  rich  flavor;  was  successfully  shipped  from  California  to  England  as 
early  as  1872  and  retains  favor  for  distant  shipments. 

Pound. — Large,  pyriform,  yellowish-green  with  red  cheek,  esteemed  for 
cooking;  reaches  enormous  size  in  this  State,  as  already  noted. 

Kieffer  and  Le  Conte. — These  pears  are  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  all 
parts  of  the  State,  but  are  usually  condemned  as  inferior  to  the  European 
varieties.  The  Kieffer  is  best  in  interior  regions. 

Crocker's  Bartlett  (California). — Chance  seedling  on  place  of  L.  L. 
Crocker,  Loomis,  Placer  County.  Introduced  by  Mr.  Crocker  in  1902.  De- 
scribed in  year  book,  1905,  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture;  medium  to 
large,  oblong,  obovate,  pyriform;  rich  golden  yellow,  somewhat  russetty; 
quality  very  good;  keeps  until  March.  Claimed  to  be  blight-resistant  and 
regularly  productive,  but  has  never  gained  much  favor. 

Winter  Bartlett  (Oregon). — Chance  seedling  in  the  dooryard  of  D.  W. 
Coolidge  in  Eugene,  Oregon.  Closely  resembles  Bartlett  in  shape  and  ap- 
pearance and  flavor  but  coarser;  ripens  four  months  later  than  Bartlett  in 
interior  situations  in  California.  Abandoned  by  some  growers  for  coarse- 
ness, and  disliked  by  canners  for  developing  a  pink  color.  Commercially 
disappointing. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

PLUMS  AND  PRUNES* 

The  plums  of  California  are  exceptionally  fine  in  appearance  and 
of  high  quality.  Both  tree  and  fruit  have  thus  far  escaped  the 
parasites  which  have  wrought  greatest  injury  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  continent.  The  curculio  has  never  been  found  here,  and  the 
"black  knot"  has  never  been  observed  in  our  orchards.  The  tree 
suffers,  it  is  true,  as  do  most  other  fruit  trees,  from  various 
pests  and  diseases,  but  their  work  is  a  light  affliction  compared  with 
the  ravages  of  the  curculio  and  black  knot  which  Eastern  plum 
growers  have  to  contend  against.  The  plum  stands  first  among  the 
deciduous  fruit  trees  of  California,  as  noted  in  Chapter  VI.  Of  the 
plums,  nearly  six-sevenths  of  the  acreage  are  those  varieties 
designated  as  prunes.  This  is,  of  course,  owing  to  the  profitable 
shipping  demand  for  our  prune  product,  while  ordinary  dried,  pitted 
plums  are  expensive  in  production  and  do  not  always  command 

food  prices.  There  is,  however,  a  large  trade  at  the  East  in  our 
ne  plums  in  a  fresh  state.  Some  varieties  stand  shipment  well  and 
are  large,  handsome  and  in  some  cases  possessed  of  unique  charac- 
ters, resulting  from  Mr.  Burbank's  work  with  the  Japanese  species. 
Considerable  shipments  of  fresh  plums  have  been  made  from  Cali- 
fornia to  England. 

By  choosing  varieties  ripening  in  succession,  the  plum  season 
extends  from  May  to  December,  thus  enabling  the  California  plum 
grower  to  strike  the  Eastern  markets  both  early  and  late.  It  is  on 
record  also,  that  second  crop  plums  have  ripened.  In  1904  Judge 
Leib,  of  San  Jose,  sent  to  Luther  Burbank,  on  December  1,  ripe 
fruit  from  a  tree  which  ripened  its  first  crop  on  July  4,  of  the  same 
year  —  but  this  fact  is  of  no  commercial  account. 

There  is  also  considerable  demand  for  plums  by  the  canners,  who 
do  not  use,  however,  the  varieties  in  chief  demand  for  shipping. 

LOCALITIES  FOR  THE  PLUM 

The  plum  has  an  exceedingly  wide  range  in  California.  The 
trees  are  thrifty  and  profitable  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
coast  and  in  coast  valleys,  eastward  across  the  great  interior  valleys, 
and  upwards  upon  the  sides  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  the  upper 
half  of  the  State,  at  least,  wherever  there  is  sufficient  moisture  in 
the  soil,  good  plums  can  be  grown.  The  tree  is  quite  hardy,  but  in 
situations  open  to  the  sweep  of  the  winds  there  has  been  found  to 
be  decided  advantage  in  belts  of  sheltering  trees  for  protection. 


be  dr£!l  writ£^t  atrh    plUmS'    ibUf  S  pl"ms  alc    not  P™nes.     A   prune    is  a   plum    which   can 
with  a  hi*h  cWrL  nf  5em°val  of  the  pit  without  fermenting—  the  result   being  a  fleshy  pulp 

ic  word  m/v  Yn  .       .sw<;etness.    All  plums  which  will  not  do  this  are  not  prunes  even  though 

ic  word  may  appear  m  their  California  common  names 


Pomology 


Station  SflSjrh-1*  °f  fo-JVTl1    &*%*?*&*  Prune  is  «iv«n   in   California   Experiment 
Pomolo  (JUnC'  1921)  by  Prof'  A>  M>  Hendrickson  of  the  University  Division  of 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLUMS  273 

At  some  points  subject  to  direct  coast  influences,  there  is  sometimes 
loss  by  cracking  of  the  fruit.  It  is  seldom  encountered  in  the  in- 
terior valley,  except  near  the  rivers  or  in  draws  where  the  damp 
coast  air  makes  its  way  through.  It  seems  to  be  worst  where  there 
are  marked  differences  in  atmospheric  humidity  within  short  periods 
of  time.  Where  the  percentage  is  quite  uniformly  high  or  low  there 
seems  to  be  less  trouble.  Some  years  conditions  usually  restricted 
to  more  exposed  coast  situations  prevail  in  the  interior  valley,  and 
the  result  is  unusual  prevalence  of  mildew  and  other  moist  fungi 
and  cracking  of  fruit  also,  though  they  have  no  relation  to  each 
other  except  that  the  same  conditions  favor  both.  Only  certain 
varieties  are  thus  affected,  and  they  can  be  avoided  where  the 
trouble  is  found  to  exist. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  held  that  Southern  California  was  not 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  plum,  but  the  experience  of  the  last 
few  years  has  shown  that  the  conclusion  was  too  broad.  The 
"French  pruns£'  demonstrated  its  success  adjacent  to  the  Coast  in 
Santa  Barbara  County,  and  elsewhere,  in  the  low,  rich  lands  of  the 
Santa  Ana  Valley,  of  Orange  County,  in  the  interior  at  various 
points  on  the  rim  of  the  San  Gabriel  Valley,  in  Los  Angeles  County, 
notably  at  Pomona,  and  still  farther  inland  in  the  San  Bernardino 
Valley,  but  the  Southern  California  prune  product  is  small  because 
the  land  and  water  can  be  more  profitably  used  for  other  fruits. 
There  is,  however,  difficulty  in  some  dry  uplands  where  the  tree 
is  shy  in  fruiting  and  subject  to  serious  gumming;  but  this  is  en- 
countered locally  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  Irrigation  does  not 
always  overcome  these  troubles,  and  yet,  no  doubt,  the  arrangement 
of  proper  moisture  conditions  is  important.  The  tree  should  be 
helped  to  make  one  good  growth  and  to  ripen  its  wood  in  the  fall. 
To  have  growth  checked  by  drouth  and  a  second  start  made  later 
in  the  season  is  not  desirable. 

All  the  foregoing  observations  are  based  upon  the  behavior  of 
plums  of  European  origin ;  descendants  of  the  Prunus  domestica. 
One  of  the  grandest  contributions  to  the  extension  of  the  range  of 
the  plum  in  California  was  the  introduction  of  the  Asiatic  species, 
Prunus  triflora  and  simoni.  Varieties  of  these  species  directly  intro- 
duced or  locally  developed  by  Burbank  and  others,  have  proved 
productive  in  places  where  the  domestica  varieties  were  abandoned 
as  shy  or  sterile.  To  estimate  the  value  of  these  varieties  one  has 
only  to  visit  the  home  fruit  gardens  of  Southern  California  or  in- 
spect the  fruit  stands  of  Los  Angeles  which  are  continuous  exhibits 
of  fine  specimens  of  these  varieties  in  their  seasons.  Even  in  places 
where  the  domestica  varieties  are  largely  grown  the  Asiatic  varieties 
are  also  prominent. 

SOILS  AND  STOCKS  FOR  THE  PLUM 

With  the  plum,  as  with  the  apricot,  the  subjects  of  soils  and 
stocks  are  intimately  related,  but  the  whole  matter  has  been  wonder- 
fully simplified  by  the  experience  of  the  last  few  years.  This  relief 
has  come  through  the  adoption  of  the  myrobalan,  or  cherry  plum 


274  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

(Prunus  myrobalana),  a  general  all-around  stock  for  plums  and 
prunes.  Before  this  practice  was  taken  up  the  effort  to  grow  the 
plum  on  its  own  roots  generally  resulted  in  getting  an  orchard  full 
of  suckers,  and  to  avoid  this,  plums  were  worked  on  peach  roots 
wherever  this  root  would  succeed  in  the  soil  to  be  planted.  But 
some  varieties  of  plums  do  not  take  kindly  to  the  peach,  and  then 
"double  working"  (putting  first  on  the  peach  a  plum  which  is 
known  to  take  well  and  then  on  that  plum  wood  the  variety  de- 
sired) was  followed.  The  use  of  the  myrobalan  does  away  with  the 
suckering  nuisance,  and  the  need  of  double  working.  More  than 
three-quarters  of  our  plums  and  prunes  are  now  being  budded  on 
myrobalan  seedlings,  and  our  nurserymen  usually  have  large,  thrifty 
myrobalan  trees  from  which  they  secure  their  seed  supply.  Growing 
stock  from  myrobalan  cuttings  is  not  practiced.  Experience  has 
shown  that  the  myrobalan  root  thrives  in  this  State  both  in  low, 
moist,  valley  lands,  in  comparatively  dry  lands,  if  not  too  light  and 
leachy,  and  in  stiff  upland  soils. 

In  some  soils  especially  adapted  to  the  peach,  peach  roots  are 
preferred  as  stock  for  the  French  prune,  but,  as  already  said,  all 
plums  can  not  be  worked  directly  on  the  peach  root,  the  Robe  de 
Sergeant,  Columbia,  Yellow  Egg,  Washington,  Diamond  Tragedy, 
Grand  Duke,  and  Sugar  Prune,  for  example.  Sometimes  the  bud 
or  scion  may  make  a  large  growth,  but  the  two  woods  do  not  unite, 
and  the  trees  are  likely  to  break  off  sooner  or  later. 

Some  work  the  plum  on  the  apricot  root  because  the  apricot  root 
is  perhaps  more  tolerant  of  a  certain  amount  of  alkali  in  the  soil, 
but  sometimes  the  French  prune  top  parts  from  the  apricot  root 
even  after  growing  some  time  upon  it.  There  are,  however,  instances 
of  the  French  prune  thriving,  and,  apparently  making  good  union 
with  the  apricot  root ;  and  some  of  the  softer  wood  varieties,  like  the 
Sugar  prune,  take  kindly  to  it. 

Some  plums  do  well  on  the  almond  root  and  some  do  not.  The 
French  prune  succeeds  admirably  both  when  worked  on  young 
almond  stocks  and  top  grafted  in  old  almond  trees.  But  the  almond 
root  is  chiefly  suited  to  warm,  dry  soils.  Excellent  results  from  the 
use  of  almond  stock  are  reported  from  the  interior  valley  and  the 
Sierra  foothills  on  soils  which  are  deep  and  free. 

Propagating  by  Sprouts. — The  French  practice  of  growing  cer- 
tain varieties  of  the  plum  by  means  of  sprouts  from  the  base  of  old 
trees  was  successfully  followed  in  this  State  by  Felix  Gillet,  of 
Nevada  City,  and  was  strongly  commended  by  him  as  securing  a 
tree  which  will  not  gum,  which  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  same 
practice  prevails  in  France.  Sprouts  growing  at  the  foot  of  old 
and  large  trees,  and  but  few  are  found  to  each  tree,  are  taken  off 
and  planted  close  together  in  a  bed  to  make  them  root  well,  and  the 
ensuing  spring  planted  in  nursery  rows,  where  they  are  trained  like 
any  other  trees,  and  transplanted  where  to  remain,  when  branched. 
For  this  method  it  is  necessary  that  the  parent  tree  should  be  upon 
its  own  roots,  else  one  is  apt  to  get  suckers  from  a  wild  stock. 
Sprout-grown  trees  can  not,  however,  be  defended  unless  some 


PRUNING   THE   PLUM 


275 


special  point  like  that  claimed  by  Mr.   Gillet  can  be  attained  by 
them. 

PLANTING  AND  PRUNING 

As  with  other  trees,  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best 
distance  apart  for  plum  trees.  The  present  tendency  is  toward 
wider  planting ;  not  nearer  than  twenty  feet  is  the  usual  advice,  and 
on  rich  land,  twenty-two,  twenty-four  or  twenty-six  feet  is  better. 

The  plum,  in  California,  is  a  most  rapid  grower;  six  to  ten  feet 
from  the  bud  or  graft  in  a  season,  and  about  as  much  after  the  first 
winter's  cutting  back,  is  not  at  all  unusual.  At  this  rate  of  progress 


Pruning  after  first  summer's 
growth  in  orchard 


Growth  during  second  summer 
in  orchard 


then,  the  tree  soon  runs  up  and  away,  in  a  spindling,  sprawling 
fashion,  unless  severely  cut  back  for  the  first  few  years.  Neglected 
trees  of  some  varieties  show  long,  streaming  branches,  arching  out- 
ward, and  exposing  the  bark  to  sunburn  (to  which  it  is  very  sensi- 
tive), breaking  the  tree  to  pieces  as  the  fruit  gets  weight,  and,  even 
if  supported  by  props,  breaking  off  at  the  bearing  of  the  prop.  This 
condition  of  the  tree  can  only  be  obviated  by  low  heading  and 
moderate  cutting  back  each  year,  with  due  regard  to  limiting  the 
amount  of  bearing  wood  to  get  large  fruit.  For  such  plum  varieties 
the  suggestions  on  forming  the  tree  and  subsequent  treatment  in 
Chapter  XII  will  be  found  helpful. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Pruning  the  French  Prune. — Growers  of  the  French  prune,  and 
other  varieties  of  similar  growth  of  strong  and  pliable  wood,  have 
reached  substantial  agreement  as  to  the  best  practice.  The  old 
method  of  cutting  back  bearing  trees  has  been  abandoned.  Cutting 
back  the  young  tree  to  secure  sufficient  low  branching  is  followed 
by  thinning  of  shoots  from  this  low  head  so  that  the  tree  shall  not 
become  too  dense  or  carry  too  much  bearing  wood.  ^The  strength 
in  the  head  depends  upon  proper  spacing  and  arrangement  of  the 
branches  as  insisted  upon  in  Chapter  XII;  and  large,  well-ripened 
fruit,  which  is  essential  to  successful  and  profitable  drying,  is  con- 
ditioned upon  avoiding  excess  of  branches  and  admission  of  suffi- 
cient light  to  the  tree — but  in  the  interior  valley  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  open  the  center  of  the  tree  too  much. 

A  rather  longer  central  stem  is  retained  than  in  the  old  style, 
and  a  central  stem  throughout  is  admissible  if  one  prefers  it  and 
does  not  desire  to  dispenstwith  it  as  the  first  step  toward  securing 
a  more  open  tree.  Some  retain  the  longer  stem  at  planting,  others 
cut  back  to  eighteen  inches,  develop  three  side  branches  upon  that 
and  train  the  branch  from  the  top  bud  for  a  lengthening  of  the  stem, 
and  bring  out  more  branches  upon  that  the  second  year,  and  then 
dispense  with  its  farther  extension.  The  adjacent  engravings  show 
this  method  of  developing  the  head  of  a  young  French  prune.  The 
tree  was  cut  back  at  planting  in  orchard  to  a  straight  switch  about 
eighteen  inches  high.  At  the  end  of  the  first  summer  this  showed 
the  form  in  the  first  picture,  which  is  marked  (with  short  cross 
lines)  for  the  first  winter  pruning.  The  second  engraving  shows 
the  branching  developed  from  this  during  the  second  summer's 
growth,  also  marked  to  prune  away  some  undesirable  branches. 
Upon  a  tree  of  this  form  further  cutting  back  is  not  desirable  as  it 
has  enough  well-placed  branches  to  form  the  tree. 

How  long  cutting  back  shall  continue  depends  partly  upon  the 
locality  and  partly  upon  the  notion  of  the  owner.  In  interior  locali- 
ties the  tree  grows  with  great  rapidity  and  branches  more  freely. 
During  the  third  summer  it  will  bear  some  fruit  if  not  cut  back  the 
previous  winter,  and,  where  growth  is  so  rapid,  there  is  little  danger 
of  injuring  the  tree  by  early  bearing.  In  the  coast  valleys  cutting 
back  may  continue  another  year,  and  fruiting  be  thus  postponed  a 
year  to  get  another  summer's  freer  wood  growth.  There  are,  how- 
ever, very  good  orchards  in  which  the  trees  were  only  cut  back  two 
years,  and  summer  pinching  and  winter  thinning  of  shoots  and  re- 
moval of  suckers  have  given  good  results. 

Though  cutting  back  may  properly  cease  early  with  the  French 
prune,  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  allow  the  trees  to  go  unpruned. 
Removal  of  defective  wood,  prevention  of  branch  crowding  and 
overbearing  are  of  the  highest  importance,  as  insisted  upon  in 
Chapter  XII.  Removing  surplus  laterals  at  their  starting  points, 
and  cutting  back  leaders  to  laterals  already  grown  and  not  to  en- 
courage new  branching,  will  result  in  a  more  open  tree,  which  is 
generally  very  desirable. 

Renewal  of  French  Prunes.— When  a  French  prune  tree  gets  old 
and  set  in  an  unprofitable  way  it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  back  for 


PRUNING  THE  PRUNE  277 

new  wood-growth,  but  if  it  has  not  too  far  weakened  and  still  has 
reserves,  new  fruiting  wood  can  be  promoted  on  old  branches  in- 
stead of  removing  them.  This  is  done  by  spur  or  twig  pruning  as 
practiced  by  Mr.  A.  Taylor  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley: 

Clip  all  but  three  or  four  buds  on  the  twigs  on  the  outside  of  the  tree, 
not  touching  many  twigs  inside,  except  to  thin  them  out  where  too  thick. 
This  is  done  October  to  March — none  in  summer,  because  he  does  not  like 
the  evaporation.  The  cut  is  made  just  above  a  bud  or  short  fruit  spur — not 
just  above  a  little  limb,  except  in  special  cases.  In  the  first  year,  some 
effect,  but  not  extensive,  will  be  seen  in  the  new  fruit  spurs  forced  out 
from  dormant  buds  further  back  on  the  limbs.  New  wood  growth  several 
inches  long  will  come  from  the  two  buds  nearest  the  cut  and  also  on  the 
undipped  twigs  farther  down  on  the  limb,  which  would  not  have  put  out 
wood  growth  otherwise. 

Having  clipped  back  the  twigs  for  three  years  in  succession,  an  ordinary 
tree  will  have  as  much  new  wood  as  may  be  desirable,  and  no  pruning 
should  be  done  in  the  next  two  years.  As  a  rule  each  added  year  of  clip- 
ping brings  out  double  the  length  of  new  wood.  Specially  vigorous  trees 
will  have  too  much  new  wood.  This  should  be  thinned  out  by  cutting 
entire  twigs  off  at  their  junction  with  the  next  larger  ones.  None  should 
be  clipped,  for  that  induces  more  wood.  The  thinning  will  not  cause  new 
wood  growth  for  a  year  or  two,  but  the  dormant  buds  at  the  base  of  the 
thinned-out  twigs  may  grow  into  fruit-bearing  wood  the  following  season 
if  end  twigs  have  been  clipped. 

The  job  is  a  slow  one,  but  every  cut  heals  over — there  are  no  rotting 
stubs,  and^  it  forces  fruit  growth  inside  the  tree,  because  the  inside  is  filled 
with  fruiting  limbs  and  spurs,  which  are  distinguished  from  the  suckers 
by  their  oblique  growing  and  the  large  number  of  close-together  fruit  buds 
on  them. 

Special  Studies  of  Varieties  in  Pruning. — The  points  just  ad- 
vanced apply  especially  to  the  management  of  the  French  prune. 
The  grower  must  be  exhorted  to  study  the  habit  of  the  variety  he 
has  to  deal  with.  The  general  rules  for  handling  trees  with  different 
habits  of  growth  are  applicable  to  a  certain  extent  to  the  plum. 
When  to  apply  a  rule  or  make  an  exception  must  be  learned  by 
observation  and  experience.  Some  plums  have  something  of  the 
growth  habit  of  the  peach,  and  this  is  also  very  true  of  some  of  the 
Japanese  varieties.  Cutting  back  in  winter  and  pinching  in  summer 
are  both  useful  facts  in  securing  lower  branching  and  low-growing 
fruit  spurs.  Longer  pruning  of  plums  is  successfully  practiced  in 
the  Sierra  foothills  where  wood  growth  is  not  so  free  as  in  valley 
situations.  Mr.  Ed  Ames  of  Newcastle,  whose  experience  with  the 
peach  is  given  in  Chapter  XX,  works  in  this  way  with  his  shipping 
plums : 

With  plums,  all  there  is  to  do  is  to  get  them  started  right  and  then  cut 
out  only  the  dead  or  broken  wood.  All  the  sap  goes  to  fruit.  The  fruit  is 
generally  of  the  fanciest  sizes.  The  limbs  bend  to  the  ground  but  seldom 
break  and  are  seldom  propped.  They  do  not  swing  in  any  wind  we  have 
here,  enough  to  even  brush  the  bloom  from  plums;  partly  because  they 
are  always  heavily  loaded  and  low  down.  Some  varieties  of  Japanese  plums 
require  removal  of  some  laterals;  but  Wickson,  Formosa,  Gaviota,  and 
Kelsey  do  not. 

The  formation  of  the  vase-form  with  continuous  laterals,  as  dis- 
cussed in  Chapters  XII  and  XX,  is  being  successfully  practiced  by 
some  growers  with  plum  varieties  which  need  shorter  pruning  than 
the  French  prune  requires. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO   GROW  THEM 

Grafting  the  Plum. — The  plum  has  been  grafted  and  regrafted 
in  the  constant  effort  to  secure  varieties  promising  superiority  in 
various  directions.  Within  the  scope  of  their  affinities  plums  graft 
easily  by  common  top-grafting  methods,  and  if  the  roots  are  strong 
the  new  growth  is  so  rapid  as  to  need  special  attention.  Mr.  Luther 
Bowers  gives  these  hints  about  pruning  such  growths  :  "From  prac- 
tical experience  I  have  found  out  that  the  Sugar  prune  wood  should 
only  be  summer-pruned  and  only  cut  while  the  shoots  are  tender, 
or  so  soft  that  the  top  can  be  pinched  out ;  this  will  cause  the  top 
to  be  well  branched  and  this  should  be  done  at  least  twice  during 
the  first  year  of  the  graft.  This  system  will  avoid  long,  slender 
limbs.  After  a  graft  is  two  years  old  I  would  never  cut  the  top  off 
of  a  limb.  If  a  tree  gets  too  thick  a  top,  I  would  cut  out  some  of  the 
main  branches." 

THE  PLUMCOTS 

One  of  the  most  striking  achievements  of  Mr.  Burbank  is  the 
cross  of  the  plum  and  the  apricot,  which  he  has  very  fitly  named 
the  "plumcot."  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  apricot 
with  a  deep  purple  velvety  skin.  One  of  its  striking  features  is  the 
brilliant  red  flesh  possessed  of  a  strong  sub-acid  flavor  rendering  it 
suitable  for  cooking,  jellies  and  jams,  and  it  is  in  good  demand  for 
such  uses,  but  its  economic  value  is  still  to  be  determined.  Several 
named  varieties  are  now  supplied  by  nurserymen. 

HOW  A  PRUNE  QUEST  DISTURBED  THE  PLUM 
FAMILY  IN  CALIFORNIA 

Referring  to  the  distinction  between  plums  and  prunes  cited  at 
the  opening  of  this  chapter,  and  to  the  extent  and  methods  of  the 
great  prune  industry  of  the  State  which  will  appear  in  Chapter  XL, 
it  may  be  stated  here  that  the  California  prune  product  was  obvi- 
ously undertaken  in  emulation  of  the  globe-trotting  French  prune, 
which  had  attained  position  as  the  leading  commercial  dried  fruit 
of  the  world  long  before  California  arose  on  the  horticultural  hori- 
zon. Naturally,  French  settlers  in  California  bethought  themselves 
of  transplanting  this  great  industry  to  their  new  home,  and  Mr. 
Louis  Pellier  introduced  scions  from  the  district  of  Agen  to  his 
place  near  San  Jose  in  1856.  The  product  was  good,  and  planting  for 
a  large  output  was  entered  upon,  though  slowly  at  first.  There  was 
disappointment  over  the  fact  that,  while  all  fruits  came  surprisingly 
large  in  California,  the  dried  prunes  were  smaller  than  the  great 
French  prunes  in  cartons  and  canisters  which  sold  for  great  prices. 
Had  we  secured  the  true  French  prune;  did  they  not  have  larger 
ones  which  they  were  holding  back  from  us?  This  was  the  great 
question  of  six  decades  ago.  Some  nurserymen  of  that  day  had 
spirits  of  enterprise  larger  than  their  consciences.  If  the  people 
demand  larger  prunes  they  must  have  them,  surely.  Because  of 
the  small  average  size  of  the  prunes  of  Pellier's  introduction,  they 
christened  that  variety  "petite  prune  d'Agen,"  which  was  subse- 
quently corrupted  into  "petty  prune" — a  free  translation  and  a 


WHY  THE  FRENCH  PRUNE  IS  BEST  279 

mispronunciation  at  the  same  time,  for  a  prune  which  seemed  to 
be  too  small  and  inferior.  The  people  must  have  something  large, 
and  propagators  offered  trees  of  the  "gros  prune  d'Agen,"  or  the 
"Hungarian  prune/'  It  was  a  double  misnomer,  because  Europe 
does  not  have  any  "gros  prune  d'Agen"  and  the  variety  did  not 
come  from  either  France  or  Hungary,  but  was  the  old  large  light 
red,  English  plum,  properly  called  Pond's  Seedling,  re-christened  in 
California  to  meet  a  long-felt  want.  But  it  did  not  meet  such  a 
want ;  it  would  not  dry  sweet  nor  fleshy,  but  became  merely  a  skin 
and  pit,  with  a  sour  streak  between.  Still  the  question  persisted: 
Have  we  the  true  French  prune?  It  was  definetely  settled  by  the 
late  W.  B.  West  of  Stockton,  who  visited  France  in  1878,  and  after 
close  examination  of  the  trees,  announced  that  the  variety  grown 
in  California  was  really  the  prune  d'Agen,  and  that  we  had  made 
no  mistake  so  far  as  getting  the  main  standard  variety  of  French 
prune  was  concerned. 

But  still  we  needed  a  variety  which  would  run  more  to  large 
sizes,  and  how  to  get  it,  with  sweetness  and  flesh,  characters  which 
would  resemble  the  best  French  product,  was,  and  even  now  is,  still 
a  question.  One  of  the  early  introductions  to  meet  this  end  is  now 
generally  known  as  Robe  de  Sergeant.  Here  again  confusion  at- 
tends the  name.  Robe  de  Sergeant  i^one  of  the  synonyms  of  prune 
d'Agen,  and  yet  the  fruit  we  secured  was  different.  Much  dis- 
cussion was  given  to  the  elucidation  of  this  problem,  and  the  con- 
clusion seemed  to  be  that  the  variety  is  grown  in  France,  but  in 
another  district,  and  is  generally  considered  inferior  to  the  prune 
d'Agen.  Still  it  runs  larger,  and  has  sold  well,  even  though  of  dis- 
tinctly different  quality,  and  would  probably  have  cut  a  much  larger 
figure  in  California  prune  production  if  it  had  shown  itself  to  be 
more  free  and  regular  in  bearing.  Next  came  the  "prune  d'ente,  or 
Imperial  epineuse,"  introduced  at  about  the  same  time  by  John 
Rock  and  Felix  Gillet,  which  has  been  quite  widely  planted,  but 
because  of  shy  bearing,  especially  when  attacked  by  thrips,  and 
because  of  the  difficulty  in  drying  such  a  large  prune,  this  variety, 
of  which  so  much  was  expected,  has  fallen  into  disfavor  for  the  low 
lands  of  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  though  on  the  mountains  west  of 
this  valley  and  in  the  prune  valleys  north  of  the  Bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco it  has  proved  very  popular  and  profitable  when  planted  on 
uplands. 

Other  introductions  made  much  earlier,  like  the  German  and 
Italian,  also  fell  out  of  the  race  very  early,  for  shy  bearing  and  for 
different  flesh  characters.  Although  the  latter  leads  in  Oregon  and 
other  States  north  of  us,  it  is  out  of  California  calculations.  The 
conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  now  is  that  we  have  never  secured 
from  abroad  a  better  than  the  one  which  came  more  than  sixty  years 
ago — the  true  prune  d'Agen.  We  have  learned  to  grow  it  better,  to 
seek  places  where  it  grows  larger  and  in  full  quantity ;  to  use  irriga- 
tion when  it  is  needed  by  the  tree  to  do  its  best ;  to  guard  against 
overbearing  by  reducing  the  amount  of  bearing  wood  and  excessive 
branching;  to  strengthen  the  soil  by  fertilization,  and  to  grade  the 
fruit  into  sizes  which  commend  themselves  to  different  demands. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Here  we  are  again,  doing  our  main  business  at  the  old  stand,  but 
knowing  how  to  do  it  better.  Have  we  anything  more  to  expect? 
Probably  nothing  from  old  varieties,  for  we  have  prospected  them 
all  from  a  prune-making  point  of  view,  holding  for  a  time  to  Coe's 
Golden  Drop  plum,  or  its  seedling,  the  Silver  prune,  and  canceling 
all  others  as  possibly  good  plums  for  various  uses,  but  not  for  prunes. 
But  the  "Silver  Prune"  is  now  in  the  discard  becauseta  light-colored, 
sulphured  prune,  is  not  in  large  demand. 

Probably  our  only  expectation  lies  along  the  line  of  plant  breed- 
ing, although  nothing  to  supplant  the  prune  d'Agen  has  yet  been 
attained.  The^Giant  prune  is  a  large  red  plum;  several  Oregon 
prunes  are  sirnjy  large  red  plums.  The  standard  of  sugar  in  the 
prune  d'Agen  as  grown  in  California  is  from  15  to  23  per  cent  of 
sugar  in  the  fresh  juice,  according  to  degree  of  ripeness  and  localities 
in  which  the  fruit  is  grown.  The  sugar  in  Pond's  Seedling  and  in 
the  large  red  plums  just  named  is  less  than  10  per  cent — sometimes 
very  much  less.  But  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  juice  is  not  the 
whole  story ;  there  are  tissue  or  flesh  characters  which  are  essential 
also.  Mr.  Burbank's  Sugar  prune  answers  the  sugar  requirement; 
it  is  a  free  bearer  and  early  ripening  variety,  and  it  dries  easily 
though  large,  and  the  small  dried  product  thus  far  made  has  sold 
well,  but  it  has  not  the  fine  grain  nor  distinctive  flavor  of  the  prune 
d'Agen,  and  the  pit  is  large  and  rough.  It  becomes  a  good  plum 
for  shipping  and  possibly  for  other  plum  purposes.  But  Mr.  Bur- 
bank  has  held  the  plum  family  in  training,  and  introduced  the 
Standard  prune  in  1914.  It  is  large,  handsome,  dark  blue  while  still 
firm  but  has  never  gained  much  favor  as  a  shipping  plum.  As  a 
drying  prune  it  has  several  defects:  it  loses  too  much  weight  in 
curing ;  its  flesh  is  too  coarse ;  it  must  be  thoroughly  ripened  beyond 
coloring  before  picking  for  the  trays,  and  it  does  not  indicate  its 
own  maturity  by  dropping,  as  the  French  prune  does. 

•  No  substitute  for  the  French  prune  has  manifested  equality  in 
flavor,  texture  of  flesh,  smallness  and  smoothness  of  pit,  retention  of 
weight  in  curing  and  ease  of  handling  for  a  cured  prune.  Public 
interest  has  turned  from  the  quest  of  a  larger  substitute  to  the  selec- 
tion of  natural  variations  toward  larger  size  of  the  French  prune 
itself,  as  found  on  bearing  trees.  Mr.  Leonard  Coates  of  Morgan 
Hill  pursued  this  line  for  many  years  and  is  propagating  several 
notable  variations.  More  recently  other  propagators  have  taken 
up  the  same  line  and  in  1921  our  leading  nurserymen  are  all  offering 
"improved"  French  prune  varieties  which  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
best  prune  possible  will  be  a  selection  from  the  type  which  we  se- 
cured from  France  over  sixty-five  years  ago,  though  the  relative 
value  of  those  offered  are  not  yet  determined. 

POLLINATION  OF  PLUMS 

The  shy  bearing  of  certain  plums  is  due  to  lack  of  pollination, 
either  through  the  self-sterility  of  the  variety  or  lack  of  acceptable 
pollinating  agencies.  Bearing  can  be  induced  in  many  cases  by 
either  planting  or  grafting-in  of  effective  pollinating  varieties.  For 


POLLINATION   OF   PLUMS  281 

instance,  experience  has  shown  that  the  Tragedy  can  be  brought  to 
greater  bearing  by  the  presence  of  other  varieties  of  European 
species,  and  the  Hungarian  is  well  pollinated  by  the  Peach  and  the 
Grand  Duke  plums.  The  bearing  of  Wickson  is  greatly  increased 
by  association  with  Climax.  It  is  clearly  demonstrated  that  planters 
of  plums  should  pay  attention  to  association  of  varieties  except  in 
the  case  of  the  French  and  the  Sugar  prunes,  neither  of  which  re- 
quire cross-pollination. 

Careful  studies  of  prune  pollination  have  been  made  during  the 
last  seven  years  by  Prof.  A.  H.  Hendrickson  both  with  reference  to 
varieties  and  the  desirability  of  bees  as  pollinating  agencies  and 
the  results  published  in  Bulletins  291  and  310,  which  can  be  had  by 
application  to  the  University  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley,  and 
they  should  be  studied  by  all  planters.  The  work  is  still  in  prog- 
ress in  1921  and  new  results  being  recorded  which  can  be  had  by 
correspondence  with  the  Division  of  Pomology  at  Berkeley. 

THINNING   PLUMS 

In  shipping  plums  it  is  essential  to  thin  the  fruit  systematically 
as  stated  in  Chapter  XII,  to  get  fancy  sizes.  The^  smaller  varieties, 
such  as  Beauty,  Diamond.etc..  should  be  left  about  an  inch  apart, 
while  Gaviota,  Formosa,  Tjrand  Duke,  Santa  Rosa  and  Wickson 
may  be  left  two  to  two  and  a  half  inches  apart.  Imperfect  plums 
should  be  removed  first,  and  in  all  cases  care  must  be  exercised  to 
avoid  loosening  the  stems  of  those  remaining. 


IRRIGATION   OF   PLUMS   AND   PRUNES 

Irrigation  of  plums  and  prunes  to  secure  size  of  fruit  and  thrift 
of  trees,  is  undertaken  in  different  producing  regions  as  local  con- 
ditions may  require.  The  discussions  in  Chapter  XVI  have  par- 
ticular applicability  to  the  plum  family. 

VARIETIES   OF  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES 

As  with  other  fruits,  comparatively  few  varieties  of  the  plum 
are  largely  grown  in  California,  and  the  list  is  continually  changing 
by  rejection  of  old  varieties  and  introduction  of  new  which,  for  ship- 
ping purposes,  are  largely  of  Burbank  origin. 

The  1920  conferences  of  growers,  canners  and  nurserymen 
reached  the  following  conclusions  on  plum  varieties : 

Approved  for  Shipping. — Anita,  Beauty,  Cal.  Blue  (Vacaville),  Burbank, 
Climax,  Diamond,  Gaviota,  Giant,  Grand  Duke,  Duarte,  Hungarian,  Kelsey, 
President,  Santa  Rosa,  Tragedy,  Wickson.  Additional  for  home  use:  Apex 
Plumcot,  Damson,  Satsuma. 

Disapproved. — Clyman,  Coe's  Golden  Drop,  Abundance,  Botan,  Fellen- 
burg,  Formosa,  German,  Paragon,  Red  June,  Standard,  Sugar. 

Approved  for  Canning1. — The  canners  recommend  planting  25  per  cent 
Washington,  40  per  cent  Yellow  Egg,  25  per  cent  Jefferson,  10  per  cent 
Bavey's  Green  Gage.  Disapproved:  Imperial  Gage. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

The  following  list  includes  not  only  those  at  present  commended 
but  those  previously  planted  and  which  are  to  be  found  still  in  serv- 
ice in  different  parts  of  the  State : 

Simon  (Primus  Simoni). — Medium  to  large,  roundish,  flattened,  with 
cavities  at  base  and  apex;  brick  red,  small  j^ellow spots;  grown  for  shipment 
in  early  interior  regions,  where  it  has  good  quality;  lacks  flavor  and  cracks 
badly  near  the  coast.  Being  displaced  by  Burbank  varieties. 

Climax ^(Burbank).— Large;  very  early;  heart-shaped;  deep  red;  flesh 
yellow.  Popular  for  shipping  in  places  where  it  does  not  crack  badly.  Grow- 
ing in  favor.  A  good  polliriizer  for  Japanese  varieties. 

Beauty *( Burbank). — Resembles  Climax,  but  two  weeks  earlier.  Called 
the  best  early  plum  for  shipping. 

Clyman  (California  seedling  introduced  by  Leonard  Coates).— Large, 
roundish  oblong,  flattened  suture  indistinct;  mottled  reddish  purple;  beauti- 
ful blue  bloom  ;  freestone.  Being  displaced. 

Red  June  "(Japanese). — Medium  to  large,  deep  red  flesh  light  yellow,  firm, 
good  quality.  Being  displaced.  ^ 

California  Blue;  syn.  Vacaville. — Seedling  of  peach  plum  by  W.  W.  Smith, 
Vacaville;  large,  good  flavor;  early;  "first  really  good  blue  plum." 

Tragedy  (California  seedling). — Medium  to  large,  suture  shallow,  wide 
and  extending  beyond  apex;  dark  purple  ;  flesh  yellowish  green,  sweet  and 
well  flavored;  freestone.  Very  valuable  for  shipping  from  early  regions  in 
all  parts  of  the  State. 

Abundance  (Japanese). — Syns.  Yellow-fleshed  Botan,  Mikado  of  Hinclay. 
Large,  globular  with  point  at  apex;  cherry  color  covered  with  white  bloom; 
flesh  yellow,  juicy  and  rich.  Being  displaced. 

Peach  (French  prune  peche). — Very  large,  roundish  oblate  ,  regular,  flat- 
tened at  ends;  suture  district,  shallow;  color  varying  from  salmon  to  light 
brownish  red.  Becoming  less  prominent. 

Royale  Hative  (French). — Medium  roundish,  slightly  wider  at  base;  light 
purple  stalk  half  an  inch  long,  stout,  scarcely  sunk;  flesh  amber  yellow,  with 
rich,  high  flavor,  nearly  free  from  the  small,  flattened,  ovate  stone;  shoots 
very  downy. 

Bradshaw. — Large,  obovate,  with  obtuse  suture  on  one  side,  sometimes 
with  very  slight  neck;  dark  purple,  with  light  blue  bloom;  stalk  three-fourths 
inch  long;  cavity  narrow;  flesh  a  little  coarse,  becoming  light  brownish 
purple.  Not  in  high  favor. 

Green  Gage  "(French). — Rather  small,  round;  suture  faint  green,  becoming 
yellowish  green,  usually  with  reddish  brown  dots  and  network  at  base;  stalk 
half  to  three-fourths  inch,  scarcely  sunk;  flesh  pale  green,  melting,  juicy, 
exceedingly  rich,  and  flavor  excellent;  shoots  smooth. 

Burbank. — Tree  imported  from  Japan  by  Luther  Burbank.  Almost  glob- 
ular, being  five  and  a  half  inches  around  horizontally,  and  five  and  five-eighths 
inches  around  vertically:  rich  cherry  red,  slightly  mottled  with  yellow,  and 
freely  dotted  with  same  tint;  flesh  deep  yellow,  juicy,  very  sweet,  and  of 
fine,  somewhat  peculiar,  but  very  agreeable  flavor;  pit  is  very  small,  three- 
fourths  by  a  trifle  over  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Duane's  Purple  (New  York). — Very  large,  oblong,  oval,  longer  on  one 
side;  slightly  narrowed  towards  the  stalk;  reddish  purple,  bloom  lilac;  stalk 
three-fourths  inch;  slender;  cavity  narrow,  flesh  juicy,  moderately  sweet. 

Washington  (New  York). — Very  large,  roundish  oval,  suture  obscure, 
distinct  at  base;  yellowish  green,  faintly  marbled,  often  with  pale  red  blush; 
stack  half  to  three-fourths  inch;  slightly  downy;  cavity  wide,  shallow;  flesh 
rather  firm,  sweet,  mild,  very  rich  and  luscious,  free  from  the  pointed  stone; 
shoots  downy;  very  vigorous. 

Grand  Duke.— Large  oval,  necked;  deep  purple  with  blue  bloom;  flesh 
greenish  yellow,  fair  quality.  A  good  shipper,  following  Hungarian  in 
ripening. 


VARIETIES   OF   PLUMS  283 

President  (H.  A.  Bassford). — Large  oval,  dark  purple,  with  deep  bloom; 
follows  Grand  Duke,  and  stands  high  as  a  mid-summer  shipper. 

Wickson/-A  crossbred  by  Luther  Burbank;  form  suggests  the  Kelsey, 
but  more  symmetrical;  in  ripening  the  color  develops  from  a  deep  cherry 
red  down  to  a  rich  claret  as  full  ripeness  is  attained.  The  color  is  solid  and 
uniform.  The  flesh  is  of  amber  tint,  very  juicy  and  translucent;  the  pit  is 
small  and  shapely,  the  flavor  is  striking  and  agreeable,  but  likely  to  be  de- 
ficient near  the  coast. 

Yellow  Bggrsyns.  White  Egg,  White  Magnum  Bonum  (English). — Very 
large,  oval,  narrow  at  ends,  necked  at  base,  suture  distinct;  stalk  one  inch, 
not  sunk,  surrounded  by  fleshy  ring  at  insertion;  light  yellow,  bloom  thin, 
white,  flesh  firm,  rather  acid  until  fully  ripe,  and  then  sweet,  adheres  to 
pointed  stone. 

Jefferson  (New  York). — Large,  oval,  base  slightly  narrowed,  suture  slight; 
greenish  yellow,  becoming  golden,  with  reddish  cheek;  bloom  thin,  white; 
stalk  one  inch,  but  little  sunk  or  not  at  all;  flesh  rich  yellow,  very  rich,  juicy, 
high  flavor  and  luscious,  adheres  partly  to  its  long,  pointed  stone;  shoots 
smooth;  tree  a  slow  grower,  but  productive. 

Columbia  (New  York). — Very  large,  nearly  globular,  one  side  slightly 
larger;  brownish  purple,  reddish  brown  where  much  shaded,  with  many 
fawn-colored  dots;  bloom  blue,  copious;  stalk  one  inch,  rather  stout;  cavity 
small;  flesh  orange,  very  rich  and  sweet,  free  from  the  stone,  which  is  very 
small  and  compressed. 

Satsuma;  syn.  Blood  Plum  of  Satsuma'— Introduced  by  Luther  Burbank  of 
Santa  Rosa.  Leaves  more  lanceolate  than  those  of  Kelsey;  fruit  averages 
about  two  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter,  nearly  round,  and  but  slightly 
sutured  on  one  side;  surface  dark  red,  under  a  thick  bloom;  dots  rather  con- 
spicuous and  numerous;  flesh  dark  purplish  red;  stone  very  small  and  pointed. 
Chiefly  grown  in  Southern  California  for  local  use  and  trade. 

Duarte.— Resembles  Satsuma,  but  ripens  earlier;  said  to  be  the  earliest 
blood  plum. 

Red  Magnum  Bonum;  syn.  Red  Egg. — Large,  oval,  tapering  to  the  stalk; 
suture  strong,  one  side  swollen;  deep  red  in  the  sun;  slight  bloom;  stalk  one 
inch,  slender,  cavity  narrow;  flesh  greenish,  coarse,  subacid;  shoots  smooth. 

Anita  (Millard  Sharpe). — Very  large,  oblong,  purple  with  deep  blue 
bloom,  flesh  yellow,  freestone;  good  for  shipping,  but  capable  of  drying  as 
a  prune;  ripens  after  Tragedy  and  before  Diamond. 

Diamond. — Large,  deep  purple;  handsome  but  not  high  quality;  ripens 
after  Japanese,  and  sells  well  at  the  East  as  a  cooking  plum. 

Imperial  Gagev  (New  York). — Medium  size,  oval,  suture  distinct;  stalk 
three-fourths  inch,  slightly  hairy,  evenly  sunk;  green,  slightly  tinged  with 
yellow,  with  marbled  green  stripes;  bloom  copious  and  white;  flesh  greenish, 
juicy,  melting,  rich,  and  delicious,  usually  free,  from  the  oval,  pointed  stone; 
tree  very  vigorous  and  productive;  shoots  long  upright,  slightly  downy; 
leaves  with  slight  shade  of  blue. 

Damson* (English). — Small,  roundish,  oval;  purple,  with  thick  blue  bloom; 
melting,  juicy,  subacid. 

German  Prune v( Common  Quetsche,  Germany). — This  name  has  been 
applied  in  this  State  to  numerous  plums  and  prunes  which  are  sold  under 
it.  The  fruit  of  the  true  German  prune  is  long  oval,  and  swollen  on  one 
side;  skin  purple,  with  thick  blue  bloom;  flesh  firm,  green,  sweet,  with  a 
peculiar^  pleasant  flavor;  separates  readily  from  the  stone;  inclined  to  drop 
before  ripening. 

Kelsey  (Japan). — Trees  brought  from  Japan  by  the  late  Mr.  Hough,  of 
Vacaville,  in  1870,  and  purchased  by  the  late  John  Kelsey,  of  Berkeley,  who 
propagated  and  fruited  them  for  several  years.  First  wide  distribution  was 
made  by  W.  P.  Hammon  &  Co.,  in  1874,  who  named  the  fruit  after  Mr.  Kel- 
sey. Tree  willowy,  leaves  narrow,  twigs  brownish  gray.  Fruit  from  one 
and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  inches  diameter,  heart-shaped,  with  a  distinct 
suture  on  one  side  from  stem  to  apex;  stem  is  short,  and  set  in  a  de- 
pression at  the  larger  end;  colors  mixed  yellow  and  purple,  which  vary  in 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

depth  but  rarely  make  a  brilliant  appearance,  covered  with  bloom;  flesh 
yellow  very  firm,  clings  to  pit  which  is  small,  quality  good.  Being  displaced 
by  other  Japanese  varieties,  but  usually  sells  well  from  region  where  it  colors 
well'  very  firm  and  clings  to  the  stone  which  is  rather  small,  and  nearly 
always  partly  surrounded  by  a  cavity;  when  fully  ripe  the  quality  is  very  good. 

Hungarian  Prune*;  English  Pond's  Seedling;  Gros  Prune  d'Agen  (Eng- 
lish).— Fruit  very  large,  ovate,  slightly  tapering  to  stalk;  skin  thick,  reddish 
violet,  with  numerous  brown  dots,  and  covered  with  handsome  bloom;  rather 
coarse,  juicy,  sweet;  a  very  showy  fruit;  tree  a  strong  .grower  and  prolific 
bearer;  fruit  has  a  tendency  to  double;  sells  well  in  local  and  distant  markets 
on  its  style  and  is  largely  grown. 

Giant-*-Burbank  seedling;  very  large,  dark  crimson  upon  yellow  ground; 
flesh  yellow,  flavor  good;  freestone.  A  shipping  plum. 

Splendor.^-Burbank  seedling;  medium  size  but  larger  than  French  prune; 
clear,  red,  drying  dark,  does  not  shake  from  the  tree;  earlier  than  French 
prune. 

Sugar!— Burbank  seedling,  introduced  in  1898;  large  and  sweet;  sugar  in 
fresh  fruit  23.92  per  cent;  not  of  highest  quality  as  a  cured  prune,  but  sells 
well;  also  good  for  shipping;  oval,  slightly  flattened;  dark  purple  with  thick 
white  bloom;  freestone;  early. 

Standard.^-Burbank  cross  of  Sugar  and  Tragedy.  Large,  purple,  blue 
bloom;  flesh  fine  grained,  amber,  juicy  and  sweet;  freestone. 

Imperial  Epineuse;  syn.  Clairac  Mammoth. — Introduced  in  1884  by  Felix 
Gilfet  and  in  1886  by  John  Rock.  Uniformly  large,  more  oval  than  the 
French  prune;  nearly  of  the  same  color  but  somewhat  lighter  or  reddish 
purple;  earlier  than  the  French  and  with  thinner  skin.  Condemned  for  thrips 
injury  and  shy  bearing.  _/ 

Prune  d'Agen ;vsyn.  Petite  Prune  d'Agen;  French  Prune,  etc. — This  is  the 
drying  prune  at  present  most  widely  grown  in  this  State.  It  is  described 
by  John  Rock  as  follows:  "Medium-sized,  egg-shaped,  violet  purple,  very 
sweet,  rich,  and  sugary;  very  prolific  bearer."  The  leading  drying-prune 
of  California,  commonly  called  "California  French  prune."  Its  standing  is 
sketched  in  detail  on  a  preceding  page. 

Robe  de  Sergeant.— Fruit  medium  size,  oval;  skin  deep  purple,  approach- 
ing black,  and  covered  with  a  thick  blue  bloom;  flesh  greenish  yellow, 'sweet, 
and  well-flavored,  sugary,  rich  and  delicious,  slightly  adhering  to  the  stone. 
This  variety  makes  a  larger,  darker-colored  prune  than  the  prune  d'Agen, 
and  has  sold  in  some  cases  at  a  higher  price.  It  has  recently  been  in  disfavor 
in  coast  valleys  for  defective  bearing,  but  is  more  satisfactory  at  some  in- 
terior points. 

Coe's  Golden  Drop  (English);  syn.  Silver  Prune. — Very  large,  oval  suture 
distinct,  one  side  more  enlarged,  necked;  light  yellow,  often  dotted  red  to  the 
sun;  stalk  three-fourths  inch,  rather  stiff;  flesh  yellowish,  firm,  juicy,  and 
rich,  closely  adhering  to  the  pointed  stone;  shoots  smooth,  rather  glossy.  A 
standard  late  variety  for  canning. 

Santa  Rosa  (Burbank). — Large,  conical,  deep  purpled  crimson,  pale  yel- 
low bloom;  flesh  pale  yellow,  rosy  near  skin,  rich,  juicy,  delicious;  ripens 
early;  very  prolific  and  popular. 

Formosa '(Burbank). — Fruit  is  of  uniform  size,  yellow  with  a  pale  bloom 
until  nearly  ripe,  turning  to  a  clear  rich  red.  Flesh  pale  yellow,  unusually 
firm,  sweet,  rich,  delicious,  with  a  delightful  apricot  flavor,  nearly  freestone; 
being  discarded  for  shy  bearing. 

Gaviota.— Burbank  cross  of  Japanese  and  native  American;  very  large, 
deep  red;  flesh  yellow,  firm  and  sweet;  pit  small;  rather  late  bloomer. 
Favored  in  the  Vacaville  district  for  shipping. 

Bavay's  Green  Gage;  syn.  Reine  Claude  de  Bavay  (French).— Large, 
round  oval,  greenish  yellow,  spotted  with  red,  with  small  violet-colored 
longitudinal  veins;  flesh  rather  firm,  juicy,  sugary,  rich,  of  fine  quality,  ad- 
hering slightly  to  the  stone;  shoots  smooth,  leaves  roundish,  shining;  a  free 
grower  and  very  productive.  Approved  by  canners 


VARIETIES  OF  PLUMS  285 

x/ 

Fellenberg;  syns.  Large   German  Prune,  Swiss  Prune,  Italian  Prune. — 

Medium  size,  oval,  pointed  and  tapering  at  both  ends;  suture  small,  distinct; 
dark  purple,  with  dark  blue  bloom;  stalk  one  inch,  scarcely  sunk;  flesh 
greenish  yellow,  juicy,  sweet,  delicious,  parts  from  the  stone;  tree  a  free 
grower  and  very  productive;  late,  excellent  for  drying.  But  little  grown 
in  California,  but  largely  in  Oregon. 

Coe's  Late  Red;  syn.  Red  St.  Martin. — Size  medium,  roundish,  suture 
distinct  on  one  side;  skin  light  purplish  red,  or  dark  red;  bloom  thin,  blue; 
stalk  three-fourths  inch,  scarcely  sunk;  flesh  rather  firm,  crisp,  rich,  vinous; 
very  late,  shoots  downy. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
THE   QUINCE 

4 

The  quince  enjoys  California  conditions  to  the  utmost,  and  re- 
wards the  grower  with  large  crops  of  very  large  and  beautiful  fruit. 
A  quince  weighing  a  pound  is  no  curiosity,  and  it  is  unlikely  that 
any  city  of  the  world  can  show  such  fine  quinces  at  such  low  prices 
as  San  Francisco.  The  lesson  from  this  fact  is  that  the  fineness  of 
the  fruit,  and  the  evident  adaptation  of  the  State  to  its  growth, 
should  not  alone  be  considered  by  the  planter.  The  local  consump- 
tion of  quinces  is  naturally  small,  and  it  is  chiefly  for  home  preserv- 
ing and  jelly  making.  Profitable  sale  of  the  fruit  in  large  quantities 
in  distant  markets  has  been  freely  prophesied,  but  experience  of 
shippers  thus  far  has  not  warranted  extension  of  quince  production. 

But  though  the  quince  in  California  has  at  present  narrow  com- 
mercial limitations,  a  few  trees  should  find  a  place  in  every  orchard, 
for  family  use  or  local  sale. 

CULTURE  OF  THE  QUINCE 

The  quince  is  readily  grown  from  cuttings.  Take  good-sized 
shoots  of  well-matured  wood  of  the  current  year's  growth,  after  the 
leaves  drop  in  the  fall,  and  set  put  at  once  in  nursery  row  in  moist 
alluvial  soil,  or  in  any  loose  soil  which  is  well  drained  and  can  be 
kept  moist  enough  by  cultivation  or  irrigation. 

Quinces  are  planted  at  all  distances  apart,  and  are  grown  either 
as  bushes  or  trees.  Undoubtedly  the  best  way  is  to  plant  alpout 
fourteen  or  sixteen  feet  apart,  and  prune  into  low  standard  tree 
form.  This  can  be  done  much  as  already  advised  for  other  fruit 
trees.  An  annual  cutting  back  of  about  half  of  the  new  growth, 
while  forming  the  tree,  will  strengthen  the  trunk  and  limbs  and 
prevent  the  running  out  of  long  leaders,  which  droop  to  the  ground 
on  all  sides  when  laden  with  fruit,  and  are  often  broken  by  the 
weight  and  the  wind.  Owing  to  the  disposition  of  the  quince  to 
throw  out  several  small  shoots  at  a  single  point,  it  is  advisable,  when 
forming  the  tree,  to  remove  all  buds  but  one,  just  as  the  growth  is 
starting.  This  will  give  one  good,  strong  branch  where  it  may  be 
needed,  instead  of  several  weak  ones.  Pinching  off  shoots  which 
start  out  too  vigorously  or  at  undesirable  points  is,  of  course, 
advisable. 

Fruiting  of  the  quince  can  be  promoted  by  summer  pruning — 
thinning  out  or  reducing  the  number  of  shoots  and  stopping  the 
extension  of  those  which  you  retain  by  pinching  the  tips  and  causing 
them  to  send  out  laterals.  This  should  be  done  in  June,  when  the 
new  growth  has  run  out  a  foot  or  two.  When  the  foliage  is  reduced 
by  opening  the  center,  removing  a  great  many  shoots  entirely  and 
shortening  the  others,  the  overgrowth  of  wood  is  discouraged  and 


VARIETIES   OF   THE   QUINCE  287 

the  remaining  force  of  the  plant  is  exerted  upon  strengthening  the 
fewer  shoots  which  remain  to  be  acted  upon.  Of  course  winter 
pruning  will  not  do  this,  for  its  effect  is  to  cause  more  and  not  less 
wood  growth. 

Soils  for  the  Quince. — As  the  quince  grows  naturally  in  moist, 
though  not  wet  lands,  many  persons  think  it  always  does  best  in 
springy  ground  or  along  the  banks  of  rivulets;  but  though  moist 
soils  are  preferable  to  dry,  such  positions  are  not  essential  to  ob- 
taining large  crops  of  fine  fruit.  In  fact,  the  quince,  like  most  fruit 
trees,  prefers  a  well-drained  location,  and  does  best  on  a  soil  which 
can  be  freely  worked.  It  thrives  when  fanned  by  the  ocean  breeze 
and  does  fairly  well  in  the  interior,  providing  it  has  moisture  in  the 
soil,  and  in  some  situations  will  require  summer  irrigation. 

VARIETIES   OF   THE   QUINCE 

Though  notably  all  varieties  of  the  quince  are  introduced  by  our 
nurserymen  and  carried  by  them  in  small  stock,  most  of  the  old 
plantations  are  of  the  "apple"  or  "orange"  variety  and  newer  plant- 
ings are  chiefly  Pineapple,  Van  Deman  and  Smyrna.  The  following 

may  be  enumerated,  however,  as  growing  in  this  State : 
v 

Apple  or  Orange. — Large;  bright  yellow;  the  best.  August  and  Sep- 
tember. 

Rea's  Mammoth. — A  very  large  and  fine  variety  of  the  orange  quince; 
a  strong  grower  and  very  productive. 

Smyrna.-^Introduced  from  Smyrna  in  1897  by  George  C.  Roeding  of 
Fresno;  large,  lemon  yellow,  handsome,  tender  and  delicious  after  cooking; 
keeps  well;  tree  a  strong  grower,  with  heavy  foliage. 

Pineapple. — Originated  by  Luther  Burbank  and  distributed  by  him  in 
1899;  the  result  of  a  long  effort  to  secure  a  quince  which  would  cook  tender 
like  an  apple.  The  name  comes  from  its  flavor,  which  is  suggestive  of  the 
pineapple.  Resembles  Orange  quince,  but  is  smoother  and  more  globular. 

Van  Demari. — Also  by  Burbank.  Hardy  and  strong  grower;  early  and 
prolific  bearer;  ripens  through  a  long  season  and  keeps  well. 

Portugal.— Very  large,  and  fine  flavor,  turns  a  fine  purple  or  deep  crimson 
when  cooked. 

The  Chinese  Quince. — A  most  extraordinary  fruit,  oblong,  of  immense 
size,  often  weighing  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  pounds;  growth  rapid 
and  distinct.  ^ 

West's  Mammoth. — Originated  by  W.  B.  West  of  Stockton,  from  seed 
received  from  Boston  in  1853;  of  the  Orange  quince  family;  round,  clear 
yellow;  very  large;  fine  flavor  and  for  the  class  a  very  good  keeper. 

Champion.— Fruit  very  large,  fair  and  handsome;  tree  very  productive, 
surpassing  any  other  variety  in  this  respect;  bears  abundantly  when  young; 
flesh  cooks  as  tender  as  an  apple,  and  without  hard  spots  or  cores;  flavor 
delicate,  imparting  an  exquisite  quince  taste  and  odor  to  any  fruit  with  which 
it  is  cooked. 


PART  FOUR:  THE  GRAPE 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE  GRAPE  INDUSTRY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

The  grape  grows  in  all  parts  of  California  below  sea  level  in 
irrigated  interior  valleys  and  from  near  sea  level  on  the  coast  to  an 
elevation  of  5000  feet  or  more  on  the  mountains.  It  is  contented, 
too,  with  nearly  all  fertile  soils,  from  the  deep  valley  loams,  where 
the'  great  fat,  firm-fleshed  grapes  are  grown  for  raisin  and  table 
grape  shipments,  to  the  shallow  soils  of  the  high  foothills  and  moun- 
tain slopes,  where  the  grapes  are  less  in  quantity,  but  of  superior 
aromatic  qualities.  This  wide  adaptation  gives  an  immense  area 
suited  for  grape  culture,  but  the  chief  reason  for  the  achievement 
and  the  promise  of  the  grape  in  California  is  in  the  fact  that  the 
European  species,  Vitis  vinifera,  thrives,  and  thus  the  California 
grower  has  command  of  all  that  Europeans  have  accomplished  in 
centuries  by  developing  special  varieties  of  the  species  for  special 
purposes.  The  grapes  of  the  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
are  only  grown  in  California  in  a  small  way  because  the  European 
varieties  are  the  only  ones  from  which  raisins  can  be  made;  they 
also  furnish  the  word's  wine  and  brandy,  and  they  give  size,  beauty, 
and  shipping  quality  beyond  all  comparison  with  American  varieties. 
Wherever  wealthy  Eastern  connoisseurs  choose  grapes  for  their 
glass  houses,  they  select  European  varieties ;  the  Californian  grows 
his  "hot-house  grapes"  in  the  open  air.  He  also  grows  most  of 
them  without  the  cost  of  trellising,  because  the  European  varieties 
generally  will  bear  well  in  short-pruned,  bush  form — although  the 
trellised  area  is  increasing  because  of  the  wide  planting  of  Thomp- 
son, Emperor,  etc.,  which  require  long-pruning. 

California  has  a  large  acreage  of  grape  vines,  and  planting  has 
been  very  active  during  the  last  few  years  because  of  good  prices  for 
raisins  and  for  fresh  and  dried  wine  grapes  for  home  wine-making 
and  for  grape  juice.  At  the  same  time,  new  economic  and  commer- 
cial problems  are  continually  arising,  and  as  the  industry  has  to 
readjust  itself  to  new  conditions,  discussion  of  such  problems  does 
not  come  within  the  scope  of  a  cultural  treatise  like  this.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  grower  to  keep  himself  up  to  date  on  such  subjects  by 
faithful  reading  of  California  periodicals  and  by  participation  in 
public  assemblies  in  the  grape  interest.  Concerning  cultural  diffi- 
culties, the  protection  of  the  vine  from  its  enemies  and  other  prob- 
lems, special  researches  are  constantly  pursued  by  the  University 
Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley  and  publications  are  furnished  on 
application. 

The  culture  of  the  grape  is  one  of  the  great  branches  of  Cali- 
fornia horticulture.  Its  three  chief  divisions  are:  Grapes  for  the 


WHERE   CALIFORNIA  GRAPES   GROW  289 

table  grapes  for  wine,  and  grapes  for  raisins.  In  all  these  branches 
the  product  has  far  exceeded  local  requirements  and  has  become 
an  important  item  in  the  export  trade  of  the  State.  The  attain- 
ments of  the  industry  can  be  roughly  measured  by  the  statistics  of 
the  shipments  of  grapes  and  raisins,  and  the  valuation  of  them 
which  are  given  in  Chapter  VI. 

THE  GRAPE  AREA  OF  CALIFORNIA 

The  grape  has  a  very  wide  range  in  California.  If  the  im- 
mediate seacoast  and  the  higher  altitudes  on  the  mountains  be 
excepted,  the  grape  may  be  planted  with  a  good  chance  of  success 
anywhere  if  soil  and  local  topography  be  suitable.  As  has  been 
shown  in  Chapter  I,  the  vine  can  approach  quite  close  to  the  ocean 
if  some  shelter  from  prevailing  cool  winds  be  afforded,  and  quite 
high  on  the  mountains  if  one  keeps  out  of  depressions  where  late 
frosts  are  frequent.  In  planting  the  grape  in  doubtful  situations 
much  depends  upon  choice  of  proper  varieties.  For  example,  in 
the  cool  air  of  the  coast  region  and  the  short  summer  of  the  higher 
altitudes,  early  maturing  varieties  must  be  the  main  reliance,  for 
late  sorts  will  not  receive  heat  enough  to  bring  them  to  full 
maturity. 

Away  from  immediate  coast  influences,  and  up  to  perhaps  three 
thousand  feet  or  more  on  the  sides  of  the  Sierra,  the  grape  is  suc- 
cessfully grown  both  upon  the  floors  of  the  valleys  and  upon  the 
hillsides.  But  there  is  still  need  of  choice  both  of  special  locations 
and  of  varieties  according  to  the  purposes  which  the  grower  has  in 
view.  The  coast  valleys  of  the  upper  part  of  the  State  produce  good 
table  grapes,  but  they  are  unfavorable  for  the  raisin  industry  be- 
cause of  the  deficient  sunshine  and  excessive  atmospheric  humidity 
of  the  autumn  months.  The  best  raisins  are  made  in  the  dry,  heated 
valleys  of  the  interior,  and  the  conditions  which  there  develop  the 
fullest  quality  of  the  raisin  grape  also  develop  the  sugar  in  some 
kinds  of  wine  grapes  beyond  a  desirable  percentage.  Here  again 
the  choice  of  suitable  varieties  intrudes  itself,  for  the  varieties  which 
yield  light  table  wines  in  the  coast  valleys  may  yield  heavy  "heady" 
wines  in  the  interior.  Valleys,  too,  as  a  rule,  although  they  yield 
larger  crops  of  grapes  and  greater  measure  of  wine  than  similar 
area  on  the  hillsides,  must  yield  the  palm  for  quality  to  the  warm 
soils  of  the  slopes.  And  here  enters  the  business  proposition  whether 
large  amount  and  less  quality  is  better  than  less  amount  and  higher 
quality.  To  this  there  can  be  no  general  answer.  It  depends  upon 
the  disposition  which  is  to  be  made  of  the  crop,  and  the  demand 
for  it. 

The  coloring  of  certain  varieties  is  a  matter  underlying  their 
profitable  production  for  fresh  shipments  and  this  is  determined  by 
local  conditions  concerning  which  the  best  information  is  actual 
observation  of  their  effects.  These  few  facts  out  of  many  which 
could  be  stated  will  serve  to  enforce  the  fact  that  wide  as  is  the 
range  of  the  grape,  both  localities  and  varieties  for  certain  purposes 
must  be  intelligently  chosen. 


290 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Soils  for  the  Grape. — The  grape  will  thrive  on  a  great  variety 
of  soils,  in  fact,  on  any  of  those  enumerated  as  fruit  soils  in  Chapter 
III.  There  are  thrifty  vineyards  on  the  light,  deep  valley  loams, 
on  the  heavy  clayey  loams,  on  adobe,  and  on  the  red  soils  of  the 
foothills.  Even  on  shallow  soils  the  grape  will  do  well  if  given 
sufficient  moisture,  and  on  rocky  subsoils  it  thrives  if  there  be 
crevices  for  the  roots  to  penetrate,  or  if  the  rock  tbe  shattered  to 
admit  the  roots  to  permeable  substrata.  Standing  water  during  the 
active  period  of  the  vine  is,  however,  unfavorable  to  growth,  and 
alkali  is  adverse  to  satisfactory  results  in  wine  making.  Almost 
any  soil  which  does  not  hold  excess  of  water  or  is  not  tainted  with 
alkali  will  do  for  the  vine,  although  the  plant  appreciates  good, 
deep  soil,  and  will  grow  and  bear  fruit  in  proportion  to  its  supply 
of  it.  Of  course  the  economic  question  of  ease  of  cultivation  enters 
into  the  choice  of  soil  for  the  grape,  as  for  other  fruits,  but  its  claims 
are  obvious  and  need  not  be  enlarged  upon. 

Length  of  Grape  Season. — By  choice  of  early  and  late  varieties 
the  grape  season  extends  over  half  a  year  in  California,  without 
recourse  to  artificial  means  of  preservation.  Where  the  fall  rains 
are  not  very  protracted,  the  late  varieties  sometimes  remain  in  good 
condition  on  the  vines  until  the  winter  pruning.  Good  grapes  have 
been  picked  from  the  vines  as  late  as  the  middle  of  January.  In 
the  Lodi  district  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  one  of  the  great  centers 
of  the  grape  shipping  industry,  overland  shipping  begins  about 
August  10,  with  Black  Prince.  Tokays  from  light  soil  soon  follow, 
then  from  the  heavy  soil,  and  in  about  two  weeks  everything  is  going 
at  full  blast,  keeping  up  strongly  for  nearly  two  months.  Then  it 
decreases  greatly  and  continues  into  November  with  the  later 
varieties,  like  Cornichon,  Emperor  and  Verdal.  There  are  also  a 
number  of  other  shipping  varieties  grown  than  those  named,  which 
will  be  named  in  Chapter  XXVIII.  There  is  much  latitude  in 
grape  gathering,  for  grapes  can  stay  on  the  vine  for  some  time 
without  deterioration ;  besides  there  is  the  "second  crop"  from  later 
blooming  which  is  of  advantage  in  shipping,  but  objectionable  in 
handling  for  raisins,  though  sometimes  very  profitable  for  other 
uses.  Tokays  may  be  picked  during  a  period  of  two  months  in  the 
same  vicinity  because  of  the  "second  crop"  and  because  the  ripening 
comes  earlier  or  later  according  to  soil,  as  noted  above.  Even  the 
intrusion  of  a  light  fall  rain,  such  as  they  have  in  the  interior,  may 
help  size  and  color,  but  a  heavy  rain  is  destructive  and  constitutes 
a  constant  menace  in  the  late  ripening  districts  near  the  coast,  while 
occasionally  injurious  in  the  interior  also. 

Snipping  Grapes  in  Sawdust— The  tabel  grape  industry  of  Cali- 
fornia entered  upon  a  notable  extenson  of  its  marketing  season  and 
area  through  the  demonstration  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  that  California  grapes  can  be  profitably  packed  in 
drums,  holding  about  35  Ibs.  of  grapes,  packed  in  redwood  or  spruce 
sawdust,  properly  prepared  and  held  safely  in  cold  storage  for  win- 
ter sale  in  the  East— as  Spanish  grapes  in  cork  dust  are  handled. 
Better  results  are  attained  with  sawdust  than  with  cork  dust.  Full 


SHIPPING  GRAPES  IN  SAWDUST  291 

details  are  given  in  Bulletin  35,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  December  31, 
1913.  In  1920  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Markets  announced  (U.  S.  Market 
Reporter,  December  11,  1920)  that  spruce  sawdust  can  be  used  in- 
stead of  redwood  sawdust  and  that  sawdust  of  fir  and  other  conifers 
which  have  a  turpentiny  savor  may  perhaps  also  be  used,  as  the 
odor  departs  after  the  exposure  of  the  fruit  to  the  air  for  a  few 
hours.  As  these  white-wooded  trees  grow  and  their  lumber  is  sawn 
nearer  to  the  grape-shipping  districts  than  the  redwoods  are  and  in 
greater  volume,  the  availability  of  their  sawdusts  may  be  of  con- 
siderable importance. 

From  shipments  of  1912  of  about  thirty  carloads,  the  movement 
in  1917  reached  nearly  500  carloads.  The  grapes  thus  handled  were 
chiefly  Emperors,  Cornichons  and  others.  Thus  far  it  seems  to  be 
demonstrated  that  Muscats  can  be  sold  this  way  until  November 
15th,  Malagas  until  December  15th,  Emperors  until  about  January. 
It  is  expected  that  if  the  Ohanez  or  Almeria  grape  is  grown,  the 
grape  used  in  Spanish  shipping,  it  can  be  safely  held  in  storage 
until  April  1.  These  are  questions  for  the  future,  for  so  long  asjiny 
kind  of  a  juic^_grape  is  selling  at  $75  to  $100  and  more  per  torTin 
the  vineyard,  as  in  1920,  it  is  hard  to  concentrate  attention  upon 
such  a  dryjejiterprise  as  growing  fleshy  grapes  to  pack  in  kiln-cured 
sawdust. 

In  fact,  all  aspects  of  California  grape  growing  have  been  so 
upset  by  prohibition  that  it  is  impossible  to  see  the  future  clearly. 
It  seems  reasonable  to  think  that  even  in  its  liquid  phases,  the  grape 
industry  of  California  may  attain  greatness  under  prohibition  be- 
yond anything  previously  achieved. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

PROPAGATING   AND    PLANTING   VINES 

The  grape  is  propagated  from  seed  or  by  layers,  or  by  cuttings 
of  various  lengths.  Growing  from  seed  was  somewhat  resorted  to 
in  California  to  get  stocks  for  resisting  the  phylloxera,  but  such 
wide  variation  in  resistance  occurred  in  seedlings  that  propagation 
by  cuttings,  of  varieties  demonstrated  to  be  best  in  this  regard,  has 
become  exclusive.  There  is  at  present  little  disposition  to  grow 
grape  seedlings  in  the  hope  of  securing  better  and  hardier  varieties, 
as  is  so  largely  done  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  vast  num- 
bers of  varieties  of  the  European  species,  vinifera,  which  we  have 
drawn  from,  makes  the  effort  for  new  seedlings  of  little  object. 

Growing  Vines  from  Seed. — Seed  is  easily  removed  from  the 
grapes  by  crushing  the  berries  and  stirring  the  pulp  rapidly  in 
water.  From  one  pound  of  good,  fresh  seed  one  might  get  from 
two  to  three  thousand  seedlings.  Some  advocate  sowing  grape  seed 
in;  tjhe  fall,  just  as  it  is  taken  from  the  fruit,  but  best  results  are 
usually  obtained  by  spring  sowing,  after  danger  from  frost  is  over. 
It  is  advisable  to  keep  grape  seed  moist  for  some  time  before  sow- 
ing. Seed  soaked  one  week  in  water  and  afterward  allowed  to  lie 
in  a  heap  for  three  weeks  germinates  quickly,  starting  in  ten  days 
or  two  weeks  after  being  put  in  the  ground.  Professor  Husmann 
advised  pouring  hot  water  on  the  seed  and  allowing  it  to  cool,  the 
seed  remaining  in  the  water  for  twelve  hours,  and  after  that  it  is 
kept  for  a  week  in  a  sack,  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  covered  at  night, 
the  sack  being  moistened  from  time  to  time. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  open  ground,  the  soil  having 
been  worked  deeply  and  finely,  as  for  a  garden.  Sow  the  seed  about 
an  inch  apart,  in  drills  far  enough  from  each  other  to  admit  the 
use  of  the  cultivator  in  the  summer;  cover  not  to  exceed  an  inch 
in  depth,  and  after  moderate  pressing  of  the  ground,  cover  the 
whole  bed  with  rotten  straw,  which  should  be  gradually  removed 
as  the  sprouts  appear  above  the  ground.  This  mulch  will  not  only 
retain  moisture,  but  will  prevent  the  surface  from  being  crusted 
by  heavy  showers.  Summer  cultivation  with  cultivator  and  hoe 
should  be  given. 

Growing  Vines  by  Layering.— This  is  another  method  of  multi- 
plying vines  which  is  but  little  employed  in  California,  because  it  is 
so  much  easier  to  secure  plants  by  cuttings,  as  the  vinifera  species 
roots  so  readily.  Layering  consists  in  bending  down  and  burying 
one  of  the  lower  canes  so  as  to  facilitate  top  and  root  growth  from 
each  of  the  buds.  This  is  done  early  in  the  spring  before  growth 
begins.  To  hold  the  cane  in  place,  stakes  are  used,  the  trench  being 
left  open  untl  the  shoots  grow  out  and  then  by  covering  the  roots 
are  developed.  The  cane  must  rest  in  moist  earth,  and  usually  has 


PROPAGATION   OF   GRAPE  VINES  293 

to  be  watered  artificially,  as  well  as  treated  to  prevent  evaporation. 
The  following  winter  the  cane  is  raised  and  a  plant  made  at 
each  node. 

Another  use  for  layering  is  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the  row,  a  cane 
being*  taken  from  the  nearest  living  vine.  In  this  case  the  layer 
must  be  set  in  a  deep  trench  so  as  not  to  be  torn  out  by  the  plow, 
and  the  layered  cane  is  at  once  covered  in  with  earth,  all  but  one  or 
two  buds  at  the  extremity,  where  the  new  vine  is  desired.  Such  a 
layer  usually  bears  the  second  year  and  is  then  detached  from  the 
parent  vine. 

Growing  Vines  from  Cuttings. — This  is  the  prevailing  method 
in  this  State  both  to  secure  grafting  stocks  and  to  grow  vines  on 
their  own  roots.  In  growing  from  cuttings,  different  policies  are 
adopted,  i.  e.,  placing  the  cuttings  in  permanent  place  in  the  vine- 
yard, or  rooting  them  in  nursery  to  be  afterward  transferred  to  the 
vineyard  as  "rooted  vines."  First,  the  various  kinds  of  cuttings 
will  be  considered,  and  their  placing  mentioned  later. 

Growth  from  Single  Eyes. — The  use  of  single  eyes  or  single  buds, 
the  shortest  possible  form  of  cutting,  is  not  large  in  California,  but 
some  growers  have  reported  good  results.  The  method  is  to  pre- 
pare the  cuttings  with  a  half-inch  or  so  of  the  cane  on  each  side  of 
the  bud  and  plant  them  carefully,  with  the  bud  upwards,  in  well- 
prepared  soil,  covering  the  cutting  completely,  but  very  little  under 
the  surface.  Success  depends  upon  retention  of  moisture  in  the 
surface  soil  to  induce  rooting,  and  mulching  is  advisable.  This 
method  of  propagation  is  obviously  better  adapted  to  nursery  than 
to  field  growth. 

The  Use  of  Longer  Cuttings.* — It  was  formerly  considered  good 
practice  to  leave  a  piece  of  old  wood  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
cutting,  on  the  ground  that  such  cuttings  always  grew.  This  prac- 
tice is  now  very  generally  abandoned,  as  the  piece  of  old  wood 
always  decays  finally,  and  the  decay  may  spread  into  the  trunk  and 
roots  of  the  vine.  A  good  cutting  should  consist  exclusively  of 
one-year-old  wood ;  that  is,  the  wood  which  has  grown  during  the 
previous  season. 

Choice  of  Cuttings. — The  vines  from  which  the  cuttings  are  to  be 
taken  should  be  examined  while  they  still  hold  their  leaves  and  fruit, 
to  see  that  they  are  healthy  and  of  the  variety  desired.  Vines  which 
have  suffered  from  drought  or  disease  or  which  have  been  defoliated 
by  insects  or  frost  before  the  wood  is  mature  yield  poor  cuttings. 
Wood  (canes)  from  young  vines  which  have  not  yet  borne  is  often 
immature,  and  that  from  vines  which  have  borne  excessive  crops 
is  often  ill-nourished.  Cuttings  from  either  are  likely  to  fail  or 
grow  poorly. 

The  best  wood  for  cuttings  is  of  medium  size  and  with  mod- 
erately short  joints.  Very  short  joints  indicate  disease  and  very 
long  joints  a  lack  of  nourishment  or  maturity. 


*Much  of  the  following  description  of  handling  cuttings  is  taken  from  the 
versity  publication  by  Prof.  F.  T.    Bioletti,  viz.:   Circular  225,   December,    1920. 


294 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


The  outer  bark  should  be  a  clear  yellow  or  purple  brown,  accord- 
ing to  the  variety,  and  without  dark  blotches  or  immature  areas. 
When  the  cane  is  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  the  inner  bark  should  appear 
green  and  full  of  sap,  the  wood  should  be  hard  and  free  from  dark 
specks  or  streaks,  and  the  pith  of  moderate  size,  clear,  firm,  and 
light  colored. 

Cuttings  which  do  not  fill  these  specificationst  should  not  be 
planted  directly  in  the  vineyard.  Less  perfect  cuttings  may  be 
planted  in  the  nursery.  Some  are  likely  to  grow  well  and  will  be 
suitable  for  vineyard  planting  the  next  year. 

Time  to  Make  Cuttings. — Cuttings  are  supposed  to  be  best  if 
made  from  vines  pruned  within  a  week  or  two  after  the  fall  of  the 
leaves,  but,  if  the  vines  are  healthy  and  the  wood  well  matured, 
they  may  be  made  from  vines  pruned  at  any  time  from  the  fall  of 
the  leaves  until  a  week  before  the  starting  of  the  buds  in  spring. 

It  is  best  to  make  the  cuttings  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  vines 
are  pruned ;  but  if  the  weather  is  cool  the  prunings  may  lie  a  week 
or  two  in  the  vineyard  without  injury. 

Method  of  Making  Cuttings. — Cuttings  of  from  half  an  inch  to 
one-third  of  an  inch  in  diameter  are  best,  and  they  should  not  be 
more  than  1  inch  at  the  butt  nor  less  than  one-quarter  inch  at  the 
top.  The  shorter  they  are  the  better,  providing  they  can  be  made 
to  root.  In  good  nursery  soil  with  special  care  cuttings  of  8  inches 
do  very  well.  Usually  10  to  12  inches  is  better.  For  direct  planting 
in  the  vineyard  they  should  be  from  15  to  18  inches.  The  looser  and 
drier  the  soil  and  the  hotter  the  climate  the  longer  they  should  be. 
In  wet  heavy  soil  in  the  cooler  regions  short  cuttings  are  preferable. 

Kind  of  Cuttings. — Cuttings  may  be  made  from  any  part  of  the 
vine  if  they  fill  the  specifications  already  given.  In  some  cases  only 
one  cutting  can  be  made  from  one  cane;  in  others,  three,  four,  or 
more.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to  avoid  suckers  and  water- 
sprouts  if  they  are  of  the  proper  quality.  Laterals,  if  large  and  well 
matured,  make  excellent  cuttings  and  are  often  preferable  in  long- 
jointed  varieties,  like  Sultanina. 

The  base  of  the  cutting  should  be  as  close  as  possible  to  a  bud, 
providing  the  diaphragm  or  cross  partition  is  left.  If  a  pithy  piece 
of  wood  is  left  at  the  base  the  cutting  does  not  heal  over  when  it 
roots  and  is  apt  to  decay.  At  the  top  of  the  cutting  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  of  internode  should  be  left  above  the  upper- 
most bud. 

Care  of  Cuttings. — If  the  cuttings  are  made  in  planting  time  they 
should  be  planted  as  soon  as  made,  with  care  to  prevent  drying.  If, 
as  is  more  usual,  they  are  made  several  weeks  or  months  before 
planting,  their  success  depends  very  much  on  the  way  they  are 
handled  in  the  meanwhile. 

The  amount  of  growth  that  a  cutting  will  make  the  first  year 
depends  on  the  kind  of  soil  it  is  planted  in,  the  regularity  and  suf- 
ficiency of  the  water  supply,  and  the  temperature  and  length  of  the 
growing  season.  A  properly  handled  cutting  in  suitable  soil  in  the 


GROWING  GRAPES  FROM  CUTTINGS 


295 


Imperial  Valley  will  make  as  much  growth  in  the  first  season  as  a 
similar  cutting  equally  well  handled  in  a  cool  locality  will  make  in 
three  seasons. 

Planting  Cuttings. — In  order  to  utilize  the  growing  season  to 
the  full  in  any  region,  the  cuttings  should  start  to  grow  as  early  as 
they  are  reasonably  safe  from  frost  or  prolonged  cold  wet  weather. 


Properly  made  cuttings. 

The  chief  danger  in  the  cooler  regions  is  planting  too  early.  Several 
weeks  of  cold  wet  weather  may  cause  them  to  rot  in  the  ground, 
especially  in  low  places  or  in  heavy  soils.  Under  such  conditions 
April  is  perhaps  the  best  month  for  planting.  In  the  hottest  regions 
the  chief  danger  is  the  drying  of  the  cuttings  before  they  root,  or 
sunburn  of  the  young  growth  before  the  roots  are  sufficiently  devel- 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

oped  to  supply  water.  In  these  conditions  January  or  February  are 
perhaps  the  best  months  for  planting.  In  any  case,  it  is  important 
that  the  roots  shall  start  as  soon  as  or  sooner  than  the  leaves,  and 
the  cuttings  should  be  handled  with  this  object  in  view. 

Heat  and  water  are  necessary  to  start  either  roots  or  buds.  We 
can  delay  either  by  keeping  the  cuttings  dry  and  cool  or  hasten 
either  by  keeping  them  moist  and  warm.  Too  much  heat  may  cause 
the  cuttings  to  decay.  There  is  little  danger  from  cold,  even  freez- 
ing, if  the  cuttings  are  mature.  Too  much  water  will  cause  rapid 
decay,  especially  at  high  temperatures.  Dryness  is  less  dangerous, 
especially  at  low  temperatures. 

Callusing  Cuttings. — In  view  of  these  facts,  the  best  way  of  han- 
dling the  cuttings  before  planting  seems  to  be  to  bury  them  in  mod- 
erately dry  sand  in  a  cool  place  until  about  two  to  three  weeks  before 
planting,  then  to  moisten  the  sand,  and  increase  its  temperature 
until  planting  commences. 

A  good  way  to  do  this  is  to  place  a  pile  of  sand  in  a  sunny  place 
early  in  the  season  while  dry  sand  can  be  obtained.  The  pile  should 
be  protected  from  surface  water  by  means  of  a  shallow  surrounding 
trench.  The  moisture  can  be  controlled  by  sprinkling  if  necessary  or 
by  covering  with  boards  or  canvas  in  case  of  too  much  rain. 

The  cuttings,  as  soon  as  made,  are  put  up  in  bundles  of  100  to 
200,  well  tied  and  with  the  butts  all  level.  These  bundles  are  then 
buried  carefully  and  regularly  in  the  sand  pile  with  the  butts  up 
and  all  at  the  same  level.  Sand  should  be  packed  in  between  the 
bundles  and  as  much  as  possible  between  the  cuttings  in  the  bundles, 
between  3  and  4  inches  of  sand  should  then  be  placed  over  the  butts 
of  the  cuttings,  making  a  perfectly  level  bed. 

To  protect  the  cuttings  from  moisture  and  heat  and  so  to  keep 
them  dormant  the  sand  should  then  be  well  covered  with  12  to  18 
inches  of  straw,  chaff,  or  similar  material. 

About  two  or  three  weeks  before  planting  is  to  commence  the 
straw  covering  should  be  removed  and  the  4-inch  top  layer  of  sand 
thoroughly  moistened  by  sprinkling.  The  moisture  and  the  heat 
from  the  sun  will  then  start  the  process  of  root  formation.  The 
sand  must  be  closely  watched  and  sprinkled  as  often  as  is  necessary 
to  prevent  drying,  only  enough  water  being  used  to  moisten  the  top 
layer  of  sand.  The  drier  the  tops  of  the  cuttings,  which  are  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sand  pile,  the  longer  they  will  remain  dormant. 

After  seven  to  ten  days  the  butts  of  the  cuttings  should  be  exam- 
ined every  few  days.  As  soon  as  they  show  signs  of  white  healing 
tissue  (callus)  and  checking  of  the  joint  where  the  roots  are  forming 
they  are  ready  to  plant.  Planting  should  not  be  delayed  until  roots 
appear,  as  these  roots  will  be  destroyed  in  planting  and  others  will 
have  to  form. 

When  planting  extends  over  several  weeks,  the  removal  of  the 
sand  layer  should  be  gradual  and  at  the  same  rate  as  the  planting 
will  take  place  so  that  the  cuttings  when  planted  will  all  be  in  the 
proper  condition. 

This  method  is  excellent  and  results  in  a  large  percentage  of 
rooted  vines  and  large  growth.  It  is  also  dangerous  because  unless 


GROWING  ROOTED  VINES  297 

carefully  and  skillfully  carried  out  the  cuttings  may  be  injured  and 
not  grow  at  all. 

Unless  there  is  certainty  of  the  method  being  properly  carried 
out  it  is  best  simply  to  bury  the  cuttings  in  moderately  dry  sand  in 
a  cool  place  protected  from  sun  and  rain.  A  cellar,  shed,  or  other 
shady  place  is  suitable. 

Planting  Cuttings  in  Nursery. — The  cuttings  may  be  planted  in 
the  nursery  by  means  of  spades  and  shovels,  assisted  sometimes  by 
the  use  of  a  plow  or  other  means,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
soil,  the  number  of  cuttings  to  plant,  and  the  means  available.  The 
mechanical  details  will  vary  in  each  case.  In  all  cases,  however,  cer- 
tain conditions  must  be  observed  to  get  the  best  results. 

The  soil  should  be  fairly  rich.  The  texture  is  not  of  great  impor- 
tance, though  excessively  sandy  or  very  heavy  soils  are  not  suitable. 
The  soil  should  be  well  plowed  or  subsoiled  to  a  depth  of  at  least  12 
inches,  unless  naturally  open  and  loose.  It  should  be  well  graded  so 
that  it  can  be  easily  and  regularly  irrigated. 

If  the  cuttings  have  been  callused  in  the  way  described,  they 
should  be  removed  from  the  sand  just  before  planting  and  carefully 
protected  from  drying  by  being  placed  in  planting  cans  or  boxes 
and  covered  with  wet  sacks.  They  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  sun 
or  dry  air  for  more  than  a  few  minutes,  even  when  planting. 

If  the  cuttings  have  been  kept  in  dry  sand,  they  should  be  placed 
in  water  for  24  to  48  hours  before  planting.  This  is  best  done  by 
placing  them  in  five-gallon  oil  cans  filled  with  water,  where  they 
should  remain  until  taken  to  the  field  for  planting. 

They  should  be  planted  with  the  second  bud  level  with  the 
ground,  that  is,  with  one  full  joint  above  the  surface.  A  line  or  long 
batten  should  be  used  to  insure  the  row  being  straight.  This  much 
simplifies  cultivation  and  hoeing.  The  soil  should  be  firmed  around 
the  butts  and  unless  quite  moist  settled  with  water  when  the  trench 
is  about  three-fourths  full.  The  soil  should  then  be  brought  up 
around  the  cuttings  almost  to  the  top  bud  by  hand  or  a  suitable  im- 
plement so  that  each  row  of  cuttings  is  in  the  middle  of  a  slight 
ridge.  This  facilitates  irrigation. 

If  water  has  been  run  in  while  planting,  no  irrigation  will  be 
needed  for  about  two  weeks.  Otherwise  the  nursery  should  be 
irrigated  within  a  day  or  two  after  planting.  Subsequent  irrigation 
will  depend  on  the  soil  and  the  climate,  but  it  should  be  relatively 
frequent  during  the  first  part  of  the  season  so  as  to  start  growth 
early  and  to  keep  it  going  until  the  vines  have  made  a  top  growth  of 
12  or  more  inches  and  have  developed  a  good  root  system  that  will 
make  them  less  sensitive  to  drying  out. 

Irrigation  should  stop  early  enough  to  prevent  late  growth. 
About  the  beginning  or  middle  of  September  the  tips  should  cease 
to  make  new  growth  and  the  canes  should  commence  to  show  the 
brown  of  mature  wood  at  the  base.  Usually  no  irrigation  should  be 
given  after  the  last  days  of  August. 

Digging  and  Care  of  Rooted  Vines. — The  vines  may  be  dug  as 
soon  as  they  have  dropped  their  leaves  or  may  be  left  in  the  ground 


298  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

until  they  are  needed  for  planting.  The  ground  should  be  moist 
down  to  the  roots,  but  not  wet  when  the  vines  are  dug.  All  that  are 
fit  to  plant  should  be  sorted  into  two  classes,  number  1  and  number 
2.  Number  1  vines  are  those  which  have  made  a  well  ripened  top 
growth  of  at  least  6  inches,  have  healthy  roots  of  at  least  one-eighth 
inch  diameter  at  the  bottom,  and  show  no  dead  areas  or  mechanical 
injuries  on  the  part  of  the  vine  that  represents  the  qriginal  cutting. 
Number  2  vines  are  those  having  a  smaller  growth  but  well  matured 
wood  and  no  serious  defects.  Vines  showing  black  knot,  nematodes, 
serious  mechanical  injuries,  or  little  or  no  mature  wood  or  roots 
should  be  rejected. 

The  roots  are  tied  up  in  bundles  of  50  to  100,  according  to  size, 
and  the  tops  and  roots  shortened  with  a  broad  axe  to  4  or  5  inches 
after  tying.  Each  bundle  should  be  furnished  with  a  good  label 
showing  variety,  number,  and  grade.  They  should  not  be  exposed 
much  to  the  sun  and  should  be  buried  in  moist  sand  the  day  they  are 
dug.  If  they  are  to  be  kept  long  they  should  be  buried  in  a  shady 
place  or  shed.  They  should  be  kept  as  cool  as  possible  until  planted 
and  should  be  planted  before  buds  or  roots  have  started  to  swell  or 
to  grow.  In  hauling  or  shipping  they  should  be  well  protected  from 
drying  by  means  of  wet  sacks  or  wet  straw  if  left  out  of  the  ground 
for  more  than  two  days. 

BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING  THE  GRAPE  VINE 

Working  over  the  grape  vine  is  largely  practised  in  this  State 
and  is  easily  accomplished.  The  occasion  is  twofold:  Replacing 
undesirable  varieties  with  those  of  better  quality,  or  in  better  market 
demand,  and  in  bringing  the  vinifera  varieties  upon  roots  which 
resist  the  attacks  of  the  phylloxera.  The  latter  will  be  mentioned 
presently. 

Budding  the  Grape. — Buds  can  be  readily  made  to  grow  in  grape 
canes,  though  budding  is  not  largely  used.  Success  can  be  had  with 
the  same  method  of  budding  that  is  common  with  fruit  trees  as 
described  in  Chapter  IX.  Insert  the  bud  (which  is  taken  from  a 
cane  of  the  previous  season's  growth)  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the 
bark  will  slip  well  on  the  stock,  and  before  the  run  of  the  sap  is  too 
strong.  Keep  the  cuttings  in  a  cool  place  so  their  growth  will  be 
retarded,  and  then  seize  upon  just  the  right  condition  of  the  stock, 
insert  the  bud  under  the  bark  of  a  cane  of  last  season's  growth, 
tie  it  around  with  a  string,  and  the  bud  starts  readily  without 
further  treatment;  when  its  growth  shows  its  ability  to  take  the 
sap,  the  top  of  the  stock  is  removed. 

Herbaceous  budding  is  also  practicable.  It  consists  of  taking 
buds  from  the  current  season's  growth  and  working  them  upon 
canes  also  of  current  growth  by  the  usual  shield  budding  process. 
Mr.  Thomas  Casalegna  of  San  Martin  succeeds  well  with  this  under 
these  conditions:  All  buds  put  in  from  July  15  to  August  15  start 
the  same  year,  but  may  be  injured  by  fall  frosts.  Those  put  in 
from  August  15  to  September  15  remain  dormant  until  the  following 


GRAFTING  GRAPE  VINES 


299 


year,  unless  the  stock  is  exceptionally  vigorous.  Budding  is  most 
successful  in  the  month  of  August.  The  buds  should  be  taken  from 
canes  which  have  reached  the  stage  of  maturity  indicated  by  the 
pith  turning  white  and  just  before  the  bark  turns  yellow. 

Grafting  the  Vine.-^-Grafting  in  old  vine  roots  is  a  simple  opera- 
tion, and  is  performed  in  various  ways.  The  principles  involved  in 
vine  grafting  are  similar  to  those  affecting  tree  grafting,  as  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  IX.  The  processes  employed  are  also  similar, 
but  the  graft  requires  less  binding  and  waxing  is  dispensed  with, 
because  the  graft  is  made  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
is,  therefore,  less  subject  to  accident,  exposure,  and  drying  out. 

Grafting  in  the  Old  Stump. — This  is  resorted  to  when  the  char- 
acter of  the  vineyard  is  to  be  changed.  Out  of  the  many  ways  for 


Budding  from  previous  season's  growth. 

working  into  old  stumps,  one  introduces  the  scion  by  a  side  cut  into 
the  stock  without  splitting  across.  The  earth  is  removed  from  the 
old  vine  down  to  its  first  lateral  roots,  and  the  top  is  sawed  off 
cleanly  a  few  inches  above  the  first  laterals.  A  cut  is  then  made 
into1  the  side  of  the  stump  with  a  knife  and  mallet.  The  scion  is 
then  cut  long  enough  so  that  one  bud  will  remain  above  ground 
when  the  surface  is  leveled  again,  the  bottom  of  the  scion  being 
given  an  oblique  wedge-shape,  so  as  to  fit  the  crevice  in  the  stock. 
Some  care  is  needed  in  shaping  the  wedge  of  the  scion,  so  that  the 
surfaces  in  contact  will  give  good  results.  If  the  stock  is  well 
made  and  the  end  of  the  scion  so  adjusted  that  the  stock  will  pinch 
it  when  it  is  pushed  into  place,  nothing  more  will  be  needed  except 
to  smear  over  the  cut  surface  of  the  stump  and  the  joint  of  the 
scion  and  stock  with  clay  or  with  a  mixture  of  two  parts  clay 
and  one  part  fresh  cow  manure.  If  the  scion  is  held  firmly  and 


300 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


sealed  in  with  this  mixture,  it  usually  needs  no  tying,  and  the  hole 
can  be  carefully  filled  with  loose  earth,  with  a  strong  stake  to  mark 
the  place  of  the  graft,  and  to  which  the  new  growth  can  be  securely 
tied  afterwards. 


Methods  of  field  grafting  grape  vines. 

>    ™  ^WP  graft  for  stocks  *-2  to  2'3  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

rr-  r-t    hip  graft  f°r  StOcks  2"3  to  3'4  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

<~,  CC.  Cleft  graft  for  stocks  3-4  of  an   inch   in   diameter   and   for   old 
stumps. 


GRAFTING  GRAPE  VINES  301 

Another  common  method  of  grafting  beneath  the  ground  is  to 
split  the  stump  across  its  center,  as  is  done  in  top-grafting  fruit 
trees  as  shown  in  Chapter  IX,  and  one  or  two  scions  inserted.  If 
two  are  used  and  both  grow,  the  weaker  one  is  afterward  suppressed. 
In  this  cross  cleft  graft  some  grafters  rely  upon  the  stock  to  hold 
the  scion  without  tying,  and  daub  it  over  with  the  clay  mixture, 
care  being  taken  to  fill  and  cover  the  split  in  the  stock  to  exclude 
water.  Others  put  a  ligature  around  the  split  stump.  Strips  of 
cotton  cloth  answer  well  for  this  purpose.  Tying  offers  better 
security  from  knocking  out  the  graft  with  the  cultivator. 

In  grafting  into  very  tough  old  stumps,  some  growers  place  a 
slim  wedge  of  wood  in  the  cleft  with  the  scion  to  prevent  the  stock 
from  closing  too  forcibly  upon  the  scion. 

Side  Grafting. — Side  grafting  the  vine  is  commended  by  some 
growers.  It  consists  in  inserting  a  graft  by  a  cut  into  the  side  of 
the  stock,  the  method  being  essentially  the  same  as  that  employed 
with  fruit  trees,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  excepting  that  in  side 
grafting  the  vine,  the  top  is  not  amputated,  but  is  allowed  to  bear 
its  crop  and  is  then  removed  the  following  winter.  The  next  sum- 
mer the  scion  will  bear  a  crop,  and  the  vine  is  worked  over  without 
cessation  in  its  bearing. 

Herbaceous  Grafting. — This  term  is  applied  to  a  graft  in  which 
the  scion  of  the  current  season's  growth  is  set  by  a  cleft  graft  into 
canes  also  of  the  current  season's  growth,  while  both  scion  and 
cane  are  elastic,  but  not  too  soft.  The  method  has  not  been  usually 
successful  in  this  State,  apparently  because  of  the  dryness  of  the 
summer  air.  Still  some  satisfactory  results  are  reported.  Mr. 
Casalegna  of  Santa  Clara  County,  whose  success  with  herbaceous 
buds  has  been  noted,  does  well  also  with  soft-wood  grafting  by  the 
whip-graft  method.  He  says  it  is  most  successful  in  June,  provided 
the  scions  are  hard  enough.  The  pith  must  be  white.  In  a  strong- 
growing  vineyard  grafting  may  be  done  in  July.  The  leaves  are 
taken  of  the  scions  when  they  are  cut.  If  they  are  to  be  used  im- 
mediately they  are  placed  in  water;  if  to  be  carried  some  distance 
they  are  placed  in  a  wet  sack.  Tie  the  grafts  with  knitting  yarn, 
not  with  raffia.  The  season  for  herbaceous  grafting  will,  of  course, 
vary  according  to  the  locality.  Hot  weather  immediately  following 
the  work  is  fatal  to  most  of  the  grafts.  If  two  or  three  cool  days 
follow  the  insertion  of  the  scions  he  obtains  an  almost  perfect  stand. 

Care  of  Scions. — Scions  should  be  kept  cool  and  moist  enough 
to  prevent  drying,  but  not  wet  enough  to  cause  decay,  as  has  already 
been  described  in  the  keeping  of  cuttings. 

Time  of  Grafting. — Grafting  into  old  vine  stumps  is  done  in 
February,  March  and  April  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  March 
being  the  month  usually  chosen  for  the  work.  If  a  spring  graft 
fails,  the  stump  may  be  regrafted  in  August  or  in  the  following 
spring.  In  regrafting,  the  stump  is  cut  off  again  below  the  previous 
cleft.  The  time  for  the  work  is  when  the  sap  has  ceased  flowing, 
usually  from  the  first  to  the  tenth  of  August. 


302 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Resistance  to  Phylloxera. — The  recourse  to  resistant  roots  to 
escape  the  phylloxera  has  been  attended  with  some  disappointment 
because  the  wild  roots  at  first  widely  used  proved  only  partially 
resistant.  Recently,  in  the  main  through  the  employment  of  French 
selected  varieties  of  the  American  wild  species,  stocks  with  satis- 
factory resistance,  larger  growth  and  vigor  and  adaptation  to  differ- 
ent California  soils  have  been  secured.  Notable  success  has  been 
attained  in  the  habilitation  of  vineyards  on  the  basis  of  resistant 
roots.  As  this  undertaking  involves  considerable  outlay  and  as 
success  depends  taking  advantage  of  the  latest  demonstrations  of 
the  affinities  of  varieties,  the  adaptations  of  roots  to  soils  and  the 
suitability  of  varieties  for  special  purposes  and  the  best  method  of 
grafting  on  resistants  and  the  rooting  of  grafted  cuttings,  the  latest 
information  should  be  had  from  the  University  Experiment  Station 
at  Berkeley,  before  making  investments.* 

LAYING  OUT  THE  VINEYARD 

Vines  are  planted  in  rectangles,  generally  in  squares,  but  some- 
times at  a  less  distance  in  the  rows  than  the  rows  are  from  each 
other.  The  stakes  which  are  to  represent  the  future  vines  are  in 
either  case  placed  by  the  same  methods  of  measuring  or  marking 
off.  All  the  methods  described  for  clearing  and  preparing  lands,  in 
Chapter  VII,  and  for  laying  off  ground  in  squares,  described  in 
Chapter  X,  are  applicable  to  vineyard  ground.  The  measuring 
wire  therein  described  is  the  means  usually  employed  for  laying 
off  and  small  stakes  or  "markers"  are  placed  at  the  points  where 
vines  are  to  be  set. 

In  row-planting  the  direction  of  the  rows  depends  upon  circum- 
stances. Mr.  Fred.  K.  Howard  of  Fresno  cites  these  points : 

For  the  raisin  varieties  the  wide  rows  should  as  a  rule  run  east  and  west 
to  permit  more  rapid  drying  particularly  with  the  Muscat,  which  is  late 
ripening  and  must  have  every  advantage  or  drying  may  be  delayed  until 
the  early  rains  begin.  It  is  possible  that  proper  fall  for  irrigation  water 
cannot  be  obtained  either  to  the  east  or  west,  and  with  the  trellised 
varieties  like  the  Thompson  or  the  Sultana  it  may  be  practically  impossible 
to  irrigate  crosswise  and  it  may  be  permissible  to  run  the  rows  north 
and  south.  It  is  probably  far  better  to  be  able  to  irrigate  than  to  have 
east  and  west  rows  with  ideal  drying  conditions  and  be  unable  to  apply 
sufficient  water  to  produce  crops. 

Obviously  in  vineyards  grown  by  rainfall  and  in  sections  where 
the  land  is  all  considerably  on  edge,  other  considerations  must  rule 
in  laying  off,  which  must  be  locally  considered. 

Distance  of  Planting. — There  is  as  much  difference  of  opinion 
and  practice  in  fixing  the  distance  between  vines  as  between  orchard 
trees,  but  usually  more  room  is  given  than  formerly.  Planted  in 
squares,  the  distance  varies  from  seven  to  ten  feet,  with  eight  feet 
as  most  prevalent,  taking  the  State  as  a  whole.  Planting  in  rows 
is  becoming  more  popular  and  particularly  essential,  as  the  long- 
pruned  varieties  are  taken  out  on  wire  trellises  rather  than  grown 

•Circular  226  (December,   1920)  gives  explicit  information. 


PLANTING  THE  VINEYARD  303 

to  high  stakes.  Such  plantations  are  made  with  the  vines  seven  by 
ten  or  eight  by  ten  feet,  four  and  one-half  by  eleven  feet  ,etc.  There 
is  a  great  variation  in  the  distances.  Some  advantages  of  the  row 
system  are  as  follows :  Greater  space  to  spread  trays  for  raisin 
curing;  plowing  can  be  done  with  double  teams  or  tractors  and 
larger  plows ;  the  brush  can  be  gathered  and  burned  between  the 
rows  instead  of  carrying  it  to  the  avenues;  sulphur  and  materials 
for  spraying  can  be  brought  in  by  team  to  any  part  of  the  vineyard ; 
empty  boxes  can  be  distributed  and  filled  ones  gathered  up  without 
carrying,  etc. 

Number  of  Vines  to  the  Acre. — However  the  vines  be  set,  it  is 
very  easy  to  calculate  the  number  of  vines  which  an  acre  will 
accommodate.  Multiply  the  distance  in  feet  between  the  rows  by 
the  distance  the  plants  are  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the  product  will 
be  the  number  of  square  feet  for  each  plant,  which,  divided  into 
the  number  of  feet  in  an  acre  (forty-three  thousand  five  hundred 
and  sixty),  will  give  the  number  of  plants  to  the  acre. 

Avenues  in  the  Vineyard. — For  convenience  of  access  with  team 
and  wagon  there  should  always  be  avenues  through  the  vineyard. 
They  are  usually  arranged  so  as  to  cut  up  the  vineyard  into  blocks 
about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  if  the  vineyard  be  on  the  level  land. 
Of  course,  on  hilly  lands  the  avenues  should  be  located  for  ease  of 
hauling.  The  avenue  is  made  by  leaving  out  a  row  of  vines,  and, 
therefore,  the  exact  size  of  the  block  will  depend  upon  the  distance 
between  the  rows.  Some  advise  having  not  more  than  forty  vines 
between  the  avenues.  Planting  in  rows,  with  wide  spaces  between 
the  rows,  renders  few  avenues  necessary. 

PLANTING  CUTTINGS   AND   ROOTED   VINES 

Various  means  are  used  for  planting  cuttings.  An  essential  con- 
dition to  successful  growth  is  to  have  the  lower  part  of  the  cutting 
well  embedded  in  the  soil,  as  it  will  not  root  unless  in  close  contact 
with  the  earth.  To  lack  of  care  in  this  regard  most  failures  are 
due,  and  for  lack  of  surety  that  such  contact  is  made  the  various 
contrivances  for  speedy  planting,  such  as  the  planting  bar,  are 
widely  condemned ;  an  excavation  of  the  hole  and  refilling  with 
fine  surface  earth,  just  as  advised  in  Chapter  XI,  for  planting 
orchard  trees,  is  commended  as  the  safest  practice.  Much,  how- 
ever, depends  upon  the  soil.  In  loose,  free  soil  such  a  use  of  a  bar 
or  "sheep's-foot"  as  will  be  presently  described  may  be  satisfac- 
tory, while  it  would  be  impracticable  on  firmer' soils,  both  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  insertion  and  because  the  packed  condition 
caused  by  the  forcing  in  would  not  favor  root  extension,  and  not 
desirable  on  shallow  soils  because  the  contact  of  the  better  surface 
soil  with  the  bottom  of  the  cutting  will  stimulate  the  growth  of  the 
cutting,  and  is,  therefore,  very  desirable. 

The  post-hole  auger  and  a  device  for  taking  out  soil  as  a  "trier" 
takes  out  a  sample  of  cheese  or  butter,  have  also  been  used  to  some 
extent  in  making  holes  for  cuttings. 


304 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


There  are  several  forms  of  dibbles  for  planting  vine  cuttings  in 
a  light  deeply -worked  soil.  In  the  engraving,  "a"  consists  of  a  piece 
of  round  one-half-inch  iron,  18  inches  long,  furnished  with  a  wooden 
handle  at  one  end  and  a  curved  double  point  with  a  V-shaped  cleft 
in  the  other.  The  bottom  node  of  the  cutting  is  caught  in  the  cleft 
and  forced  down  to  the  desired  depth.  Unless  the  ground  is  very 
light  the  other  dibble,  "b,"  is  preferable.  It  consists  of  a  sword- 


a 


V 

Dibbles  for  planting  vine  cuttings. 

shaped  piece  of  iron  18  to  20  inches  long  and  2  inches  wide,  furnished 

also  with  a  handle.    The  usual  way  of  using  it  is  to  press  it  into  the 

ground  to  the  desired  depth,  open  the  hole  a  little  with  a  lateral 

thrust  withdraw  it  and  insert  the  cutting.    The  dibble  is  then  pushed 

into  the  ground  again  at  about  an  inch  to  one  side  and  by  another 

iral  thrust  the  earth  is  pressed  tightly  around  the  graft.     This 

more  time  than  is  necessary  with  the  other  form  of  dibble, 


PLANTING  ROOTED  VINES  3Q5 

and  unless  done  carefully  there  is  danger  of  failing  to  make  the  soil 
close  around  the  base  of  the  stock,  which  is  thus  left  surrounded 
by  an  air  space.  Grafts  left  in  this  way  are  apt  to  become  moldy 
and  fail  to  make  good  roots.  The  figure  "c"  is  a  planting  dibble  to 
be  used  with  hand  and  foot  like  a  spade.  All  such  contrivances  are 
only  suited  to  light  soils  which  crumble  and  settle  easily.  On 
heavier  soils,  digging  holes  and  placing  the  soil  around  the  roots 
or  the  base  of  the  cutting  by  hand  is  indispensable. 

For  planting  in  dry  situations  some  careful  planters  run  water 
and  fine  earth  into  the  hole  made  by  the  bar  after  inserting  the 
cutting;  others  run  in  fine  sand  dry  and  then  pour  on  water.  In 
using  water  in  this  way  one  must  take  care  that  he  uses  sand  or 
sandy  earth,  and  not  clay,  for  a  succeeding  dry  spell  may  bake  it, 
and  the  cutting  will  be  worse  off  than  if  not  puddled. 

Planting  Rooted  Vines. — Planting  rooted  vines  is  governed  by 
the  some  rules  commended  for  planting  trees  in  Chapter  XI,  so  far 
as  preparation  of  holes,  care  in  placing  and  firming  the  soil  around 
the  roots,  etc.,  is  concerned.  In  handling  rooted  vines  there  must 
be  greater  care  in  packing  and  transportation  to  prevent  the  roots 
from  drying,  and  in  carrying  to  the  field  it  is  generally  advised  that 
the  plants  be  kept  in  a  pail  or  other  receptacle  with  water.  The 
vine  roots  are  very  small  and  tender,  and  success  will  largely  de- 
pend upon  good  care  of  them.  At  planting  all  dead  or  injured 
roots  should  be  trimmed  away,  healthy  roots  shortened  so  that 
they  can  be  placed  well  in  the  hole,  and  the  top  reduced  to  a  single 
cane  cut  back  to  two  eyes. 

Cultivation  of  Vineyard. — General  suggestions  concerning  the 
cultivation  of  the  vineyard  have  already  been  given  in  Chapter 
XIII,  in  which  methods  employed  in  California,  and  which  are 
practically  the  same  for  all  fruits,  are  described. 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

PRUNING  AND   CARE   OF  THE  VINE* 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  vinifera  grown  in  California  at  present 
thrive  under  the  short  pruning  system.  There  are  exceptions,  how- 
ever, which  will  be  noted  later.  The  prevalence  of  the  short  prun- 
ing system  frees  our  growers  from  the  expense  and  inconvenience 
of  trellises.  Though  in  the  early  years  of  the  vine  stakes  are  used, 
our  older  short-pruned  vines  stand  by  themselves  and  are  as  inde- 
pendent of  support  as  our  fruit  trees. 

THE  FIRST  YEAR 

During  the  summer  of  the  year  the  vines  are  planted,  no  pruning 
or  training  of  any  kind  is  needed  in  most  cases.  For  this  reason  it  is 
nearly  always  unnecessary  to  stake  the  vines  when  they  are  planted. 
The  only  exception  to  this  is  when  strong-rooted  vines  are  planted 
in  a  rich,  moist  soil  in  which  they  will  make  a  very  large  growth 
the  first  year.  In  this  case  it  may  be  desirable  to  stake  the  vines 
immediately  after  planting  and  to  adopt  the  method  of  summer 
treatment  usually  employed  for  the  second  year. 

In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  best  to  allow  all  shoots  to  grow  at 
will  to  insure  a  good  root  growth  the  first  year. 

Staking. — In  the  autumn  or  winter  following  planting,  the  vines 
should  be  staked,  either  before  or  after  pruning,  but  in  any  case 
some  time  before  the  buds  start  in  the  spring. 

The  kind  of  stake  used  will  depend  on  the  variety  of  vine  and 
on  the  method  of  pruning  to  be  ultimately  adopted.  For  ordinary 
short-pruning,  the  stake  should  be  of  such  length  that,  after  being 
driven  into  the  ground,  sufficient  will  be  below  the  surface  to  keep 
it  ftrm  and  prevent  its  being  loosened  by  the  force  of  the  wind 
acting  on  the  vine  which  is  tied  to  it,  and  sufficient  above  the 
surface  to  extend  one  or  two  inches  above  the  height  at  which  it  is 
intended  to  head  the  vines.  It  should  be  from  one  and  one-quarter 
to  one  and  one-half  inches  square,  according  to  length. 

In  firm  ground,  for  small-growing  vines,  a  stake  1J4  by  1J4 
inches  and  27  inches  long  will  be  sufficient.  This  will  allow  15 
inches  to  be  driven  into  the  ground  and  leave  12  inches  above,  which 
is  enough  fbr  vines  to  be  headed  at  10  inches.  If  the  ground  is 
loose  or  sandy  a  30-inch  stake  driven  18  inches  into  the  ground  will 
be  needed.  For  strong-growing  varieties,  such  as  Tokay,  especially 
when  planted  in  rich  soil,  a  stake  \y2  by  \y2  inches  and  36  inches 
long  will  be  necessary,  and  15  or  18  inches  of  this  should  be  left 
above  the  ground.  This  will  permit  the  heading  of  the  vines  at  15 
inches. 

•Detailed  discussions  of  principles  of  vine  pruning  and  of  California  methods  are  now 
available  in  a  reprint  of  Prof.  Bioletti's  writings  in  Bulletins  241  and  246  and  Circular  191. 
which  can  be  had  by  application  to  the  University  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley. 


PRUNING  GRAPE  VINES 


307 


If  the  vines  are  to  be  trellised  with  one  wire,  a  36-inch  stake 
driven  18  inches  into  the  ground  is  the  proper  length.  If  two  wires 
are  to  be  used,  a  48-inch  stake  will  be  needed,  leaving  30  inches 
above  the  surface. 

If  the  vines  are  to  be  pruned  long  and  the  canes  tied  to  the 
stake,  a  5-foot  stake  will  usually  be  needed,  and  this  must  be 
stronger,  2  by  2  inches  square.  This  stake  should  be  driven  2  feet 
into  the  ground. 

These  dimensions  are  all  smaller  than  are  usual  in  California, 
but  are  quite  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  stake  should 
be  placed  1  or  2  inches  from  the  vine  on  the  side  opposite  to  the 


Fig.   1.     Treatment  of  an  average  vine  during  second  season. 

a.  Winter  pruning. 

b.  Spring  pruning — removal  of  suckers  (S)  and  thinning  of  shoots  (W). 

c.  Summer  treatment — tying  to  stake  and  topping. 


prevailing  heavy  winds.  The  force  of  the  wind  will  thus  keep  the 
vine  pressed  against  the  stake  and  the  tying  material  is  less  liable 
to  break. 

First  Winter  Pruning. — In  California,  the  young  vines  may  be 
pruned  at  any  time  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  except  in  sections 
very  subject  to  spring  frosts,  where  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to 
defer  the  pruning  until  after  the  top  buds  of  the  canes  start. 

The  way  the  vines  are  to  be  pruned  will  depend  altogether  on 
the  growth  they  have  made.  If  the  growth  has  been  small  the  tops 
are  pruned  exactly  like  rooted  vines  before  planting.  All  the  canes 
are  removed  entirely,  except  the  strongest,  and  this  is  cut  back  to 
two  buds  (see  Fig.  1,  a). 


308 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Any  vines  which  have  made  a  strong  growth  and  possess  at  least 
one  cane  of  which  sufficient  length  is  well  ripened,  may  be  pruned 
for  tying  up.  All  the  canes  are  removed  entirely,  except  the  strong- 
est, and  this  is  cut  back  to  10,  15,  or  18  inches,  according  to  the 
height  at  which  it  is  intended  to  head  the  vine.  The  top  cut  is  made 
through  a  bud,  just  as  in  making  cuttings.  This  will  facilitate  tying 
up  and  insure  the  healthy  growth  of  the  next  bud  £elow  as  the  top 
bud. 

Sometimes,  even  when  the  vine  has  made  sufficient  growth,  the 
canes  are  prostrate  or  crooked  and  none  can  be  tied  up  straight  to 
the  stake.  In  this  case  the  vine  must  be  pruned  like  a  weak  vine — 
that  is,  thinned  to  one  cane  and  this  cane  cut  back  to  two  buds. 


Fig.  2.    Treatment  of  an  average  vine  during  the  third  season  or 
of  a  vigorous  vine  during  the  second. 

a.  Vine  pruned  to  one  cane  and  tied  to  stake. 

b.  Removal  of  sucker  (S)  and  lower  shoots  (W)  in  spring. 

c.  Vine  in  summer  at  time  of  pinching. 

In  no  case  should  two  canes  of  any  length  be  left,  and  in  all  cases 
where  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  the  full  length  of  well-ripened  wood 
for  tying  up,  the  cane  should  be  cut  back  to  two  buds.  It  is  very 
bad  practice  to  leave  some  of  the  canes  of  intermediate  length,  as 
this  causes  the  vines  to  head  out  at  various  lengths  and  produces 
an  irregularity  of  shape  which  can  never  be  remedied  and  which 
interferes  with  regular  pruning,  cultivation  and  other  vineyard 
work. 

The  idea  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  to  cut  back  each  winter  nearly  to 
the  ground — that  is,  to  two  buds — until  a  cane  is  produced  with  a 
length  of  well-ripened  wood  and  good  buds  equal  to  the  height  at 


PRUNING  TWO-YEAR-OLD  VINES  309 

which  the  vine  is  to  be  headed.  It  is  very  important  that  this  cane 
should  be  straight,  healthy  and  well-ripened,  as  it  is  from  it  that  the 
trunks  of  the  mature  vine  develops.  All  the  vines  on  which  a  cane 
has  been  left  should  be  carefully  tied  up.  Two  ties  will  be  needed 
in  most  cases.  A  half  hitch  should  be  made  around  the  cane  below 
the  swelling  left  by  the  bud  which  has  been  removed,  and  the  cane 
tied  firmly  to  the  top  of  the  stake.  Another  tie  is  made  half-way 
down  the  stake.  The  lower  tie  need  not  be  very  tight,  and  in  any 
case  the  tying  material  should  not  be  passed  completely  around  the 
cane,  except  above  the  top  bud,  or  the  vine  will  be  strangled  when 
it  commences  to  grow  (see  Fig.  2,  a).  Any  kind  of  string  or  twine, 
sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  the  growing  vine  in 
a  heavy  wind,  may  be  used.  Binding  twine,  or  a  single  strand  of 
good  baling  rope,  is  suitable.  No.  16  or  17  galvanized  wire  is  pre- 
ferred by  some  and  is  better  than  string,  if  care  is  taken  to  remove 
the  bottom  ties  the  following  year  before  they  strangle  the  vine. 
Wire  is  a  little  more  expensive  and  takes  a  little  longer  to  put  on 
than  string,  but  holds  the  vines  better  and  can  be  used  for  several 
years. 

SECOND  YEAR 

Summer  Pruning. — The  treatment  during  the  second  and  third 
spring  and  summer  is  of  great  importance  to  the  future  welfare  of 
the  vine.  A  little  judicious  care  at  this  period  will  avert  many 
troubles  in  later  years.  It  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  vine- 
yard four  or  five  times  to  do  the  suckering,  topping,  and  tying  which 
are  necessary. 

The  shoots  starting  from  the  vines  which  have  been  cut  back  to 
two  buds  should  be  thinned  to  a  single  one.  This  thinning  should 
be  done  as  soon  as  possible  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  never  necessary 
to  remove  a  shoot  more  than  3  or  4  inches  long  (see  Fig.  1,  b).  If 
the  thinning  is  deferred  until  the  shoots  are  a  foot  or  more  long  the 
vine  will  be  weakened  by  the  removal  of  so  much  foliage.  If  the 
thinning  can  not  be  done  early,  it  is  better  not  to  do  it  at  all.  The 
object  of  this  thinning  is  to  throw  all  the  force  and  growth  of  the 
vine  into  the  cane  which  is  to  form  finally  the  trunk  of  the  vine. 
If  it  is  done  too  late  not  only  does  the  growth  not  go  into  this  cane, 
but  the  vine  is  weakened  so  much  that  this  cane  does  not  grow  so 
well  as  it  would  have  done  without  thinning. 

The  first  thinning  can  be  done  with  the  first  hoeing,  and  the 
second  with  the  suckering.  The  suckering  consists  of  the  removal 
of  all  shoots  which  come  from  below  the  ground.  These  also  should 
be  removed  as  early  as  practicable,  both  to  avoid  weakening  the 
vine  by  the  removal  of  mature  leaves  and  also  because  a  young 
sucker  is  much  more  easily  separated  from  the  vine  at  this  time. 
Every  sucker  must  be  cut  or  broken  off  at  the  point  where  it  origi- 
nates. If  a  little  piece  of  the  sucker  be  left,  several  new  suckers 
will  start  at  the  same  place.  The  more  completely  the  suckering  is 
done  during  the  first  two  years,  the  less  trouble  in  this  respect  there 
will  be  in  later  years.  This  is  particularly  true  of  grafted  vines. 


310 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


A  few  weeks  after  the  first  thinning,  the  single  shoot  which  has 
been  left  will  have  grown  10  or  15  inches.  At  this  length  it  should 
be  tied  up  to  the  stake  (see  Fig.  1,  c).  If  this  tying  is  neglected  or 
deferred  too  long,  a  heavy  wind  is  very  liable  to  break  off  the  whole 
shoot.  A  piece  of  string  tied  rather  loosely  about  the  middle  of  the 
shoot  is  all  that  is  needed.  If  the  vines  are  to  be  headed  high  (18 
inches)  another  tie  near  the  top  of  the  stake  may  be  necessary. 

For  vines  which  are  making  only  moderate  growth  this  is  all  the 
treatment  needed  during  the  summer.  Strong-growing  vines  in  rich 
soil,  however,  should  be  topped. 

Topping. — The  object  of  this  is  to  force  the  shoot  to  send  out 
laterals  at  the  right  height  above  the  surface  of  the  soil,  to  be  used 
as  spurs  during  the  following  year.  This  topping  is  an  operation 
which  requires  a  good  deal  of  judgment.  If  the  topping  is  done  too 
soon,  laterals  will  not  start,  but  a  new  terminal  shoot  will  be  formed. 
This  is  not  a  serious  defect,  however,  but  simply  necessitates  a 
second  topping  two  or  three  weeks  later.  Neither  will  the  laterals 
start  if  the  topping  is  done  too  late,  or  if  they  start  they  will  not 
mature,  and  the  vine  is  weakened  by  the  removal  of  foliage  without 
any  compensating  advantage. 

Until  experience  has  shown  the  proper  time  for  the  variety  and 
locality,  it  is  best  to  top  when  the  shoot  has  grown  to  from  8  to  12 
inches  above  the  top  of  the  stake,  and  if  necessary  top  again  later. 

The  shoot  should  be  topped  within  1  or  2  inches  of  the  top  of  the 
stake,  if  the  stakes  have  been  chosen  and  driven  as  advised  above 
(see  Fig.  l,c).  This  will  insure  the  growth  of  laterals  just  where 
they  are  needed  for  the  next  winter  pruning. 

The  vines  on  which  a  cane  has  been  left  and  tied  up  during  the 
preceding  winter  must  be  treated  a  little  differently.  The  removal 
of  underground  shoots  or  suckers  is  the  same.  Instead  of  thinning 
out  the  shoots  to  a  single  one,  as  for  the  vines  just  described,  all  the 
shoots  should  be  left  to  grow,  except  those  too  near  the  ground 
(see  Fig.  2,  b). 

As  a  rule,  all  shoots  between  the  ground  and  the  middle  of  the 
stakes  should  be  taken  off.  It  is  even  more  important  that  this 
should  be  done  early  than  in  the  case  described  above.  If  the  lower 
shoots  are  allowed  to  become  large  and  then  removed,  not  only  is  the 
vine  weakened  by  the  removal  of  the  mature  leaves,  but  the  stem  of 
the  vine  is  suddenly  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  hot  sun  and 
is  very  liable  to  injury.  This  injury  does  not  show  by  the  peeling 
off  of  the  bark  as  with  fruit  trees,  but  by  a  general  weakening  and 
dwarfing  of  the  vine. 

The  shoots  coming  from  the  upper  half  of  the  cane  are  to  form 
the  spurs  for  the  following  winter  pruning,  and  can  often  be  left  to 
grow  without  further  treatment. 

If  the  growth  is  very  rapid  and  succulent,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  pinch  them,  or  the  first  heavy  wind  may  break  them  off  (see 
Fig.  2,  c). 

Pinching  consists  in  the  removal  of  1  or  2  inches  of  growth  at 
the  extreme  tip  of  the  shoot.  This  delays  the  growth  in  length 


PRUNING  THREE-YEAR-OLD  VINES  31 1 

temporarily  and  gives  the  shoot  time  to  strengthen  its  tissues  before 
its  length  gives  too  much  leverage  to  the  wind.  This  pinching 
usually  has  to  be  repeated  at  least  once. 

Pinching  may  be  replaced  by  topping  a  few  weeks  later,  but  the 
latter  is  somewhat  weakening  to  the  vine. 

In  all  summer  pruning — that  is,  the  removal  of  green  shoots  and 
leaves — of  young  vines,  two  things  should  be  kept  in  mind:  First 
that  all  summer  pruning  is  weakening;  second  that  the  object  of 
summer  pruning  of  young  vines  is  to  direct  the  growth  as  much  as 
possible  into  those  parts  which  are  to  become  permanent  portions  of 
the  mature  vine.  The  weakening  effect  is  negligible  if  the  shoots  or 
tips  are  removed  when  they  are  very  small,  but  may  be  very  serious 
if  large  shoots  are  removed  or  heavily  topped.  When  a  large  shoot 
covered  with  leaves  is  removed  it  is  a  total  loss  to  the  vine.  When 
a  small  shoot  is  removed  the  food  materials  which  would  have  gone 
into  that  shoot  are  diverted  to  the  shoots  that  remain,  and  the  vigor 
and  size  of  the  latter  are  increased. 

THIRD  YEAR 

Winter  Pruning. — After  the  leaves  have  fallen  at  the  end  of  the 
third  summer  every  vine  should  have  a  well-formed,  straight  stem 
with  two,  three,  or  more  canes  growing  from  the  upper  part,  and 
the  formation  of  the  "head"  or  crown  should  commence.  Any  vines 
which  have  not  been  brought  to  this  condition  must  be  pruned  like 
two  or  one-year-old  vines,  as  the  case  may  be. 

If  the  work  up  to  this  point  has  been  well  done,  the  formation  of 
the  head  is  a  simple  matter.  It  consists  in  leaving  two,  three,  or 
four  spurs,  arranged  as  symmetrically  as  possible  near  the  top  of 
the  vine.  The  stronger  the  vine,  as  evidenced  by  the  number,  length, 
and  thickness  of  the  canes,  the  larger  the  number  of  spurs  and  buds 
that  should  be  left. 

A  spur  consists  of  the  basal  portion  of  a  cane,  and  normally  of 
two  full  internodes.  This  leaves  two  buds  besides  the  base  bud. 
The  number  of  buds  to  leave  on  a  spur  depends  on  the  strength  or 
thickness  of  the  cane  from  which  the  spur  is  made.  A  thin,  or  weak, 
cane  should  be  cut  back  to  one  bud  or  even  to  the  base  bud.  A 
strong  cane,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  left  with  three  buds 
besides  the  base  bud. 

The  pruning  of  each  vine  requires  judgment,  and  it  is  impossible 
to  give  an  inflexible  rule  to  follow.  The  ideal  of  a  perfect  vine 
should  be  kept  in  mind  and  each  vine  pruned  as  nearly  in  accord- 
ance with  this  ideal  as  circumstances  permit.  Fig.  3  represents 
nearly  perfect  three-year-old  vines  consisting  of  two  or  three  sym- 
metrically placed  spurs  of  two  buds  each  near  the  top  of  the  stem. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  leave  a  spur  lower  down  (see  Fig.  3, 
b).  This  spur  will  be  removed  the  following  year  after  it  has  pro- 
duced two  or  three  bunches  of  grapes.  Sometimes  a  vine  may  be 
very  vigorous  but  have  only  two  canes  properly  placed  for  making 
spurs.  In  this  case  the  spurs  should  be  left  longer — three  buds  and 
even  in  extreme  cases  four  buds  long. 


312 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


In  stump  pruning  there  is  a  difference  of  practice  as  to  low  head- 
ing according  to  locality.  In  the  interior  regions  the  vine  is  now 
headed  almost  at  the  surface  of  the  ground;  in  the  coast  regions 
there  is  usually  a  stump  of  one  or  two  feet  or  more.  As  with  trees 
so  with  vines,  the  practice  is  to  prune  to  make  lower  heads  than 
during  the  early  years  of  California  fruit  growing. 

Long  Pruning. — Some  varieties  grown  for  market  and  for  raisin 
making  do  not  thrive  if  pruned  by  the  short-spur  system.  Notable 
among  these  are  the  Sultana,  Sultanina,  (Thompson's  Seedless), 
Emperor  and  Zabalskanski.  Whatever  the  variety  of  vine  and  what- 
ever the  system  of  pruning  to  be  ultimately  adopted,  the  treatment 


^'1 


Fig.  3.    Three-year-old  vines  after  pruning. 

:he   lowest    of    which    is    to    be    removed    the    fol- 


a.     Average  vine  with  two  spurs. 


lowing  v 

c.     Vigorous  vine  with  three  spurs. 

for  the  first  two  and  even  three  years  is  practically  identical  and  is 
that  which  has  already  been  described  in  detail. 

Long  pruning  admits  of  degrees,  but  it  usually  signifies  using  a 
five  or  six  instead  of  a  four-foot  stake  and  leaving  the  selected  canes 
from  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  longer  instead  of  cutting  back 
to  two  or  three  buds,  as  in  short  pruning.  These  long  canes  are 
securely  tied  to  the  long  stakes. 

With  varieties  needing  long  pruning  the  first  two  or  three  buds 

the  old  wood  do  not  bear  fruit,  hence  the  need  of  leaving  buds 

•ther  removed  from  the  old  wood  to  secure  it.    This  habit  of  the 

vine  invites  the  practice  of  growing  a  long  cane  for  fruit  and  at  the 


TRAINING  GRAPE  VINES  313 

same  time  providing  for  wood  growth  for  the  following  year's 
fruiting  by  cutting  another  cane  from  the  same  spur  down  to  two 
or  three  buds.  By  this  practice  the  wood  which  has  borne  the  fruit 
is  cut  back  to  a  bud  each  winter  and  the  cane  which  has  grown  only 
wood  is  pruned  long  for  the  fruit  of  the  following  summer.  A 
modification  of  the  practice  is  to  prune  the  canes  from  some  of  the 
spurs  long,  and  from  other  spurs  short,  thus  making  the  spurs 
alternate  from  wood  bearing  to  fruit  bearing  from  year  to  year. 
Unless  some  method  is  adopted  to  promote  the  growth  of  strong 
canes  from  near  the  head  of  the  vine,  long  pruning  becomes  unsatis- 
factory. According  to  the  common  way  with  those  vines  which 
are  known  to  require  longer  canes  for  satisfactory  bearing,  such 
canes  are  selected  when  the  vine  is  well  established  and  two,  three, 
four,  or  more  canes  four  or  five  feet  long  are  tied  up  vertically  to 
a  high  stake.  This  process  is  repeated  the  next  year  and  the  next, 
and  the  result  is,  with  the  Sultanina  at  least,  that  after  the  second 
or  third  year  all  the  bearing  wood  is  at  the  top  of  the  stake,  and 
the  vine  must  be  pruned  short  again  or  suckers  and  watersprouts 
left  as  long  canes.  Neither  way  is  satisfactory. 

Two  methods  have  been  successfully  used  to  insure  the  growth 
of  new  fruit  wood  every  year  in  a  position  where  it  can  be  utilized. 
The  first  consists  in  bending  the  fruit  canes  into  a  circle.  This 
diminishes  the  tendency  of  the  sap  of  the  vine  to  go  to  the  end  of 
the  fruit  canes.  The  consequence  is  that  more  shoots  start  in  the 
lower  parts  of  the  fruit  canes.  All  the  shoots  on  these  canes  are 
made  weaker  and  more  fruitful  by  the  bending,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  sap  pressure  is  increased  and  causes  strong  shoots  to  start 
from  the  wood-spurs  left  near  the  bases  of  the  fruit  canes.  These 
shoots  are  used  for  fruit  canes  at  the  following  winter  pruning,  and 
new  wood  spurs  are  then  left  for  the  next  year. 

The  tying  and  bending  of  the  fruit  canes  require  great  care,  and 
repeated  suckering  and  removal  of  watersprouts  are  necessary  to 
insure  a  strong  growth  of  replacing  canes  on  the  wood  spurs.  This 
method  can  be  used  successfully  only  by  skillful  hands. 

The  other  method  requires  some  form  of  trellis.  The  most  prac- 
ticable trellis  is  a  wire  stretched  along  the  rows  about  \y2  or  2  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  For  very  vigorous  vines  in  rich  soil  a 
second  wire  12  inches  above  the  first  is  advisable. 

The  pruning  is  the  same  as  for  the  method  just  described.  The 
fruit  canes,  however,  instead  of  being  bent  in  a  circle  and  tied  to 
the  stake,  are  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  and  tied  to  the  wire. 
The  horizontal  position  has  the  same  effect  as  curving  in  promoting 
the  starting  of  more  shoots  on  the  fruit  canes  and  the  consequent 
production  of  more  bunches  of  grapes.  At  the  same  time  the  buds 
on  the  wood  spurs  are  forced  to  start,  and  not  being  shaded  they 
tend  to  grow  vigorously.  It  is  best  to  tie  the  shoots  from  the  wood 
spurs  in  a  vertical  position  to  the  stake,  and  they  should  not  be 
topped.  This  system  of  pruning  is  not  only  theoretically  correct, 
but  is  easy  to  explain  to  pruners,  and  can  be  carried  out  much  more 
perfectly  than  the  first  method  with  ordinary  labor. 


314 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Whatever  system  of  winter  pruning  is  adopted  with  Sultanina, 
careful  summer  pruning,  suckering,  sprouting,  and  topping  are 
necessary  for  the  best  results.  This  variety  has  a  tendency  to  send 
out  large  numbers  of  suckers  from  below  ground  and  watersprouts 
from  the  old  wood.  These  shoots  are  usually  sterile,  grow  vigor- 
ously, and  unless  removed  in  time  divert  the  energies  of  the  vine 
from  the  fruit  and  fruit  shoots.  Two  or  three  times  during  the 
spring  the  vineyard  should  be  gone  over  carefully  and  all  sterile 
shoots  which  are  not  needed  to  balance  the  vine  or  to  replace  weak 
or  missing  arms  should  be  removed.  This  removal  of  shoots  should 
be  done  in  such  a  way  that  no  shoot  longer  than  12  inches  is  ever 
removed.  If  the  watersprouts  are  allowed  to  grow  large  their 
removal  weakens  the  vine.  The  shoots  which  are  to  give  fruit  canes 
for  the  following  year  should  not  be  topped.  The  shoots  from  the 
horizontal  fruit  canes  on  the  trellises,  however,  will  set  their  fruit 
better  and  are  less  likely  to  be  broken  by  the  wind  if  they  are 
pinched  or  topped  early. 


SUMMER  PRUNING  AND  SUCKERING 

Summer  pruning  or  topping  of  bearing  vines  is  usually  prac- 
ticed. Some  follow  the  pinching  process,  by  which  the  terminal  of 
the  growing  cane  is  nipped  off  with  the  thumb  and  finger  when  it 
has  grown  out  about  two  feet.  Others  wait  longer  and  then  slash 
off  the  ends  of  the  canes  with  a  sickle.  The  tendency  is  to  leave 
summer  pruning  until  too  late  and  to  slash  off  wood  indiscrim- 
inately, to  the  injury  of  the  vine.  Summer  pruning,  if  done  early 
enough,  and  this  would  be  while  the  growth  is  still  soft  at  the  point 
of  removal,  will  induce  the  growth  of  laterals  and  will  shade  and 
improve  the  fruit,  and  at  the  same  time  thicken  the  growth  of  the 
main  cane  and  strengthen  its  connection  with  the  spur.  Slashing 
of  canes  too  late  in  the  season  deprives  the  fruit  of  the  service  of 
enough  leaf  surface  for  the  elaboration  of  the  sap,  often  seriously 
checks  the  growth  of  the  vine,  and  in  hot  regions,  induces  sunburn. 
The  first  summer  pruning  should  be  done  soon  after  the  bloom,  but 
not  during  blooming.  The  second  could  take  place  whenever  the 
canes  or  laterals  extend  beyond  the  length  necessary  to  shade  the 
grapes. 

Suckering  is  an  important  process  and  usually  has  to  be  attended 

to  at  least  twice  in  the  season.    It  consists  in  removing  all  shoots 

from  old  wood  which  are  not  provided  for  at  the  previous  winter 

pruning.    The  growth  of  these  suckers  takes  sap  which  should  go 

to  the  other  canes.    All  such  shoots  should  be  rubbed  or  pulled  off 

while  they  are  still  soft;  if  a  sucker  puts  out  at  a  point  where  it 

be  desirable  to  have  a  spur  to  balance  the  head  of  the  vine, 

t  should  of  course  be  allowed  to  grow,  to  be  cut  back  to  two  buds 

the  following  winter.    By  such  selection  of  suckers  new  spurs  are 

secured  to  replace  old  and  failing  ones. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  VINE  PRUNING  315 

GENERAL  NOTES  ON  PRUNING 

Longer  or  shorter  pruning  produces  effects  not  only  upon  the 
amount  of  early  ripening  of  the  fruit  of  certain  varieties,  but  upon 
quality,  as  shown  in  the  wines.  Such  effects  have  to  be  discerned 
by  local  observation. 

It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  lay  down  any  rule  for  pruning  a 
vineyard,  so  much  depends  on  the  age  of  the  vines,  the  different 
varieties,  and  the  quality  of  the  soil.  A  basis  on  which  to  build  a 
theory  on  the  subject  might  be  found  in  and  through  an  under- 
standing of  the  quantity  of  grapes  that  may  be  expected  from  a 
vine,  as  the  secret  of  pruning  is  to  keep  a  just  medium  between  the 
production  of  grapes  to  the  injury  of  the  vine  and  its  wood  and  an 
overproduction  of  wood  to  the  detriment  of  the  crop.  In  older 
vines  a  proportion  should  be  maintained  between  the  vigor  of  the 
vines  and  the  crop  desired ;  each  bud  may  be  considered  good  for 
two  bunches  of  grapes  the  ordinary  size,  and  upon  this  estimate 
may  be  obtained.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  result  of  over- 
loading the  vine  is  detrimental  to  its  vigor  and  health,  while  the 
reverse  will  not  injure  it,  but  will  lessen  the  profits  for  that  season, 
often  giving  greatly  increased  returns  in  after  years. 

Close  attention  should  be  given  to  the  growth  of  the  wood  and 
fruit  of  the  preceding  year.  If  the  canes  are  very  large  and  the 
bunches  of  grapes  poor  and  there  are  many  suckers,  it  indicates 
that  more  eyes  are  necessary.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  canes  are 
small,  and  the  bunches  of  grapes  numerous  and  straggling,  and  the 
ripening  not  even,  it  indicates  that  the  number  of  eyes  left  should 
be  less. 

Pruning  may  be  regulated  to  produce  a  good  second  crop  of 
grapes  or  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  second  crop.  The  second 
crop  is  sometimes  profitable  in  raisin  and  table  varieties,  but  is  as 
a  rule  undesirable. 

Attention  should  be  paid  to  the  tools  used  in  pruning.  Let  the 
blades  be  kept  sharp  and  thin ;  large  shears  are  very  apt  to  bruise 
the  wood  more  than  small  ones. 

Pruning  is  done  after  the  fall  of  the  leaves  and  before  the  swell- 
ing of  the  buds,  usually  in  January  and  February.  Early  pruning 
has  a  tendency  to  make  the  vines  start  growth  early,  consequently 
in  frosty  situations  pruning  is  often  deferred  till  late  in  the  winter — 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  March  in  some  cases.  But  it  is  inconvenient 
to  do  a  large  amount  of  pruning  so  late.  At  any  time  in  the  winter 
the  canes  can  be  cut  back  to  15  or  18  inches  and  the  vineyard 
cleaned  up.  When  the  outer  buds  on  these  long  spurs  start,  cut 
back  to  the  two  buds  next  the  old  wood  and  they  will  start  15  or  20 
days  later  than  if  the  vines  had  been  pruned  short  earlier  in  the 
season.  This  practice  has  been  followed  with  marked  advantage  in 
some  regions  liable  to  late  spring  frosts.  The  bleeding  which  follows 
late  pruning  is  no  loss  to  the  vine,  according  to  observation  of  late- 
pruned  vines. 

The  proper  treatment  of  vines  injured  by  spring  frosts  is  clearly 
the  immediate  removal,  by  a  sharp  downward  jerk,  of  the  frosted 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

shoots  Careful  experiment  has  proved  that  the  vines  that  were 
not  stripped  did  not  do  as  well  as  the  others,  as  the  dormant  buds 
in  many  cases  did  not  come  out,  and  those  that  came  out  were  not 
healthy  and  strong,  and  hardly  had  any  grapes.  The  damaged 
shoots  that  were  not  removed  died  gradually,  and  at  the  junction 
with  the  cane  new  shoots  came  out  without  any  grapes  at  all,  while 
two-thirds  of  a  crop  came  on  the  frost-bitten  vines,  which  were 
stripped  of  the  damaged  canes;  hardly  any  first  cfop  and  only  a 
second  crop  on  the  vines  which  were  not  attended  to. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  VINE 

One  of  the  most  prevalent  diseases  of  the  vine  in  California  is 
caused  by  a  fungus  which  affects  leaves,  canes,  and  berries,  and  is 
locally  known  as  "mildew."  This  disease  is  recognized  by  grayish 
white  coloring  of  the  affected  leaves,  which,  as  the  disease  pro- 
gresses, shrivel  and  dry  up ;  the  young  cane  also  blackens  and  dries, 
and  the  berries  show  whitish  patches,  which  become  darker  colored 
and  the  berries  crack  open.  The  usual  remedy  for  the  trouble  is 
finely-ground  or  sublimed  sulphur  applied  several  times  during  the 
season.  Definite  reference  may  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  diseases 
of  trees  and  vines. 

The  Bordeaux  Mixture  and  other  copper  preparations  are  some- 
times useful  upon  grape-vines,  as  will  be  cited  in  the  chapter  on 
plant  diseases. 

Coulur«. — A  frequent  misfortune  of  the  vine,  and  for  which  no 
remedy  is  yet  known,  is  coulure,  a  term  signifying  the  failure  of 
the  fruit  to  set  or  to  remain  on  the  cluster.  This  occurs  in  varying 
degrees  from  the  loss  of  a  few  berries  to  the  almost  complete  clear- 
ing of  fruit  from  the  stem.  It  is  worse  with  some  varieties  than 
others  and  in  some  localities  than  others.  The  trouble  is  believed 
to  arise  from  various  causes. 

There  is,  also,  occurring  with  more  or  less  frequency,  a  redden- 
ing and  death  of  the  vine  leaves,  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the 
trouble  known  to  the  French  as  "rougeole."  The  leaves  show 
light-colored  spots  at  first,  which  afterward  turn  red  and  finally 
involve  the  whole  leaf  or  cane,  and  sometimes  the  whole  vine.  It 
usually  occurs  in  mid-summer,  and  is  not  necessarily  fatal  in  its 
effects. 

Root  Knot. — An  evil  occurring  on  the  main  stem  of  the  vine, 
generally  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  an  excrescence  of  woody 
character  commonly  called  "black  knot."  There  has  been  much 
discussion  as  to  the  cause  of  this  abnormal  growth,  without  full 
agreement  among  observers.  Some  attribute  the  knots  to  injuries 
to  the  stump  in  cultivation,  others  to  outbursts  of  sap  which  the 
short  pruning  system  does  not  give  top  growth  enough  to  dispose  of, 
and  to  various  other  causes,  but  the  agency  is  now  definitely 
known  to  be  invasion  by  bacteria.  This  is  analogous  to  the  "crown 


VINE  DISEASE  STILL  MYSTERIOUS 

knot"  of  fruit  trees  which  will  be  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  plant 
diseases. 

Anaheim  Disease. — There  has  prevailed  for  several  years  in 
California  a  mysterious  disease  of  the  vine  known  as  the  "Anaheim 
disease,"  because  its  evil  work  first  appeared  in  that  vicinity.  It 
destroyed  many  thousand  acres  of  vines  and  led  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  grape  growing  in  some  regions  in  Southern  California  for 
many  years.  Fortunately  during  recent  years  the  trouble  has  been 
less  aggressive,  but  neither  its  nature  nor  satisfactory  treatment  has 
been  fully  demonstrated. 

The  latest  available  information  concerning  insect  injury  and 
other  troubles  of  the  vine  can  be  had  by  application  to  the  Univer- 
sity Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

GRAPE  VARIETIES  IN  CALIFORNIA 

Large  collections  of  grape  varieties  have  been  brought  into  Cali- 
fornia ever  since  American  occupation  began.  Desirable  kinds  were 
sought  in  all  grape  countries,  and  from  such  wide  experimental 
planting  a  few  have  survived  in  popular  esteem  and  are  now  chiefly 
grown.  Being  derived  from  different  countries,  they  came  bearing 
many  names.  Some  of  these  have  been  preserved,  some  wholly  lost, 
and  replaced  with  local  appellations.  The  result  is  that  our  grape 
nomenclature  is  full  of  confusion.  Some  varieties  have  been  identi- 
fied by  the  means  of  the  standard  French  grape  literature  ;  others  are 
apparently  unknown  to  the  compilers  of  that  literature.  It  is,  there- 
fore, impossible  to-day  to  determine  the  original  names  and  sources 
of  a  number  of  our  most  popular  grapes. 

In  Chapter  XVI  the  varieties  most  largely  planted  for  commer- 
cial purposes  are  enumerated.  Choice  of  varieties  for  planting  is 
largely  determined  by  the  ripening  season  of  the  variety  arid  the 
commercial  opportunity  which  the  particular  region  affords  —  there- 
fore one  should  direct  investments  largely  on  the  basis  of  local 
inquiries  and  observations. 

The  following  list  has  been  compiled  as  including  the  varieties 
chiefly  grown  for  the  purposes  indicated  in  1921  : 

For  standard  raisins  —  Muscat  of  Alexandria. 

For  seedless  raisins  —  Sultanina  (Thompson),  Seedless  Sultana. 

?or,J£ble  graPes—  Flame  Tokay,  Emperor,  Malaga,  Cornichon,  Sul- 
tanina (Thompson),  Muscat,  Verdal,  Black  Prince,  Black  Morocco. 

For  bulk  red  wine—  Zinfandel,  Alicante,  Bouschet,  Carignane,  Mataro, 
Blaue  Elbe,  Mission,  Grenache,  Mourastel,  Aramon,  Petit  Bouschet. 

For  bulk  white  wine—  Berger,  Palomino,  Feher  Szagos,  Cabernet 
bauvignon,  Barbera,  Valdepenes,  Barbera,  Green  Hungarian,  Folle  Blanche, 
West's  White  Prolific,  Gutedel. 

For  fine  red  wine—  Petite  Sirah,  Cabernet  Sauvignon,  Barbera  Valde- 
penes, Beclan. 

For  fine  white  wine—  Semillon,   Colombar,   Reissling,   Traminer. 

Although  there  are  really  very  few  varieties  which  are  commer- 
cially important,  there  are  many  to  be  found  in  the  different  parts  of 
the  State  and  the  following  descriptions  will  help  the  reader  to 
recognize  a  number  of  these. 


r?y^laCk  Julyu;  Syn<  Madeleine,  Madeleine  Noir,  etc.—  "Leaves  rather 
,  light  green  above  and  beneath;  bunches  small  and  compact;  berries 
™H!'O?UI  round;  skm  thick  black,  covered  with  a  blue  bloom;  flavor 
moderately  sweet  but  not  rich  nor  perfumed.  The  earliest  grape,  and 
chiefly  valued  for  dessert  on  that  account."—  Hyatt. 

White  July;  Syn  Luglienga.—  "Vine  strong-growing  and  sensitive  to 
hSL  .id*8!.  medlun?  s,izeL  ^eply  five-lobed,  dark  green,  glabrous  on 
™!min»t<?.;  K  arpJY  to?thed'  the  terminal  tooth  of  each  lobe  very  long  and 
ovTa?  fi  ,UnCheS  °K  med-mm  Size'  wdl  filled;  berries  of  medium  size, 
oval,  at  first  green,  becoming  yellow  with  overripeness,  with  thin  skin, 


GRAPE  VARIETIES  IN  CALIFORNIA  319 

crisp,  firm  flesh,  and  agreeable  flavor." — Bioletti.  The  Luglienga,  which 
means  July  grape,  is  one  of  the  earliest  grapes  known. 

Early  Madeleine;  syn.  Madeleine  Angevine. — "Moderate  grower,  with 
long-jointed,  brown  wood;  leaf  medium,  deeply  lobed,  dark  green  above, 
tomentose  below;  young  points  reddish,  woolly,  slender;  bunch  medium, 
compact,  shouldered;  berry  medium,  oblong,  yellowish  green,  transparent, 
rather  thick  skin,  sweet  and  juicy.  Vine  a  shy  bearer  when  frost  is  preva- 
lent."— Husmann. 

Chasselas  Dore;  syn.  Pontainebleau,  Sweetwater. — "A  rather  vigorous 
grower,  with  medium  or  somewhat  slender  canes  of  a  reddish-brown  color; 
young  shoots  of  garnet  color;  leaves  rather  below  average  size;  bunches  of 
medium  or  over-medium  size,  conico-cylindrical  shouldered,  more  or  less 
compact;  berries  medium  to  large,  with  firm  but  tender  skin,  small  seeds; 
of  delicate  flavor  and  texture,  at  first  crisp  but  becoming  soft  with  full 
maturity.  The  grapes  are  of  a  clear  green  color,  tinged  with  a  beautiful 
golden  bronze  where  exposed  to  the  sun." — Bioletti. 

Chasselas  Rose. — Fruit  resembling  foregoing,  except  that  both  bunch 
and  berries  are  usually  smaller,  and  flavor  is  more  pronounced. 

Palomino;  syn.  Golden  Chasselas. — "Vine  a  fair  grower;  wood  close- 
jointed;  leaf  medium,  oblong,  deeply  lobed,  bright  green  above,  grayish 
grain  and  tomentose  below,  stem  short,  young  points  with  reddish  tint 
and  woolly;  bunch  large,  conical,  rather  loose  and  shouldered;  berry  round, 
full  medium,  sometimes  flat,  pale  green  with  yellowish  tinge;  thin  skin, 
juicy  and  sweet,  resembling  Chasselas." — Husmann. 

Black  Malvoise. — "Vine  a  strong  grower;  wood  long-jointed,  rather  slen- 
der, light  brown;  leaf  medium  size,  oval,  rather  evenly  and  deeply  five- 
lobed;  basal  sinus  moderately  open,  with  parallel  sides,  upper  surface 
smooth,  almost  glabrous,  lower  surface  lightly  tomentose  on  the  veins  and 
veinlets,  bunches  large,  rather  loose,  branching;  berries  large,  oblong,  red- 
dish black  with  faint  bloom;  flesh  juicy,  flavor  neutral." — Hilgard.  An 
early  table  grape. 

Mission. — "This  variety,  grown  at  the  old  missions,  has  never  been 
determined,  nor  its  exact  source  ascertained.  It  is  regarded  by  some  as  a 
most  delicious  table  grape.  It  can  be  found  in  small  areas  in  every  county 
of  the  State  adapted  to  the  grape.  Vine  a  strong  grower;  wood  short- 
jointed,  dull  dark  to  brown  to  grayish;  leaf  above  medium  size,  slightly 
oblong,  with  large,  deeply-cut,  compound  teeth  basal,  sinus  widely  opened, 
primary  sinuses,  shallow  and  narrow,  secondary  sinuses  ill-defined,  smooth 
on  both  sides,  light  green  below  with  light,  scattered  tomentum." — Hilgard. 
"Bunches  slightly  shouldered,  loose,  divided  into  many  small,  distinct  lateral 
clusters;  berries  medium  size,  round,  purple  black,  heavy  bloom;  exceed- 
ingly sweet,  juicy  and  delicious;  seeds  rather  large;  skin  thin." — Hyatt. 

Muscatel;  syn.  White  Frontignan. — "Vine  of  medium  size,  with  strong, 
spreading  canes;  canes  reddish-brown,  with  short  internodes;  leaves  of 
medium  size,  thin,  five-lobed;  glabrous  except  for  a  few  hairs  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  well-marked  ribs;  bunches  long,  cylindrical,  regular,  compact; 
berries  round,  golden-yellow,  becoming  amber-colored,  very  sweet  and  of 
marked  aroma.  Ripens  a  little  later  than  the  Chasselas." — Bioletti. 

Dattier  de  Beyrouth  (Rosaki). — Introduced  from  Europe.  Bunches  large, 
only  slightly  shouldered;  berries  loose,  never  compact.  Berries  very  large; 
.quite  oval  in  form,  of  a  beautiful  golden  amber  and  covered  with  a  whitish 
bloom;  very  fleshy;  juicy  and  sweet,  with  little  or  no  acidity.  Its  keeping 
qualities  are  unsurpassed.  Makes  /a  very  fine  raisin. — Roeding. 

White  Muscat  of  Alexandria!^— "Vine  a  short,  rather  straggling  and 
bushy  grower,  well  adapted  to  short  stool  pruning,  as  it  forms  rather  a 
bush  than  a  vine;  wood  gray,  with  dark  spots,  short-jointed;  leaf  round, 
five-lobed,  bright  green  above,  lighter  green  below;  young  shoots  a  bright 
green.  The  laterals  produce  a  second  and  even  a  third  crop;  bunch  long 
and  loose,  shouldered;  berry  oblong,  a  light  yellow  when  fully  matured, 
transparent,  covered  with  white  bloom,  fleshy,  with  thick  skin,  very  sweet 
and  decidedly  musky." — Husmann.  The  leading  raisin  grape  of  California. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco. — "Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco  has  a  closer  bunch 
and  rounder  berry  than  the  Muscat.  The  skin  is  softer  and  the  pulp  is  not 
quite  so  hard.  The  berry  inclines  to  be  a  little  darker  in  color  and  not 
nearly  so  green  when  it  is  ripe,  and  I  think  not  quite  as  long  as  the  Mus- 
cat of  Alexandria.  If  the  Muscat  would  set  as  well  as  the  Muscatel,  the 
difficulty  would  be  obviated.  One  very  important  difference  is  that  when 
you  come  to  dry  them,  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  loses  the  bloom  very 
rapidly.  The  bloom  comes  off  when  you  come  to  dry  and  pack  them.  But 
the  Muscatel  does  not  lose  its  bloom.  The  Muscat  of  Alexandria  has  to 
be  dried  a  little  more  than  the  Muscatel  to  bring  it  into  a  keeping  condition 
under  the  same  condition  of  ripeness." — R.  B.  Blowers. 

Huasco  Muscat.— A  variety  brought  from  Chile,  but  after  wide  trial  in 
California,  seems  not  superior  to  the  other  White  Muscat  varieties  previ- 
ously mentioned.  Its  dense  cluster  is  not  well  adapted  to  raisin  making. 
It  is  said,  however,  to  be  less  subject  to  coulure. 

Fcher  Szagos. — "Vine  a  strong  grower  'and  heavy  bearer;  branches  erect 
but  slender;  leaves  glossy,  entire;  bunches  medium  to  small,  pointed,  and 
solid;  berries  greenish  amber,  medium  oval,  pointed,  with  thin  skin  and 
few  small  seeds;  flesh  not  firm,  but  dries  well  and  makes  a  good  raisin." — 
Dr.  Eisen. 

Large  Bloom;  syn.  Uva  Larga. — A  variety  of  Muscat  said  to  be  named 
because  of  the  length  of  its  berries,  but  held  by  some  growers  to  be  indis- 
tinguishable from  Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco.  An  excellent  raisin  grape,  but 
now  chiefly  grown  as  a  table  fruit  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains. 

White  Malagas— "Vine  a  strong  grower;  wood  reddish  brown,  short- 
jointed;  leaf  medium,  leathery  smooth,  deeply  lobed,  light  shining  green 
above;  bunch  very  large,  loose  shouldered,  long;  stem  long  and  flexible; 
berry  very  large,  oval,  yellowish  green,  covered  with  white  bloom;  thick 
skin,  fleshy." — Husmann.  Grown  in  Southern  California  in  situations  where 
the  Muscat  does  not  do  well;  also  elsewhere  as  a  table  grape,  and  to  some 
extent  in  San  Joaquin  Valley  for  naisins. 

Sultana;  syn.  Seedless  Sultana!— "Vine  vigorous,  upright;  leaves  large, 
five-lobed,  with  rather  large  sinuses,  light  colored,  and  coarsely  toothed; 
bunches  large,  long-cylindrical,  with  heavy  shoulders  or  wings,  well  filled 
when  not  cultured,  but  not  compacted;  berries  small,  round,  firm  and  crisp, 
golden  yellow,  and  without  seeds." — Bioletti.  In  California  the  variety  is 
apt  to  have  some  seeds.  It  has  more  acid,  and  therefore  greater  piquancy 
of  flavor,  than  Thompson's  Seedless,  but  the  latter  has  recently  far  out- 
stripped it  in  popularity  among  growers. 

Thompson's  Seedless;  syn.  Sultanina^— Named  by  Sutter  County  Horti- 
cultural Society,  after  W.  Thompson,  Sr.,  of  Yuba  City,  who  procured  the 
cutting  in  1878,  from  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  of  Rochester,  New  York.  It  was 
by^them  described  as  "a  grape  from  Constantinople,  named  Lady  Decover- 
ly."  When  it  fruited  in  Sutter  county,  it  was  seen  to  be  superior  to  the 
Sultana,  and  has  been  propagated  largely.  It  was  first  widely  distributed 
by  J.  P.  Onstott,  of  Yuba  City,  and  others,  and  is  now  to  be  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  State.  The  variety  is  described  by  Dr.  Eisen  as  follows: 
"Oval;  greenish-yellow;  as  large  as  a  Sultana;  seedless,  with  a  thin  skin; 

food,  but  not  strong  flavor,  and  without  that  acid  which  characterizes  the 
ultana^  grape  and  raisins;  bunches  large  or  very  large;  vine  an  enormous 
bearer.       Mr.  Bioletti  considers  the  variety  identical  with  the  Sultanina  of 
Asia   Minor,    and   gives    this    description:      "Vine   very    vigorous    and    with 
large  trunk  and  very  long  canes;  leaves  glabrous  on  both  sides,  dark  yel- 
low-green   above    and    light    below,    generally    three-lobed,    with    shallow 
sinuses,  teeth  short  and  obtuse,  bunch  large  conico-cylindrical,  well  filled, 
on  herbaceous  peduncles;  berries  under  medium;  ellipsoidal,  crisp,  of  neu- 
tral flavor,  with  moderately  thick  skin  of  a  fine  golden-yellow  color." 
Black  Wanukka.— A  black  seedless  grape  somewhat  larger  than  the  Sul- 
ihompson).     It  is   very  promising,  both   as   a  shipping  and   as  a 
raisin  grape;  an  excellent  table  grape,  carrying  well  and  not  shattering  as 
Thompson;  about  two  weeks  earlier,  an  advantage  both  in  ship- 
ping and  drying. 


GRAPE   VARIETIES    IN   CALIFORNIA  321 

Black  Corinth;  syn.  Zante  Currant — Vine  of  great  vigor;  the  grape 
from  which  Zante  or  Greek  currants  are  made;  bunches  medium  size,  com- 
pact, and  cylindrical,  with  well  marked  shoulders,  and  sometimes  winged. 
The  berries  are  very  small,  reddish  black,  round  and  seedless.  Occasionally 
a  berry  containing  seeds  is  found. — Bioletti. 

White  Corinth! — Vine  nearly  as  vigorous  as  the  Black  Corinth,  the 
leaves  are  a  little  lighter  in  color,  and  the  fruit  is  white;  bunches  medium 
or  a  little  larger  than  those  of  the  black  and  more  conical  in  shape;  berries 
a  little  larger,  intermediate  in  size  between  the  Black  Corinth  and  the 
Sultana;  lack  flavor  and  acidity  of  the  black;  must  be  marketed  as  a  sec- 
ond-grade currant  or  Sultana. — Bioletti. 

Flame  Tokay;  syn.  Flame-colored  Tokay,  Flaming  Tokay. — "Vine  a 
strong  grower,  large  in  all  its  proportions,  wood,  joints,  leaves;  wood  dark 
brown,  straight  with  long  joints;  leaves  dark  green,  with  brownish  tinge; 
lightly  lobed;  bunch  very  large,  sometimes  weighing  eight  to  nine  pounds, 
moderately  compact,  shouldered;  berry  very  large,  oblong,  red,  covered 
with  fine  lilac  bloom;  fleshy  and  crackling,  firm;  ripens  late."— Husmann. 
The  leading  shipping  grape  of  the  State,  quality  low.  Defective  in  color  in 
some  localities. 

Black  Hamburg.— "Bunches  very  large,  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  length, 
very  broad  at  the  shoulders,  tapering  to  a  point  gradually;  berries  very 
large,  round,  slightly  inclined  to  oval;  skin  rather  thick,  deep  purple,  very 
black  at  maturity;  very  sugary,  juicy  and  rich." — Hyatt.  A  very  popular 
local  market  grape. 

Rose  of  Peru;vsyn.  Black  Prince  (?). — "Vine  a  strong  grower,  with  dark 
brown,  short-jointed  wood;  leaf  deep  green  above,  lighter  green  and  tomen- 
tose  below;  bunch  very  large,  shouldered,  rather  loose;  berry  round,  large, 
black,  with  firm  and  crackling  flesh;  ripens  rather  late;  a  very  handsome 
and  productive  variety,  of  good  quality,  but  not  adapted  for  long  ship- 
ment."— Husmann. 

Moscatello  Fino;  syn.  Moscatello  Nero,  Black  Muscat — "Leaves  of  me- 
dium size,  with  deep  upper  and  shallow  lower  sinuses,  glabrous  above, 
slightly  downy  below,  and  very  hairy  on  the  veins,  teeth  long  and  sharp; 
bunches  large  to  very  large,  long,  loose,  conico-cylindrical,  and  winged; 
berries  very  large,  on  long,  thin  pedicels;  skin  well  colored,  thin  but 
tough,  flesh  soft  and  juicy  with  delicate  muscat  aroma.  An  excellent  table 
grape.  It  is  a  heavy  bearer,  and  produces  very  fine-looking  bunches  of 
dark  colored  grapes.  Rather  late." — Bioletti. 

Purple  Damascus;  syn.  Black  Damascus. — "Vine  a  medium  grower; 
wood  light  brown  stripe  with  darker  brown,  short-pointed;  leaf  round, 
five-lobed,  smooth,  light  green  above,  tomentose  beneath;  stem  reddish, 
large,  long  and  woody;  bunch  large,  loose,  shouldered;  berry  very  large, 
oblong,  dark  blue,  covered  with  lighter  bloom,  meaty,  skin  thick,  ripens 
late." — Husmann. 

V 

Purple  Cornichon;  syn.  Black  Cornichon. — "Vine  a  heavy  grower,  with 
thick,  light  brown,  short-jointed  wood;  leaves  large,  longer  than  wide, 
deeply  five-lobed,  dark  green  above,  and  lighter  and  very  hairy  below, 
coarsely  toothed,  and  with  short,  thick  petiole;  bunches  very  large,  loose, 
on  long  peduncles;  berries  large,  long,  more  or  less  curved,  darkly  col- 
ored and  spotted,  thick-skinned,  and  on  long  pedicles.  Desirable  on  ac- 
count of  its  attractive  appearance,  curious  shape,  excellent  shipping  qual- 
ities, and  late  ripening." — Bioletti. 

White  Cornichon.— Resembles  Purple  Cornichon  in  shape  and  flavor, 
but  has  very  thin  and  tender  skin,  which  makes  it  better  for  the  table, 
but  poorer  for  shipping.  Leaves  not  deeply  cut;  smooth  on  both  sides. 

Emperor.— "Vine  a  strong,  vigorous  grower;  leaves  very  large  with 
five  shallow  lobes,  short,  obtuse  teeth  glabrous  above,  woolly  beneath,  light 
green  in  color;  bunches  very  large,  long  conical,  loose  with  large,  dull 
purple,  oval,  firm  berries." — Bioletti.  An  excellent  shipping  grape,  first 
largely  grown  by  R.  B.  Blowers  of  Woodland,  Yolo  county,  by  whom  its 


322 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


merits  were  first  announced.  Seems  best  adapted  to  interior  situations  and 
is  chiefly  grown  for  shipping  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

Black  Ferrara. — A  large  black  grape;  large  bunches;  berries  cling  well 
to  the  stem,  thick-skinned,  flavor  superior.  An  excellent  local  market  va- 
riety and  long-distance  shipper. 

Lady  Fingcrv  (Pizutella  di  Roma). — "Bunches  are  usually  large  and  long; 
berries  are  long,  white  and  thin-skinned.  Flesh  tender,  crisp  and  sweet. 
Vine  a  rapid  and  strong  grower,  bearing  very  large  foikige." — Roeding. 

Gros  Colman;  syn.  Dodrelabi. — "Vine  strong-growing,  with  dark  brown- 
ish wood;  leaves  very  large,  round,  thick,  very  slightly  lobed,  shortly  and 
bluntly  toothed,  glabrous  above,  close-woolly  below;  bunches  large,  short 
well  filled,  but  not  compact;  berries  very  large,  round,  darg  blue,  with 
thick  but  tender  skin.  Remarkable  as  having  the  largest  berries  of  any 
round  berry  variety  known,  and  is  probably  the  handsomest  black  table 
grape  grown.  The  grapes  have  good  keeping  qualities,  except  that  they  are 
liable  to  crack." — Bioletti. 

Black  Morocco.— "Vine  a  strong  grower,  with  thin,- spreading  canes, 
leaves  under  medium  size,  very  deeply  fiye-lobed,  even  when  very  young, 
the  younger  leaves  truncate  at  base,  giving  them  a  semi-circular  outline, 
with  long,  sharp  teeth  alternating  with  very  small  ones,  glabrous  on  both 
sides,  bunches  very  large,  short,  shouldered,  and  compact;  berries  very 
large,  round,  often  angular  from  compression,  fleshy,  of  neutral  flavor,  dull 
purple  color  or  colorless  in  the  center  of  the  bunch.  Remarkable  for  the 
number  of  second  crop  bunches  which  it  produces  on  the  laterals.  Late 
in  ripening  and  of  very  fine  appearance;  a  fairly  good  shipping  grape,  but 
difficult  to  pack  on  account  of  the  size  and  rigidity  of  the  bunches.  The 
grapes  are  of  an  agreeable  crispness,  but  lacking  in  flavor." — Bioletti.  Vine 
quite  subject  to  root  knot. 

Verdal;  Aspiran  Blanc. — "Vine  of  medium  vigor  and  rather  hardy;  canes 
somewhat  slender  and  half  erect;  leaves  of  average  size,  glabrous  on  both 
surfaces,  except  below  near  the  axis  of  the  main  nerves,  sinuses  well 
marked  and  generally  closed,  giving  the  leaf  the  appearance  of  having  five 
holes;  teeth  long,  unequal,  and  somewhat  acuminate;  bunches  large  to  very 
large,  irregular  long-conical,  without  any  or  with  small  shoulders,  well- 
filled  to  compact;  berries  yellowish  green,  large  to  very  large,  crisp,  with 
thick  but  tender  skin,  agreeable,  but  without  marked  flavor." — Bioletti. 
Grown  as  a  late  table  grape;  in  good  condition  in  some  regions  as  late 
as  November. 

Almeria;  syn.  Ohanez. — "Vine  vigorous;  leaves  of  medium  size,  round 
and  slightly  or  not  at  all  lobed,  quite  glabrous  on  both  sides,  teeth  obtuse 
and  alternately  large  and  small;  bunches  large,  loose  or  compact,  irregular 
conical;  berries  from  small  to  large,  cylindrical,  flattened  on  the  ends,  very 
hard  and  tasteless." — Bioletti.  The  grape  cultivated  at  the  University  Ex- 
periment Stations  under  this  name  is  one  of  the  several  varieties  which  are 
shipped  in  such  large  quantities  from  Malaga  and  Almeria  packed  in  cork 
dust.  The  grapes  ripen  late  and  attain  about  20  per  cent  sugar.  They  have 
remarkable  keeping  qualities.  Vine  needs  long  pruning,  and  is  only 
adapted  to  hot,  interior  situations. 

There  are  many  other  vinifera  varieties  which  are  grown  to  a 
limited  extent  either  for  raisins  or  for  table  use.  Among  these  are 
the  Canon  Hall  Muscat,  the  White  Tokay,  White  Champion,  Cin- 
saut,  Zabalskanski,  etc. 

EASTERN  GRAPES 

Though  many  of  the  improved  varieties  of  the  grape  species 
indigenous  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  of  the  hybrids  between 
these  species  and  the  vinifera,  have  been  introduced  in  California, 


AMERICAN  GRAPES  IN  CALIFORNIA  323 

their  growth  for  table  fruit  is  almost  of  insignificant  proportions, 
and  has  not  constituted  even  a  respectable  fraction  of  one  per  cent 
of  our  grape  area,  though  possibly  destined  to  become  more 
important  in  the  new  uses  for  grapes  which  are  unfolding.  A  variety 
of  local  origin  is  worthy  of  mention  as  follows : 

Isabella  Regia. — "A  remarkable,  giant-leaved,  and  very  prolific  sport  of 
the  Isabella,  originated  by  bud  variation  with  Mr.  J.  P.  Pierce,  of  Santa 
Clara.  The  berries,  like  the  leaves,  are  of  extraordinary  size,  and  when 
ripe  the  fruit  is  exceedingly  sweet  and  strongly  aromatic.  It  is,  therefore, 
acceptable  as  a  showy,  perfumed  table  grape,  much  liked  by  some,  but 
readily  surfeiting  those  who  are  accustomed  to  the  vinifera  grapes.  The 
berries  are  too  soft  for  shipment  to  any  distance,  but  all  things  considered, 
keep  fairly." — Hilgard.  Grown  as  the  "California  Concord"  in  the  Los 
Angeles  region. 

This  variety  leads  its  class  in  this  State.  Other  varieties  of 
Eastern  grapes  most  popular  in  California,  with  the  few  who  grow 
them,  are  as  follows :  Catawba,  Concord,  Moore's  Early,  Campbell's 
Early,  Delaware,  Niagara,  Worden,  Diamond,  Isabella. 


PART  FIVE:    SEMI-TROPICAL  FRUITS* 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

THE  AVOCADO 

The  avocado,  or  aguacate  of  the  Mexicans  (Persea  gratissima)  , 
unwisely  called  "alligator  pear"  (for  the  fruit  is  neither  one  nor  the 
other),  has  been  during  the  last  few  years  almost  a  "sensation" 
in  California  fruit  planting.  Its  deliciousness  as  a  salad  material 
and  the  prices  which  have  been  paid  for  the  Florida  and  the 
imported  fruit,  have  joined  to  inspire  great  expectations  for  a 
California  product.  The  extent  of  the  American  demand,  the 
phases  of  competition  with  the  fruit  from  elsewhere,  and  the  porno- 
logical  characters  of  varieties  to  meet  California  conditions  are  all, 
however,  still  largely  to  be  determined  and  they  make  the  problem 
of  investment  in  avocado  growing  very  interesting.  The  abundant 
confidence  which  is  now  being  manifested  promises  to  soon  make 
the  situation  clear.  The  enthusiasts  who  are  leading  in  the  planting 
are  in  this  way  undertaking  a  public  service.  They  have  organized 
the  "California  Avocado  Association,"  and  are  publishing  reports  of 
their  proceedings  from  their  headquarters  in  Los  Angeles. 

In  a  few  years  fruit  planters  generally  will  be  able  to  discern 
whether  they  should  restrict  investment  in  the  avocado  to  supplies 
for  home  use  and  local  sale  or  whether  its  production  should  be 
pushed  toward  great  commercial  objectives  such  as  California  has 
attained  with  other  fruits  of  a  semi-tropical  character. 

*The  dimensions  of  California's  interest  in  this  group  of  fruits  are  siren  for  the  year 
1919  in  the  U.  S.  Census  of  1920  as  follows: 


. 

No.  Farms 

9fa"ges    .....................      J8.540 

tSSSLu  ....................      1(H25 

Grapefruit    ...................       4,249 

13 

78 
,.      4 

166 


22-4 

I 

212 


No.  bearing 
trees 

10,297,593 

2,884,770 

231,136 

120 

2>475 
1,594 

503,973 
910,890 

U'916 
3,654 


T°tals 


17,399 
14.906.731 


Product 

21,628,444  bx. 
6,551,657    " 
465,085    " 
136    " 

6'658    " 
2,002    " 

21,801,899  Ib. 

17,564,020  " 

7,919  crt 

32,852  Ib. 


144.992 


mallthatvervrttf>  u,        fy  mUS      nCatC  that  the  demand   for  the 

small  that  very  little  of  it  is  gathered  and  the  plants  are  chieHy  ornamental. 


Value 

$67,048,178 

18,999,810 

930,170 

477 

^,306 

8,008 

2,180,194 

1405121 

63353 

1,653 


28,998 
$90,849.592 
is  so 


THE  AVOCADO  IN   CALIFORNIA  325 

Aside  from  the  excellent  reports  of  the  California  Avocado 
Association,  the  literature  of  the  fruit  in  its  California  aspects  is 
considerable.* 

The  current  eager  and  pervading  interest  in  the  avocado  in 
California  is  rather  an  awakening  than  a  discovery  because  the 
adaptation  of  the  tree  to  natural  conditions  has  been  amply  demon- 
strated by  early  introduction  and  trials.  The  first  tree  was  grown 
from  a  seed  planted  by  Mr.  Silas  Bond  in  Santa  Barbara  in  1870,  and 
this  tree  was  described  in  1886  as  about  20  feet  in  height,  thrifty  and 
prolific,  and  having  borne  fruit  for  several  years.  Nearly  as  soon, 
probably,  avocados  were  planted  for  the  distinctive  beauty  of  the 
tree  in  the  home  gardens  of  the  citrus  pioneers  of  the  wide  area 
which  was  then  Los  Angeles  County,  and  even  as  street  trees  in 
front  of  the  homes  of  the  pioneer  villagers.  During  the  last  twenty- 
five  years  such  scattered  plantings  have  extended  far  more  widely, 
accompanying  the  modern  extension  of  citrus  interest  along  the 
mesas  on  the  east  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  the  Sacramento 
valleys — the  oldest  bearing  tree  north  of  Tehachapi  known  to  the 
writer  being  about  30  feet  high  in  1919  in  a  garden  in  Visalia.  Along 
the  coast  fruit  production  is  noted  as  far  north  as  Santa  Cruz.  The 
geographical  extension  of  the  avocado  may  be  expected  to  approx- 
imate that  of  the  orange — providing  varieties  of  the  thin-skinned 
Mexican  ancestry  are  selected  for  trial.  The  thick-skinned  Guate- 
malan ancestry  is  much  more  tender,  and  may  fail  of  thrifty  growth 
through  lack  of  winter  warmth  even  if  actual  touch  of  frost  is 
escaped. 

Propagation  of  Avocados. — Seeds  should  be  planted  with  pointed 
ends  upward  and  hardly  projecting  above  the  surface.  Sandy  loam 
or  the  usual  green  house  mixture  of  sand  and  fibrous  loam  should 
be  chosen  and  the  seeds  can  be  started  in  small  boxes  or  cans  or 
flower  pots  in  house-window  or  in  hot  bed,  if  the  grower  wishes  but 
a  few  trees  for  trial.  On  a  larger  scale  seedlings  may  be  grown  in 
the  open  by  setting  the  seeds  as  described  and  mulching  lightly  with 
sand  or  fine  litter  to  prevent  the  surface  from  crusting  or  drying  out. 
In  the  latter  case  the  seedlings  should  be  taken  from  the  seed-bed  to 
the  nursery  row  when  a  few  inches  high.  In  growing  in  small 
receptacles,  the  plants  should  be  set  out  before  the  roots  become 
curled  or  cramped. 

Transplanting  of  avocados  should  generally  be  undertaken  as 
the  soil  becomes  warmed  in  the  spring,  as  will  be  commended  for  all 
semi-tropical  evergreens. 

Unless  the  amateur  is  very  adventurous  to  see  what  he  will  get 
from  his  seed  or  is  a  professional  who  thirsts  for  honors  as  a  plant- 
breeder,  the  seedling  will  be  budded.  Budding  is  with  the  "shield 

*The  Avocado,  by  G.  N.  Collins.  Bulletin  77,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.,  1907.  Consult  also  Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  for  1905  and  1906.  The 
Avocado  in  Southern  California  and  the  Development  of  the  Avocado  Industry  by  F.  W. 
Popenoe,  Altadena,  Los  Angeles  County.  New  varieties  of  the  Avocado  for  California,  by 
K.  A.  Ryerson,  University  of  California  Journal  ®f  Agriculture,  November,  1913.  "The 
Avocado  in  California,"  by  I.  J.  Condit,  Bulletin  254,  California  Experiment  Station,  Ber- 
keley, May,  1915.  "History  of  the  Avocado  and  its  Varieties  in  California,"  by  I.  J.  Con- 
dit, Monthly  Bulletin  of  State  Commission  of  Horticulture,  January,  1917.  "Manual  of 
Tropical  and  Subtropical  Fruits,"  by  Wilson  Popenoe,  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1920. 


326 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


bud"  described  in  detail  in  Chapter  IX,  and  the  handling  is  that  of 
citrus  budding  as  sketched  in  Chapter  XXXIII. 

Usually  one  year's  growth  is  allowed  on  the  bud  before  trans- 
planting, and  during  this  year  the  bud  growth  may  be  trimmed  up 
and  prepared  for  desirable  branching  of  the  future  tree.  In  trans- 
planting the  trees  should  be  balled  and  handled  as  described  for 
orange  trees.  Planting  in  permanent  place  should  give  the  trees  not 
less  than  25  feet  distances,  as  they  will  ultimately  grow  quite  large. 
The  culture,  irrigation,  fertilizing,  etc.,  which  befit  citrus  trees  under 
the  same  natural  conditions  will  satisfy  the  avocado. 

The  tree  apparently  requires  little  pruning  except  in  the  way  of 
checking  too  rangy  growth,  which  will  not  only  promote  strength 
and  symmetry,  but  will  protect  both  tree  and  fruit  from  sunburn  and 
wind  injuries. 

Grafting  the  Avocado. — Trees  of  large  size  may  be  worked  over 
by  budding  or  by  top-grafting.  The  bark-graft  as  described  in 
Chapter  IX  and  specified  in  the  chapters  relating  to  the  fig  and  the 
walnut,  secures  very  satisfactory  results. 

Varieties  of  the  Avocado. — There  are  literally  hundreds  of  varie- 
ties receiving  attention  of  California  growers,  and  no  one  can  tell 
what  selections  will  ultimately  prevail.  The  beginner  can  not 
pursue  a  safer  course  than  to  plant  the  varieties  approved  by  the 
California  Avocado  Association  in  1920  (and  unchanged  in  1921),  as 

follows  :  Weight 

of  Fruit  Color  of 

Varieties —  Season  from  in  oz.  Mature  Fruits 

Fuerte .Dec.  to  Apr.  11-16  Green 

Spinks Mar.   to   Oct.  16-20  Purplish     Black 

Dickinson May  to  Sept.  14-20  Dark  Purple 

Sharpless Sept.   to   Jan.  16-20  Dark  Purple 

Puebla Nov.  to  Jan.  6-14  Dark  Purple 

In  the  table  the  names  are  placed,  not  according  to  merit,  but  in  the  'order 
in  which  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen,  following  the  calendar  year  and  using 
Los  Angeles  as  a  center. 

The  Fuerte  is  one  of  the  hardier  and  one  of  the  most  vigorous  growing 
trees,  an  early  and  productive  bearer,  with  fruit  of  the  highest  quality  ripen- 
ing at  a  very  desirable  period,  with  a  greater  variation  in  size  and  shape  of 
fruit  than  is  usual  on  the  same  tree,  and  with  some  coming  too  small. 

The  Spinks  is  also  a  strong  growing  tree.  The  large  fruit  is  noted  for 
its  handsome  appearance  and  has  a  long  ripening  period,  lasting  from  early 
m  the  year  until  October. 

An  outstanding  feature  of  the  Dickinson  is  its  notably  rough,  warty 
skin,  which  becomes  a  glossy,  handsome  purple  and  identifies  the  variety. 
I  he  quality  is  good  and  it  comes  in  a  period  of  its  own — the  summer. 

11  S?arPless  ls  weH  known  for  its  handsome  large  fruit,  comparatively 
small  seed,  high  quality  and  very  desirable  ripening  period  of  fall  and  early 
Wmiln  rT  rte1quires  about  a  year  and  a  half  from  blossom  to  maturity. 

the  Puebla  tree  is  one  of  the  best  types  of  the  avocado — sturdy,  hardy, 
compact,  precocious  and  productive.  The  glossy,  handsome,  pear  shaped 
purple  fruit  matures  at  a  good  season,  but  is  smaller  and  with  thinner  skin 
e  others  on  the  recommended  list.  The  period  required  from  the 
blossom  to  the  maturity  of  the  fruit  is  the  shortest  of  anv  kind  on  the  list, 
requiring  about  eight  months,  and  the  seed  is  of  medium"  size. 

Budded  trees  of  these  varieties  can  be  purchased  at  the  nurseries 
and  the  amateur  will  gratify  his  interest  much  sooner  by  planting 
them  in  preference  to  budding  his  own  seedlings. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

THE  DATE* 

Ever  since  the  arid,  semi-tropical  regions  of  the  United  States 
became  known  through  the  narratives  of  explorers,  the  date  palm 
(Phoenix  dactylifera)  has  been  projected  as  a  plant  likely  to  demon- 
strate commercial  value  in  America  like  that  which  it  has  held  for 
centuries  in  the  arid  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa.  This  idea  was 
also  cherished  even  at  an  earlier  date  by  the  Spanish  missionaries 
who  brought  the  palm  to  California,  as  will  be  described  presently. 
During  the  last  two  decades  the  problem  of  introducing  and  estab- 
lishing a  date-growing  industry  has  been  taken  up  more  seriously 
and  systematically  than  ever  before  and  has  attained  success. 

The  date  palm  was  brought  to  California  by  the  padres,  and  the 
oldest  date  trees  in  the  State  are  the  survivors  of  their  early  plant- 
ings. Such  trees  are  found  at  the  San  Diego  Mission.  They  are 
conjectured  to  be  more  than  a  century  old,  and  they  have  survived 
drought  and  neglect.  They  made  no  record  of  fruit-bearing.  There 
were  also  unfruitful  date  palms  at  other  missions. 

The  ill  success  of  these  old  trees  in  fruit  bearing  long  prevented 
attention  to  the  date  as  a  profitable  growth.  Still  there  were  date 
palms  grown  from  seed  of  the  commercial  date  planted  here  and 
there  for  ornament  or  out  of  curiosity,  and  in  due  course  of  time 
the  fruit  appeared.  The  first  public  exhibition  of  California  dates 
known  to  the  writer  was  made  at  the  Mechanic's  Institute  Fair,  in 
San  Francisco,  in  September,  1877.  The  fruit  was  grown  on  the 
south  bank  of  Putah  Creek,  the  northern  boundary  of  Solano 
County,  the  situation  being  slightly  above  the  level  of  the  plain  of 
the  Sacramento  Valley,  which  lies  east  of  it.  The  plants  were 
grown  by  the  late  J.  R.  Wolfskill,  from  seed  of  commercial  dates 
purchased  in  San  Francisco,  and  planted  in  1858  or  1859.  The  seed 
germinated  readily,  and  the  young  plants  were  set  out  in  a  row 
about  100  feet  south  of  Putah  Creek,  on  a  rich,  fine,  sandy  loam 
lying  about  25  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  creek.  The  plants  received 
good  cultivation,  but  no  irrigation. 

Another  bearing  date  palm  stands  about  a  mile  eastward  of  the 
situation  just  described,  near  the  residence  of  the  late  J.  R.  Wolf- 
skill.  It  was  grown  from  seed  of  the  date  of  commerce,  which  was 
planted  in  1863,  and  the  tree  bore  its  first  fruit  in  1880.  Near  it 

*The  Date  Palm  and  its  Utilization  in  the  Southwestern  States,  by  Walter  T.  Swingle, 
Bulletin  53,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Washington,  1904. 

Date  Varieties  and  Date  Culture  in  Tunis,  by  T.  H.  Kearney,  Bulletin  92,  Ibid,  1906. 

Date  growing  in  Southern  California,  by  S.  C.  Masin.  Report  of  Riverside  Fruit  Grow- 
ers' Convention,  State  Horticultural  jCommissioner,  Sacramento,  1908. 

Date  Growing  in  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  by  Paul  B.  Popenoe,  Altadena,  California, 
1913.  A  fine,  illustrated  treatise. 

Propagation  and  Culture  of  the  Date  Palm,  by  Bruce  Drummond,  Coachella,  California; 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  1016,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Washington,  D.  C.,  January,  1919. 

Manual  of  Tropical  and  Semitropical  Fruits,  by  Wilson  Popenoe,  Macmillan  Co.,  New 
York,  1920. 


328 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


stands  a  taller  date  palm,  which  bears  staminate  bloom.  This  latter 
tree  was  originally  one  of  the  row  previously  described,  and  was 
successfully  moved  to  its  present  situation  after  attaining  consider- 
able size. 

The  fruit  of  the  two  bearing  palms  differs  notably  in  appearance. 
That  of  the  first  mentioned  tree  is  of  bright  yellow  color  and  angular 
outline ;  that  of  the  second  tree  is  wine  red,  with  smooth  surface. 

During  recent  years  the  date  has  fruited  at  many,  places  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona,  and  commercial  quantities  of  fruit  have  been 
profitably  produced.  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  will  succeed  in 
any  of  the  interior  regions  which  have  a  sufficiently  high  summer 
temperature. 

Soils  and  Waters  for  the  Date. — Until  recently  the  date  palm  has 
only  been  planted  on  good  orchard  land,  but,  according  to  experi- 
ence in  date-growing  countries,  the  tree  does  not  require  rich  soil, 
but  on  the  contrary  will  thrive  in  soil  which  is  not  acceptable  to 
other  fruit  trees,  and  will  produce  fine  fruit  when  irrigated  with 
water  too  alkaline  for  man  or  beast  to  drink.  Even  the  date  has, 
however,  limitations  in  its  tolerance  of  saline  soils  and  waters. 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  DATE 

The  date  palm  grows  readily  from  the  seeds  of  the  dried  date 
of  commerce,  and,  as  has  been  intimated,  most  of  the  trees  now 
fruiting  in  this  State  having  been  obtained  in  this  way.  By  the  use 
of  seed  one  gets,  however,  only  seedlings,  and  the  chance  of  thus 
securing  a  really  fine  variety  is  probably  not  greater  than  with 
other  fruit  tree  seedlings.  In  date-growing  countries  the  best 
varieties  are  propagated  by  rooting  the  off-sets,  sprouts  or  suckers 
which  appear  at  the  base  of  the  older  palms  —  near  the  base  at  first 
and  later  higher  up  on  the  trunks.  To  secure  the  best  foreign 
varieties  such  plants  must  be  imported.  The  first  such  effort  was 
made  in  the  summer  of  1890  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  The  plants  were  divided  between  New  Mexico, 
Arizona  and  California.  The  plants  for  California  were  planted  at 
Tulare  and  Pomona,  some  of  them  being  subsequently  transplanted 
to  the  United  States  Date  Garden  at  Mecca  in  the  Colorado  desert 
region.* 

The    United    States    Department    of    Agriculture    undertook 

arrangements  in  1899  for  new  importations,  which  were  success- 

fully made.    Of  the  foreign  varieties  thus  introduced  the  following 

have   been    produced   in   commercial   quantities:    Rhars,    Tedalla, 

T%£  e^Ha^  and  Deglet  Noor—  the  last  named  leading  largely. 

1  he  Deglet  Noor  was  imported  from  the  oases  of  the  Sahara  in 

southern  Algeria  and  southern  Tunisia.    Did  not  ripen  well  in  Cali- 

fornia and  Arizona  until  in  1910  methods  of  curing  were  perfected 

by  the  experts  of  the  University  of  Arizona  and  the  Department  of 

Agriculture,  which  will  be  mentioned  presently.     Large  importa- 


°UtCOme  is  giv€n   in   Bulletin  29'   of  the 


PROPAGATION  OF  DATE  PALMS  329 

tions  of  Deglet  Noor  offshoots  were  made  by  the  Coachella  Valley 
Date  Growers'  Association  from  1912  to  1914,  with  the  co-operation 
and  help  of  the  Department.  During  the  war  Algeria  forbade  export 
of  date  offshoots.  In  the  spring  of  1921  permission  was  secured 
from  the  Algerian  government  to  import  1,400  offshoots  of  the 
Deglet  Noor.  The  Department  entered  into  a  contract  with  a  local 
firm  of  date  growers  of  Indio  to  root  these  offshoots,  plant  them  out 
in  permanent  orchard  form  and  return  to  the  Department  one-fifth 
of  the  offshoots  produced  on  the  imported  trees,  and  sell  three-fifths 
of  the  offshoots  to  bona  fide  date  growers  living  in  regions  suitable 
for  the  culture  of  the  Deglet  Noor  variety  and  who  do  not  already 
have  100  trees  of  this  variety,  at  a  price  not  to  exceed  $7.50  each  for 
the  unrooted  offshoots.  One-fifth  of  the  offshoots  are  to  go  to  the 
firm  as  their  share,  in  view  of  their  having  borne  all  the  expenses  of 
the  introduction.  This  source  of  supply  of  Deglet  Noor  is  expected 
to  be  in  continuous  operation  for  many  years. 

During  recent  years  large  importations  of  other  date  varieties  for 
commercial  planting  in  Southeastern  California  have  been  made  by 
Mr.  Popenoe,  after  searching  foreign  investigations.  Some  of  these 
consisted  of  varieties  of  dates  which  are  drier  and  firmer  in  flesh 
when  mature  than  the  soft  dates  to  which  Americans  are  accustomed 
and  which  they  must  be  taught  to  esteem  if  their  production  is  to  be 
profitable  in  this  country.  There  is,  therefore,  an  issue  arising 
between  types  of  dates  which  it  will  take  time  to  determine.  There 
is  also  an  issue  between  advocates  of  imported  palms  and  those 
grown  in  this  country  from  seeds  of  selected  palms  established 
here.  These  issues  between  sources  and  policies  of  propagation  and 
other  matters  also  have  given  rise  to  personal  controversies  between 
those  holding  diverse  views  and  interests  the  adjustment  of  which 
can  not  be  foreseen  and  the  only  clear  aspect  of  which  in  1921  is  that 
the  conflict  may  be  as  hot  as  the  sun  and  as  bitter  as  the  water  which 
the  palm  itself  can  thrive  upon. 

Growing  Palms  from  Seied. — Seeds  taken  from  the  dried  dates 
of  commerce  germinate  readily ;  in  fact,  seedlings  frequently  appear 
in  the  gutters  of  unpaved  streets  where  the  seeds  have  been  thrown 
during  the  rainy  season.  Director  Forbes,  of  the  Arizona  Station, 
says  that  seeds  will  come  up  more  promptly  if  first  stratified.  This 
may  be  done  by  taking  a  gasoline  can  or  deep  box  and  placing 
three  inches  of  sand  in  the  bottom  after  making  a  number  of  holes 
in  it  for  drainage.  The  seeds  are  placed  upon  this  layer  and  the 
can  or  box  filled  with  sand,  the  whole  then  being  put  in  a  sheltered 
place  and  kept  moist  from  three  to  six  weeks,  when  the  seeds  will 
be  soft  and  ready  for  prompt  growth  when  planted.  The  seedlings 
may  be  started  in  nursery  rows  for  transplanting  after  one  to  three 
years,  or  if  frequent  irrigations  may  be  relied  on,  in  the  fields  where 
the  trees  are  to  remain. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Swingle,  whose  work  on  date  growing  has  already 
been  cited,  gives  the  following  suggestions  on  the  growing  of  seed- 
lings and  their  subsequent  handling  to  determine  sex  and  to  select 
bearing  palms  of  desirable  type : 


330  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

The  seed  should  be  planted  rather  thickly  in  well-drained  beds  of  fer- 
tile soil,  free  from  alkali.  These  beds  should  be  watered  frequently,  as  the 
young  date  seedlings  need  an  abundance  of  moisture.  If  properly  cared 
for  the  seedlings  will  reach  a  height  of  from  12  to  18  inches  the  first  year 
and  can  be  transplanted  into  the  permanent  orchard  the  second  year. 

These  seedlings  should  be  set  out  in  rows  about  30  feet  apart  and  placed 
5  or  6  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Ordinarily  field  crops  can  be  grown  between 
the  rows  until  long  after  the  palms  come  into  bearing.  After  three  or  four 
years,  when  the  young  palms  begin  to  flower,  the  surplus  male  trees  can  be 
dug  up  and  destroyed,  thus  thinning  about  half  of  the  trees.  Then  when 
the  female  trees  come  into  fruit,  those  which  yield  decidedly  inferior  fruit 
can  also  be  removed,  so  that  finally  about  one-fourth  of  the  original  num- 
ber of  seedlings  will  be  left  standing.  The  spaces  between  the  seedlings 
will  be  irregular  and  offshoots  can  be  taken  from  the  best  sorts  and  planted 
where  the  largest  gaps  occur.  By  preventing  offshoots  from  growing  on 
the  poorer  sorts  they  will  yield  more  fruit  and  finally  can  be  destroyed 
and  replaced  by  offshoots  from  some  of  the  better  sorts.  In  this  way,  by 
degrees,  the  orchard  can  be  improved  without  expense  for  offshoots  aside 
from  the  labor  of  planting  them. 

Rooting  Suckers. — Suckers  taken  off  in  warm  weather  and 
watered  freely  usually  take  root  readily.  In  the  Coachella  Valley 
they  are  usually  cut  in  March,  but  can  be  handled  successfully  all 
the  year  except  December  and  January.  In  cooler  valleys  the 
season  would  probably  run  from  April  to  August,  as  they  do  not 
root  readily  during  nor  approaching  cool  weather.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  let  the  plants  dry.  Director  Forbes  gives  these  points : 
Suckers  should  not  be  taken  from  the  parent  tree  until  they  have 
attained  a  diameter  of  5  to  6  inches  and  a  weight  of  15  to  20  pounds. 
Suckers  should  be  removed  by  cutting  in  and  down  along  the  line 
of  cleavage  between  them  and  the  main  trunk,  with  a  strong  chisel 
or  a  flat-pointed  bar.  If  possible  the  cut  should  be  carried  down 
so  as  to  bring  away  at  least  one  or  two  sound  roots.  The  leaves 
should  be  closely  pruned  and  for  shipment  the  cut  bases  had  better 
be  protected  against  drying  out  by  layer  of  wet  moss  or  similar 
material.  In  planting,  the  sucker  should  be  set  in  previously  irri- 
gated and  well  settled  soil  to  the  depth  of  its  greatest  diameter, 
taking  care  that  the  center  of  the  palm  is  not  below  the  irrigating 
water  level. 

For  convenience  in  irrigating,  a  shallow  basin  of  earth  should  be 
made  about  the  sucker,  in  which,  to  lessen  evaporation  and  the  rise 
of  alkali,  a  mulch  of  the  fine  barnyard  litter  three  or  four  inches  deep 
should  be  spread.  The  soil  about  the  newly  transplanted  suckers 
should  be  kept  constantly  wet  by  frequent  irrigations. 

Rooting  offsets  in  a  hot  bed  is  commended  by  Mr.  Bruce  Drum- 
mond.  He  plunges  them  in  a  forcing  bed  made  of  one  and  a  half 
feet  depth  of  manure,  covered  with  one  foot  of  earth.  The  forcing 
house  is  of  canvas  and  the  heat  thus  increased  by  the  covering 
induces  such  a  rapid  and  vigorous  growth  that  offshoots  cut  from 
the  parent  tree  in  the  spring  are  ready  to  plant  out  in  the  grove  in 
the  fall,  and  will  begin  bearing  dates  four  years  thereafter. 
Mr.  Drummond  says  that  offsets  about  5  inches  in  diameter  weigh 
J  to  12  pounds,  and  root  more  easily  than  larger  ones.  He  cuts 
away  about  one-half  of  each  of  the  leaves  of  the  offset  rather  than 
prune  them  all  away. 


BEARING  AND  RIPENING  DATES  331 

Bearing  Age  of  the  Date. — There  is  much  difference  in  the  ages 
at  which  seedlings  have  come  in  fruit  in  the  hands  of  different 
growers.  Fruit  has  been  reported  on  seedlings  six  years  old  and 
even  on  plants  four  years  from  the  seed.  Such  early  maturity  must 
not,  however,  be  generally  expected. 

Blooming  of  the  Date. — The  date  palm  is  dioecious,  and,  its 
staminate  (male)  and  pistillate  (female)  blooms  appearing  on 
different  trees,  it  requires  the  association  of  the  two  for  perfect 
fruiting.  Growing  plants  from  seed,  as  already  stated,  leaves  the 
grower  in  doubt  as  to  the  sex  of  his  plants  until  they  bloom. 
Usually  one  obtains  a  large  preponderance  of  male  plants.  In 
propagating  from  suckers  the  new  tree  is  of  the  same  sex  as  the 
parent.  It  is  advised  to  have  about  one  male  to  twenty  female  trees. 
The  pollen  can  be  transported  long  distances  and  maintains  its 
vitality  for  a  long  time. 

Artificial  fertilization  of  the  bloom  of  the  bearing  palm  has  been 
found  of  advantage  in  this  State  and  was  probably  first  practiced 
by  J.  R.  Wolfskill.  Though  the  staminate  tree  was  but  a  few  feet 
away  from  the  pistillate,  the  male  bloom  was  broken  in  pieces  and 
hung  to  the  leaves  of  the  female  tree  near  to  the  pistillate  flowers. 
It  was  found  that  the  parts  of  the  date  cluster  which  are  nearest  to 
the  suspended  male  blooms  have  more  perfect  fruit  than  the  more 
distant  parts.  Other  California  date  growers  have  had  similar 
experience. 

Date  palms  bloom  from  March  to  May,  and  the  fruit  ripens  from 
August  to  November. 

Ripening  the  Date. — Dr.  A.  E.  Vinson  reports  that  the  Arizona 
Experiment  Station  has  demonstrated  that  by  pasteurization  .  or 
incubation  of  the  ripe  fruit,  it  is  freed  of  the  obnoxious  insects  that 
naturally  infest  the  date.  In  pasteurizing,  the  temperature  is  raised 
sufficiently  to  destroy  all  insect  eggs  and  at  the  same  time  to 
improve  the  keeping  quality  of  the  fresh  fruit  by  checking  fermenta- 
tion. The  date,  heated  after  it  has  been  ripened  at  natural  tempera- 
tures, becomes  more  palatable  than  the  raw  material  and  does  not 
cloy  the  appetite  so  quickly.  These  improvements  alone  have 
greatly  extended  the  possibilities  of  marketing  the  fresh  fruit  and 
of  its  becoming  a  staple  among  the  people  of  this  country.  It  is 
anticipated  by  some  growers  that  seedling  varieties  can  be  devel- 
oped which  will  not  require  artificial  ripening,  but  artificial  ripening 
by  holding  the  fruit  in  a  closed  apartment  at  a  temperature  of  100  to 
110  degrees  Fahr.  is  regularly  practiced.  The  length  of  exposure  to 
heat  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  fruit  as  it  comes  from  the 
trees,  and  is  a  matter  of  experience  and  judgment. 

Fumigation  with  bisulphide  vapor  to  free  packed  dates  from 
insects  is  also  employed  both  by  the  California  Date  Association  and 
by  private  growers.  An  apparatus  for  fumigating  in  vacuo  is  being 
very  successfully  used. 

Pruning. — The  pruning  of  bearing  palms  should  consist  merely 
in  the  removal  of  old  leaves,  up  to  the  fruit  stem  of  the  former 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

crop.  Young  palms  should  not  be  allowed  to  produce  heayy  crops 
of  fruit,  as  this  would  be  done  at  the  expense  of  offshoot  growth — 
if  that  is  a  consideration. 

Beauty  of  the  Date  Palm. — The  date  palm  in  fruit  is  a  beautiful 
sight.  The  glauceous  green  pinnate  leaves  arch  outward.  Between 
two  of  these  emerge  the  bright  orange-yellow  polished  fruit  stalks, 
which  divide  into  a  spray  of  slender  bright  yellow  stems  a  foot  or 
so  in  length ;  and  thickly  set  upon  these  in  clusters  are  the  various 
colored  fruits  covered  with  a  rich  bloom.  It  is  a  sight  not  easily 
forgotten  by  a  lover  of  nature,  and  especially  by  one  reared  in  a 
northern  zone,  the  characteristic  vegetation  of  which  is  so  different. 


CHAPTER    XXXI 

THE  FIG 

The  fig  is,  perhaps,  the  grandest  fruit  tree  of  California.  Its 
majestic  size  and  its  symmetry  make  it  a  crowning  feature  of  the 
landscape,  and  its  dense  foliage  renders  the  wide  space  embowered 
by  it  a  harbor  of  refuge  from  mid-summer  heat.  Measurements 
of  large  trees  are  abundant,  for  old  trees  are  numerous  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  State,  both  in  the  valley  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
foothills.  At  Knight's  Ferry,  in  Stanislaus  County,  on  the  place 
of  Mr.  T.  Roebuck,  there  is  a  fig  tree  sixty  feet  in  height,  with 
branches  of  such  length  as  to  shade  a  circle  seventy-seven  feet  in 
diameter.  The  trunk  is  twelve  feet  two  inches  around.  A  little 
higher  the  trunk  divides  into  seven  or  eight  large  branches,  each 
of  which  is  nearly  five  feet  in  circumference.  At  thirty  feet  from 
the  ground  the  limbs  are  seven  and  eight  inches  through.  Perhaps 
the  largest  girth  of  a  fig  tree  is  that  of  a  tree  sixty-eight  years  old 
on  the  Charles  O'Neil  place  near  Oroville  which  is  eighteen  feet 
around  the  trunk,  while  the  oldest  tree  is  probably  the  one  on  the 
Curtner  place  near  Warm  Springs  in  southern  Alameda  County 
which  is  reported  to  be  125  years  old,  with  a  trunk  girth  of  seven- 
teen feet — a  survivor  of  mission  planting. 

Groves  of  massive  black  fig  trees,  which,  though  set  sixty  feet 
apart,  mingle  their  branches  overhead  and  form  a  network  through 
which,  in  the  summer,  hardly  a  beam  of  light  can  pass,  are  fre- 
quently seen  in  the  older  settled  parts  of  the  State.  Perhaps  the 
most  interesting  single  fig  tree  is  that  on  Rancho  Chico,  quite  near 
the  residence  of  General  Bidwell.  It  was  planted  in  1856.  One 
foot  above  the  ground  the  trunk  measures  eleven  feet  in  circum- 
ference ;  the  wide-spreading  branches  have  been  trained  toward  the 
ground  and,  taking  root  there,  banyan-like,  they  form  a  wonderful 
enclosure  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  diameter. 

The  crop  on  these  large  trees  is  proportionate  to  their  size  and, 
entering  their  area  in  the  morning  during  the  ripening  season,  one 
can  scarcely  step  without  crushing  figs,  though  the  fruit  may  be 
gathered  up  each  day  and  placed  in  the  sun  for  drying.  All  these 
famous  old  trees  are  of  the  black,  Mission  variety.  One  such  tree 
owned  by  John  Wolfson  of  Merced  is  reported  to  have  produced 
"one  thousands  pounds  of  dried  figs"  in  1918.  This  tree  is  eleven 
feet  around  four  feet  above  the  ground,  with  a  spread  of  sixty  feet. 

Realization  of  a  Fig  Industry. — Although  there  was  the  demon- 
stration of  California's  adaptation  to  fig  growing  always  before 
them  in  these  grand  old  trees  and  although  the  subject  was  con- 
tinually under  investigation  and  effort  for  half  a  century,  the  real 
push  for  a  great  fig  industry  was  not  made  until  the  war  excluded 
the  Smyrna  figs  and  during  the  years  following  a  great  push  was 
made  in  fig  planting  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  to  realize  the  pio- 


334 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


neer's  prophecy  that  the  fig  would  be  among  the  greatest  of  Cali- 
fornia's cured  fruits.  In  1921  the  first  carload  lots  of  fresh  figs 
were  successfully  sold  in  Atlantic  seaboard  cities. 

The  most  significant  action  toward  the  realization  of  a  great 
California  fig  industry  was  the  organization  of  the  growers  into  a 
marketing  association  which  in  1920  entered  into  a  union  with  the 
peach  growers  and  formed  the  "California  Peach  and  Fig  Growers," 
with  headquarters  at  Fresno.  It  is  promoting  production,  preserva- 
tion and  profitability  of  figs  in  a  most  enterprising  manner. 

REGIONS  SUITED  FOR  THE  FIG 

Though  there  are  still  many  fine  points  to  be  determined  as  to 
what  situations  and  conditions  favor  the  production  of  the  very 
finest  figs,  and  there  are  indications  that  there  is  possibly  much 
difference,  it  may  be  truly  said  that  a  very  small  part  of  the  State 
is  really  unsuited  to  its  growth.  If  one  shuns  the  immediate  coast 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  State,  where  the  summer  temperature  is 
too  low  for  successful  ripening,  and  keeps  below  the  altitude  of  the 
mountains  where  winter  killing  of  the  tree  is  possible,  he  can  grow 
figs  almost  anywhere,  providing  soils  and  exposures  are  favorable, 
for  the  young  wood  of  the  fig  tree  endures  but  little  frost. 

Selection  of  varieties  adapted  to  particular  situations  has  much 
to  do  with  the  success  of  the  fig,  as  with  other  fruits,  and,  therefore, 
a  broad  statement  of  adaptability  must  be  received  with  such  an 
understanding.  The  intrusion  of  the  coast  influences  borne  east- 
ward by  the  winds  of  summer,  as  described  in  Chapter  I,  gives  a 
night  temperature  too  low  for  ripening  of  some  varieties,  which 
turn  sour  upon  the  trees.  Present  indications  are  that  the  finest 
dried  figs,  having  the  thinnest  skin  and  the  nearest  approach  gen- 
erally to  the  fig  of  Smyrna,  the  commercial  standard  for  dried  figs, 
will  be  produced  in  the  drier  portions  of  the  interior  valleys  and 
foothills.  Even  in  Southern  California  fig-souring  is  quite  preva- 
lent, and  selection  of  locations  must  be  circumspectly  made. 

SOILS  FOR  THE  FIG 

The  fig  will  thrive  in  any  soil  that  one  would  think  of  selecting 
for  any  of  our  common  orchard  fruit  trees,  and,  in  fact,  the  fig 
succeeds  on  a  wider  range  of  soils  than  any  one  of  them.  This 
applies  merely  to  the  successful  growth  of  the  fig ;  to  secure  ripen- 
ing at  a  time  when  the  fruit  "can  be  profitably  sold  for  table  use,  is 
another  question. 

The  selection  of  soils  especially  suitable  to  the  production  of  the 

best  figs  for  drying  involves  more  considerations  than  rule  in  the 

growth  of  table  fruit.     For  drying,  the  fig  should  attain  a  good 

size,  but  should  not  contain  excess  of  moisture.    In  some  parts  of 

ate  the  first  crop  of  figs  in  the  season  has  been  found  unfit 

The  second,  and,  in  some  localities,   the  third  crop, 

appearing  later  in  the  season,  when  the  moisture  supply  of  the  soil 

is  reduced,  dry  well.    This  condition  of  the  first  crop  is,  however, 


PROPAGATION  OF  FIGS  335 

affected  by  local  conditions,  for  there  are  places  in  the  Sierra  foot- 
hills where  the  soil  moisture  has  to  be  replenished  early  in  the 
season  by  irrigation  to  prevent  even  the  first  crop  from  falling 
prematurely,  and  subsequent  irrigation  brings  to  perfection  the 
second  and  third  crops.  The  fig  tree  needs  plenty  of  moisture  in 
the  soil,  but  not  too  much.  As  with  other  fruits,  if  the  soil  does  not 
retain  the  needed  amount  naturally,  it  must  be  supplied  by  irriga- 
tion, wisely  administered,  because  over-irrigation  on  soils  which 
cannot  carry  away  surplus  water  has  produced  fruit  which  has 
soured  and  is  otherwise  rendered  unprofitable. 

PROPAGATION   OF  THE   FIG 

The  fig  grows  very  rapidly  from  cuttings,  and  this  is  the  chief 
method  of  propagation.  Cuttings  should  be  made  while  the  tree  is 
fully  dormant,  in  the  winter,  of  well-matured  wood  of  the  previous 
season's  growth,  giving  preference  to  the  stocky,  short-jointed 
shoots.  Tip  cuttings  can  be  made  from  the  ends  of  long  shoots  if 
the  wood  is  well  matured,  round  and  smooth,  not  angular  and 
wrinkled.  Short  lateral  shoots  ending  in  a  tip-bud  are  preferable  and 
they  are  usually  made  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  length  and  planted 
with  only  one  bud  above  ground.  If  enough  tip  cuttings  are  hard 
to  get,  lower  cuts  can  be  used — carefully  sealing  the  tops  with  as- 
phaltum  grafting  wax.  In  cuttings  of  figs  always  cut  through  the 
joint  where  the  wood  is  hardest.  Particular  attention  must  be  given 
to  prevent  fig  cuttings  from  drying  out.  The  life  goes  out  of  them 
very  easily. 

The  planting  and  care  of  the  cutting  is  essentially  the  same  as 
of  vine  cuttings,  already  described.  If  well  made  and  cared  for,  a 
very  satisfactory  growth  is  made  the  first  season,  and  the  trees  are 
ready  for  planting  out  in  permanent  place  the  following  season. 

Single  Bud  Cuttings. — If  one  desires  to  multiply  a  new  variety 
very  rapidly  single-eye  cuttings  will  make  plants.  This  is,  also, 
analogous  to  single-eye  grape  cuttings,  as  already  described. 

Budding  the  Fig. — The  foregoing  means  enable  one  to  propagate 
a  fig  so  rapidly  that  recourse  is  not  had  to  budding,  as  in  propaga- 
ting other  trees ;  still,  budding  is  feasible,  either  on  small  plants  or 
on  young  shoots  of  old  trees  which  it  is  desired  to  bud  over. 

The  fig  may  be  budded  by  the  common  shield  method,  as  used 
for  ordinary  fruit  trees,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  but  owing  to 
the  tendency  of  the  fig  bark  to  shrink  in  drying,  the  bud  should  be 
closely  bound  in  with  a  narrow  waxed  band,  to  exclude  the  air. 
As  the  bark  is  thick,  it  is  often  desirable  to  cut  out  a  little  of  the 
edges  closest  to  the  bud  when  in  place. 

Another  method  of  budding  the  fig  is  by  annular  or  "ring  bud- 
ding," a  method  also  relied  upon  with  the  walnut  and  chestnut. 
AJnnular  budding  is  done  in  the  fall.  A  circular  ring  of  bark  is 
taken  off  from  the  stock  by  the  aid  of  a  budding  knife,  by  running 
two  circular  cuts  around  the  stock,  and  a  longitudinal  one  between 
the  two  circular  cuts ;  the  ring  of  bark  taken  off  must  be  at  least 
one  inch  wide,  and  from  that  up  to  two  inches.  A  like  ring  of  bark 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

is  taken  off  in  the  same  manner  from  the  scion  of  the  variety  to 
be  budded  in,  and  from  a  branch  of  the  year,  or  preceding  one,  well 
in  sap,  and  having  about  the  same  diameter  as  the  stock.  The  ring 
should  have  on  it  one  or  two  buds.  It  must  fit  exactly  the  space 
prepared  on  the  stock,  and  more  particularly  at  the  lower  circular 
cut,  so  that  both  barks  will  exactly  unite  at  that  point.  One  must 
be  very  careful  while  drawing  the  knife  around  the  stock  not  to  go 
too  deep  into  the  wood  to  injure  the  cambium  layer/  or  to  weaken 
the  stock.  Tie  a  bandage  firmly  over  the  whole.  After  two  or 
three  weeks  the  bandage  has  to  be  taken  off,  and,  in  the  ensuing 
spring,  the  top  of  the  stock  or  limb  is  cut  down  three  inches  above 
the  budding. 

Another  way  of  working  such  trees  is  by  "whistle  budding," 
which  is  done  in  the  spring,  when  the  sap  is  well  up.  The  stock 
and  the  scion  must  be  both  of  the  same  size  and  well  in  sap.  The 
top  of  the  stock  is  cut  down  to  several  inches  from  the  ground ;  a 
circular  ring  of  bark  is  then  taken  off,  and  a  corresponding  ring 
from  the  scion,  but  without  a  longitudinal  cut,  is  put  in  its  place 
and  pushed  down  around  it  and  bandaged. 

To  prepare  an  old  tree  for  budding  over,  the  limbs  may  be  cut 
back  in  February  to  within  two  to  six  feet  of  the  trunk,  covering 
the  ends  with  paint  or  grafting  wax.  Allow  two  shoots  to  start 
near  the  end  of  each  of  these  amputated  limbs,  and  rub  off  all  other 
shoots.  Bud  the  shoots  when  they  attain  the  thickness  of  one's 
finger,  taking  green  buds  from  the  growth  it  is  desired  to  introduce, 
or  let  them  grow  and  bud  in  the  fall,  whichever  is  most  convenient ; 
or  bud  in  the  growing  shoot,  and  re-bud  in  the  fall  where  buds  have 
failed. 

Budding  in  Old  Bark. — Budding  with  a  large  shield  into  old 
bark  is  also  successful.  Judge  Rhodes  of  San  Jose  describes,  his 
method,  both  with  the  olive  and  the  fig,  in  this  way : 

Cut  shield  from  a  limb  of  about  y2  inch  in  diameter,  length  of  shield 
about  \y2  inches,  its  thickness  from  y&  to  %  inch,  and  its  bud  near  the 
middle  of  the  shield.  Do  not  remove  the  wood  from  behind  the  bud. 
Make  a  cut  in  the  stock,  through  the  bark  and  into  the  wood,  its  length 
and  width  a  little  greater  than  those  of  the  shield.  Insert  the  shield  into 
the  cut,  so  that  the  inner  bark  of  the  top  of  the  shield  and  cut  will  coin- 
cide, so  that  one  side  of  the  shield  and  cut — and  both  sides,  if  practicable 
—will  coincide.  Place  the  top  of  the  cut  over  the  shield  (removing  a  part 
of  the  flap  so  the  bud  will  not  be  covered),  and  fasten  flap,  shield  and 
stock  together  very  firmly  with  twine,  and  protect  them  with  paper  tied 
around  them.  They  may  be  grafted  in  that  mode,  whenever  dormant  buds 
are  found,  for  the  shields.  Twenty-four  shields  were  inserted  at  several 
times  during  one  spring,  and  there  was  only  one  failure. 

Grafting  the  Fig.— The  fig  can  be  grafted  by  the  cleft-graft 
method,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  but  the  cleft  should  be  made 
to  one  side  and  not  through  the  central  pith.  Especial  care  must 
be  taken  in  excluding  the  air.  Fill  the  cleft  between  the  scions  with 
warm  wax,  which  will  run  in  and  fill  the  cavity.  Then  bind  the 
stock  with  wax  bands,  taking  the  greatest  care  to  cover  the  exposed 
wood  surface,  the  cut  end  of  the  bark,  and  as  far  down  the  stock  as 
the  bark  has  been  split. 


GRAFTING  THE   FIG  337 

Another  method  is  to  cut  a  notch  into  the  stub  with  a  sharp 
knife,  so  as  not  to  cause  a  split,  but  rather  deep,  clean  cuts,  into 
which  the  wedge-shaped  scions  are  firmly  pushed  and  a  cord  wound 
around  the  stub  to  hold  all  strongly  in  place  before  waxing 
thoroughly. 

The  form  of  side-graft  with  a  saw  cut  as  described  in  the  chapter 
on  the  peach  is  also  available. 

In  grafting  the  fig  by  various  methods  it  is  essential  to  have  well 
matured  wood  for  scions — two-year-old  wood  is  usually  best ;  short 
shoots  or  spurs  well  hardened  are  desirable. 

Grafting  in  the  Bark. — A  method  of  bark  grafting  applied  to 
the  fig  by  George  C.  Roeding  of  Fresno  and  approved  by  him  after 
several  years  of  successful  experience,  affords  an  excellent  way  of 
grafting  over  large  trees.  It  does  away  with  splitting  the  stock 
and  therefore  hastens  the  barking-over  of  an  amputation.  The 
branches  to  be  grafted  are  cut  off  within  18  to  24  inches  from  the 
point  of  divergence  from  the  main  body  of  the  tree,  allowing  at 
least  two  branches  to  remain,  one  of  which  should  be  on  the  south- 
west, if  possible,  so  that  the  grafts  will  be  protected  from  the  after- 
noon sun. 

After  having  sawed  off  the  branches,  the  stumps  neatly  smoothed 
over  with  a  sharp  knife,  so  as  to  leave  a  clean,  smooth  surface, 
particularly  along  the  edge,  two,  four  or  six  scions  should  be  placed 
on  each  stock,  the  number,  of  course,  being  regulated  by  the  size  of 
the  stump.  Cut  out  a  V-shaped  piece  of  bark.  The  distance  from 
the  top  of  the  stock  to  the  point  of  the  V  should  be  about  1%  inches. 
Then  proceed  as  follows: 

Select  a  scion  of  the  proper  size,  never  be  smaller  than  an  ordinary 
lead  pencil.  As  a  rule  scions  from  two-year-old  wood,  with  very  little 
pith  and  with  a  diameter  of  about  y2  inch,  will  give  the  best  results.  The 
scions  should  have  a  sloping  cut  at  the  lower  end,  with  the  bevel  all  on 
one  side  and  not  like  a  wedge.  The  bevel  should  be  a  little  longer  than  the 
V-shaped  opening  in  the  stock  and  should  fit  snugly  into  this  opening,  so 
that  the  bark  on  both  edges  of  the  scion  touches  the  bark  of  the  stock. 
After  the  scions  are  placed,  wrap  tightly  with  five  or  six-ply  cotton  twine, 
and  cover  the  wounds  as  well  as  the  stub  with  liquid  grafting  wax.  Wax 
the  top  of  the  scion  to  prevent  drying  out.  If  waxed  cloth  is  used  it  must 
be  removed  before  the  warm  weather  sets  in  or  the  bark  will  be  smothered 
and  will  die.  After  the  scions  have  become  well  united,  which  takes  from 
two  to  three  months,  the  strings  should  be  cut.  This  method  of  grafting 
can  not  be  made  successful  until  the  sap  begins  to  flow,  say  from  the  latter 
part  of  February  to  the  first  of  April.  The  scions  should  never  be  more 
than  four  inches  long. 

Seedling  Figs. — Figs  are  readily  grown  from  the  imported  fig 
of  commerce.  Dr.  Gustav  Eisen  of  San  Francisco,  our  leading 
writer  on  the  fig,  gives  the  following  explicit  directions  for  growing 
the  fig  from  seed : 

Cut  open  imported  Smyrna  figs;  wash  out  the  seeds  in  warm  water, 
those  that  float  are  empty  and  worthless;  those  that  sink  are  generally  fer- 
tile. Sow  these  in  shallow  boxes  of  sand  and  loam  mixed,  and  place  in  a 
frame  under  glass.  In  three  weeks  they  will  be  up  and  must  be  very 
sparingly  watered.  Set  out  next  season  in  nursery  row.  In  three  years 
from  the  seed  such  plants  will  be  found  to  bear. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

The  tendency  of  the  plants  grown  from  Smyrna  figs  is  to  revert 
to  the  wild  type,  and  there  is  a  small  chance  of  securing  good 
varieties. 

PLANTING  AND    PRUNING   THE    FIG 

The  chief  point  to  observe  in  planting  the  fig  trees  is  to  get  them 
far  enough  apart,  because  of  the  great  spread  of  branches  which 
they  attain.  Of  course  they  may  be  planted  twenty  feet  apart  if 
the  owner  intends  to  remove  alternate  rows,  but  to  plant  at  forty 
feet,  or  even  farther  apart,  with  other  fruit  trees  or  vines  between, 
on  the  plan  of  alternate  or  double  squares,  described  in  Chapter  X, 
would  be  the  best  way  to  lay  out  a  fig  orchard — the  intermediate 
growths  to  be  removed  as  the  figs  require  more  room. 

Very  handsome  effects  are  produced  by  planting  the  figs  along 
avenues  to  inclose  orchards  of  other  fruits.  Fig  trees  are  grand 
for  shade  around  buildings,  and  wild  or  Capri  figs  are  desirable  to 
plant  in  this  way  for  a  purpose  which  will  be  mentioned  later. 

In  transplanting  fig  trees  extra  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the 
roots  from  drying.  After  planting,  the  stem  must  be  diligently 
guarded  from  sunburn,  to  which  it  is  liable  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  State. 

Pruning  the  Fig. — The  fig  requires  very  little  pruning  after  its 
shape  is  outlined.  There  is  difference  of  opinion  and  practice  as 
to  the  height  at  which  the  head  should  be  formed ;  some  head  nearly 
as  low  as  already  advised  for  common  orchard  trees ;  others,  having 
in  mind  the  immense  thickness  attained  by  the  limbs,  and  their  dis- 
position to  droop,  head  as  high  as  four  to  six  feet,  which  is  the  better 
way  to  proceed  when  the  trees  are  wide-spaced  and  expected  to 
attain  large  size.  This  height  system  is  particularly  desirable  with 
the  Mission  fig.  In  planting  varieties  less  disposed  to  great  size  it 
is  usual  to  retain  four  branches  above  twenty  inches  of  clear  trunk, 
but  some  prefer  to  start  with  five  branches  above  thirty  inches  of 
trunk.  The  Kadota  fig,  chiefly  grown  for  hand-picking  for  preserv- 
ing, is  often  headed  about  at  the  ground-surface  and  grown  as  a 
large  bush  rather  than  in  tree  form. 

In  shaping  the  tree,  branches  should  be  brought  out  at  a  dis- 
tance apart  on  the  stem,  so  that  there  may  be  room  for  their  ex- 
pansion without  crowding  each  other,  and  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  leave  too  many  main  limbs.  The  branches  putting  out  on  the 
under  side  of  these  limbs  should  be  suppressed,  and  those  growing 
upright,  or  obliquely  upright,  retained.  As  the  fig  has  pithy  shoots 
it  is  very  desirable  to  cover  all  cuts  with  paint  or  wax.  After  get- 
ting the  general  shape  of  the  tree  fixed,  there  is  little  need  of  pruning 
except  to  remove  defective  branches  or  those  which  cross  and 
interfere  with  each  other  and  to  prevent  the  interior  of  the  tree 
from  becoming  too  dense.  It  is  better  to  remove  branches  entirely 
than  to  shorten  them ;  or,  in  shortening,  always  cut  to  a  strong 
lateral.  Stubs  left  at  pruning  are  very  undesirable  in  the  fig.  This 
refers  particularly  to  trees  given  much  distance  and  allowed  free 
growth. 


CAPRIFICATION   OF   FIGS  339 

In  handling  fig  orchards  of  the  Smyrna  and  other  smaller  grow- 
ers, more  systematic  pruning  is  followed.  The  following  is  the 
practice  in  the  Markarian  orchard  at  Fresno : 

If  trees  are  allowed  to  grow  more  than  two  feet  of  trunk  they  are  liable 
to  become  bent  and  to  be  sunburned  for  lack  of  shade.  Trees  having  the 
best  shaded  trunks  are  the  most  vigorous  and  frost  resisting.  Trees  that 
are  once  sunburned  are  practically  ruined;  but  few  recover.  Stunted  trees 
are  very  hard  to  develop  into  good  trees. 

When  the  trees  come  into  maturity,  after  the  fifth  or  sixth  year,  they 
must  be  pruned  back  by  cutting  the  top  branches  off  from  about  ten  to 
fourteen  inches,  so  that  the  tree  will  throw  out  more  lateral  branches,  with 
a  larger  proportion  of  new  lateral  fruit  wood. 

Ordinarily  if  this  method  of  pruning  fig  trees  to  a  bush  form  is  used 
it  will  only  be  necessary  to  prune  once  every  two  years.  The  season  to 
prune  fig  trees  depends  upon  the  age  of  the  trees.  Young  trees  should  not 
be  pruned  before  the  month  of  March  as  they  are  very  susceptible  to 
frosts.  Larger  trees  can  be  pruned  as  early  as  January  15  and  not  later 
than  March  15. 

Unlike  other  trees,  the  bearing  fig  trees  need  little  pruning.  They 
should  be  topped  about  every  two  years.  Go  over  the  upper  quarter  of 
them  and  cut  back  the  terminal  branches,  in  no  case  more  than  twenty 
inches.  With  most  branches  a  few  inches  is  enough.  The  shaping  of  the 
trees  enters  into  the  pruning.  The  terminals  cut  back  will  send  out  several 
lateral  branches  of  new  fruit  wood.  By  keeping  up  this  system  of  pruning 
larger  fruit  and  larger  yields  are  obtained. 

Cultivation. — Young  fig  orchards  are  cultivated  as  are  other 
fruit  areas.  Irrigation  is  governed  by  local  conditions,  as  already 
stated.  In  starting  the  orchard  it  is  exceedingly  important  that 
the  young  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to  suffer  from  drying  out 
of  the  soil. 

Bearing  Age  of  the  Fig. — The  fig  often,  and,  perhaps,  usually, 
begins  its  bearing  very  early,  in  the  most  favorable  situations  in 
this  State.  Some  fruit  is  often  had  the  second  year,  and  a  crop 
worth  handling  the  third  year.  Still,  it  is  wiser  not  to  calculate 
definitely  upon  such  returns,  for  four  or  five  years  sometimes  pass 
without  a  satisfactory  crop. 

CAPRIFICATION* 

Caprification  consists  in  suspending  the  fruit  of  the  wild  or  Capri 
fig  in  the  branches  of  the  tree  of  improved  variety,  that  the  pollen 
may  be  carried  by  an  insect  from  the  former  to  the  latter.  The  old 
mission  fig  and  the  more  recently  introduced  White  Adriatic  and 
many  other  varieties  matured  fruit  regularly  and  freely,  but  until 
1900  California  was  never  able  to  produce  dried  figs  like  the  fig 
of  commerce  or  the  Smyrna  fig.  This  was,  at  first,  thought  to  be 
due  to  lack  of  the  Smyrna  variety.  After  painstaking  effort  this 

*In  a  general  treatise  like  this  only  a  passing  reference  can  be  made  of  this  subject, 
which  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  in  the  whole  realm  of  science  as  applied  to  fruit 
growing.  The  literature  of  the  subject  is  very  large  and  cannot  be  even  indicated  in  this 
connection.  The  materials  and  methods  of  caprification  are  also  numerous.  The  latest 
available  exposition  of  the  whole  subject,  its  literature,  science  and  practice  is  given  in 
"Smyrna  Fig  Culture."  by  G.  P.  Rixford,  of  San  Francisco,  which  is  Bulletin  732  of  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  and  can  be  had  by  sending  10  cents  to  the  Superintendent 
of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  A  detailed  account  of 
caprification  and  the  methods  and  agencies  employed  may  be  had  by  application  to  the  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  at  Berkeley  for  Bulletin  319,  "Caprifigs  and  Caprification,"  by  I.  J. 
Condit,  1920. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

variety  was  introduced.  Trees  grew  readily  from  the  cuttings; 
fruit  appeared  upon  them  and  dropped  before  maturity.  Doubt 
then  arose  as  to  whether  importers  had  not  been  deceived,  and  other 
efforts  were  made,  resulting  in  other  importations.  These  also  cast 
to  the  ground  immature  figs.  Discussion  turned  then  upon  the  fact 
of  caprification — the  necessity  of  having  the  fruit  of  the  Capri  or 
wild  fig  adjacent  to  the  fruit  of  the  Smyrna  fig  so  that  insects  from 
the  Capri  might  visit  the  fruit  of  the  improved  variety  and  pollinate 
its  inclosed  flowers,  which,  appearing  upon  the  inner  wall  of  an 
almost  closed  cavity,  could  not  be  reached  by  ordinary  visiting 
insects.  The  wild  trees  had  already  been  introduced  and  were 
freely  growing  near  the  others,  but  this  fact  availed  nothing — the 
figs  fell  just  the  same  from  the  Smyrna  trees.  In  1890  Mr.  George 
C.  Roeding,  of  Fresno,  essayed  to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  the  lack 
of  pollination  was  the  secret  of  failure,  and  he  succeeded  in  intro- 
ducing the  Capri  pollen  into  the  eye  of  the  Smyrna  fig,  and  secured 
thereby  the  retention  of  such  pollinated  figs  upon  the  trees,  and 
when  ripened  and  dried  these  had  the  Smyrna  character.  The 
demonstration  was  complete  that  California  could  not  grow  Smyrna 
figs  without  the  pollinating  agency  found  to  be  essential  to  success 
in  Smyrna.  This  agent  is  a  minute  wasp  called  the  blastophaga — an 
insect  so  minute  that  it  can  make  its  way  through  the  mesh  of  ordi- 
nary cheese-cloth  and  can  enter  the  almost  closed  eye  of  the  young 
fig — So  minute  that  a  magnifying  glass  is  necessary  to  give  one  any 
clear  idea  of  its  outline.  For  years  constant  effort  was  made  by 
various  parties  to  secure  the  introduction  of  this  insect.  Urgent 
appeals  were  made  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
after  private  undertakings  failed,  to  secure  the  insect  alive  or  other- 
wise in  form  for  permanent  residence.  In  April,  1899,  the  feat  was 
accomplished,  the  blastophagas  being  received  from  Algiers  as  col- 
lected and  forwarded  by  W.  T.  Swingle  to  Mr.  Roeding.  Their 
offspring  appeared  in  large  numbers  during  the  summer  and  fall  of 
the  same  year.  On  the  basis  of  this  achievement  the  commercial 
production  of  a  true  Smyrna  fig  in  California  began  and  has  rapidly 
developed.  Mr.  Roeding  gave  his  product  the  musical  patronomic 
"Calimyrna,"  which  now  adheres  also  to  the  variety  from  which  it 
is  produced. 

To  avail  himself  of  the  benefits  of  caprification,  every  grower 
of  varieties  which  require  it  must  also  grow  suitable  Capri  fig  trees 
and  'establish  the  insect  in  them  by  securing  wild  figs  infested  with 
the  insects  and  exposing  them  in  the  trees.  After  such  introduc- 
tion the  insects  will  maintain  themselves — if  the  proper  capri  trees 
are  able  to  carry  their  fruit  on  the  branches  during  the  winter  be- 
cause frosts  are  only  light.  In  these  carry-over  wild  figs  the  insects 
safely  survive  the  winter. 

FOES  OF  THE  FIG 

The  fig  is  freer  from  insect  pests  than  any  other  fruit  trees,  and 
t  is  a  mistake  to  consider  it  wholly  free— still,  practically,  the 
fig  tree  m  California  has  not  yet  suffered  from  insects. 


FIGS   GROWN   IN   CALIFORNIA  341 

The  gophers  have  a  pronounced  appetite  for  fig  roots,  and  their 
presence  should  be  carefully  watched  for.  Swine  have  a  liking  for 
fig  bark.  Figs  make  good  food  for  hogs,  and  plantations  have  been 
made  with  this  in  view,  but  if  the  hogs  are  to  be  the  harvesters,  it 
will  be  well  to  protect  the  stems  of  the  trees  from  them. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  FIG 

Except  in  small  production  of  fresh  figs  for  local  sale  California 
fig  planting  in  1921  proceeds  almost  exclusively  upon  the  White 
Adriatic,  Calimyrna,  Black  Mission,  and  Kadota,  and  there  is  no 
agreement  among  planters  as  to  which  will  prove  most  permanently 
profitable — considering  cost  of  production  of  each.  It  is  hardly 
likely  that  the  present  phase  of  popularity  of  varieties  will  be  en- 
during. It  seems  reasonable  to  believe  that  to  command  world 
trade,  California  must  grow  the  type  of  cured  fig  which  the  world 
is  accustomed  to  as  the  fig  of  commerce,  which  Smyrna  production 
established  in  world  esteem.  , 

The  fig  has  a  very  confused  nomenclature  in  California.  Dr. 
Eisen  published  a  catalogue  of  varieties  introduced  into  California, 
with  descriptions  of  each  in  Bulletin  9  of  the  Division  of  Pomology 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  following  enumeration 
is  restricted  to  varieties  more  or  less  common : 

White  Adriatic.' — Size,  medium,  roundish;  neck  medium;  stalk  short; 
ribs  obscure;  eye  open,  with  red  iris;  skin  very  thin,  greenish  in  the  shade, 
yellowish  in  the  sun;  pulp  bright  strawberry  red  or  white,  with  violet 
streaks  in  the  meat;  varies  in  quality  according  to  location.  Very  produc- 
tive and  often  very  profitable  as  a  dried  product.  Apt  to  sour  if  weather  is 
dark  or  showery  during  ripening,  or  if  grown  on  water-logged  soils. 

Agen.— Medium  size,  roundish;  skin  bright  green,  cracking  longi- 
tudinally when  ripe,  showing  white  bands;  flesh  deep  red,  very  rich;  a 
good  bearer,  but  very  late,  requiring  a  long  hot  season. 

Bardajic." — "Very  large,  obovate,  pyriform,  long  neck  and  stalk,  skin 
very  thin,  grayish  green;  pulp  rich  crimson,  fine  table  fig  and  largest  of 
Smyrna  class." — Roeding. 

Black  Bulletin  Smyrna. — Large,  obtuse,  pyriform,  short  neck,  long  stalk, 
light  purple,  flesh  pink,  luscious. 

Bourjassotte,  White;  syn.  Panachee. — Medium,  round  and  somewhat 
flattened,  eye  large,  sunk;  skin  waxy,  green;  pulp  bright  red.  A  very  fine 
fig.  Tree  very  large. 

Brown  Turkey .^Large,  turbinate,  pyriform,  with  hardly  distinct  neck; 
stalk  short;  apex  flattened;  ribs  few;  slightly  elevated;  eye  medium,  slightly 
open,  scales  large;  skin  smooth,  greenish  to  violet-brown  in  sun,  with 
darker  ribs;  pulp  dark  rosy  red,  quality  good,  and  tree  a  good  bearer. 
Brunswick  is  frequently  confounded  with  this  fig.  A  distinct  variety  is 
grown  in  Vacaville  as  Brown  Turkey,  which  is  named  by  Dr.  Eisen  "War- 
ren." 

Brunswick.— Very  large,  pyriform,  with  swollen  cheeks,  one  of  which  is 
larger  than  the  other;  apex  very  obtuse;  neck  and  stalk  very  short;  ribs 
distinct;  but  not  much  elevated;  eye  medium,  open;  skin  pale  amber,  with 
violet  tint;  pulp  amber.  An  early,  large  fig,  but  lacking  flavor.  Very  com- 
mon; requires  ri^ch,  moist  soil. 

Celeste,  Bluei  syn.  Violette. — Small,  oviate,  turbinate;  ribs  few,  but  dis- 
tinct, especially  near  apex;  eye  raised,  rough;  color  dark  violet  amber, 


342 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


without  reddish  blush;  bloom  confined  to  the  neck;  skin  thin;  pulp  deep 
rose;  meat  amber,  sweet,  but  lacking  in  flavor. 

Col.  de  Signora  Bianco. — Medium  sized,  pyriform;  long  ribbed  neck; 
skin  green,  changing  to  yellow;  flesh  deep  red,  very  rich  and  luscious,  a 
strong  grower;  late,  suited  for  a  warm  region. 

Croisic  syn.  Cordelia. — Notable  for  ripening  fruit  near  the  coast  in 
Central  California.  "Large,  glossy  green  in  color,  sweet  and  good  quality. 
Three  trees  planted  about  1900  are  growing  near  the  bay  shore,  one  of  the 
windiest  and  bleakest  spots  in  San  Francisco,  and  still  ripens  its  first  crop 
perfectly,  and  sometimes  the  second  crop." — G.  P.  Rixford. 

Douro;  syn.  Black  Portuga^—  One  of  largest  figs  grown  in  California, 
black;  tree  very  prolific;  ripening  in  August  and  September. 

Drap  d'Or. — Large,  pyriform,  with  very  low  neck  and  stalk;  ribs  ele- 
vated; apex  obtuse  and  concave;  color  light  violet-reddish  amber,  not  dark; 
pulp  rosy  red.  A  fig  of  very  fine  quality;  especially  useful  for  confections 
and  crystallizing;  not  identical  with  Brunswick. 

Genoa,  White. — Above  medium,  pyriform;  neck  small;  stalk  short,  ribs 
indistinct;  skin  downy;  eye  very  small;  skin  pale  olive-green;  pulp  pale 
rose.  One  of  the  better  figs,  quite  distinct  from  Marseillaise. 

Gentile. — Similar  to  San  Pedro;  large,  light  colored,  amber  pulp,  sweet 
and  luscious. 

Ischia,  Black. — Small;  neck  short;  stalk  medium;  skin  smooth;  color 
dark  violet,  black,  greenish  around  the  apex;  neck  dark;  eye  medium,  open; 
bloom  thin,  dark  blue;  pulp  red.  Of  fair  quality  but  small  size. 

Ischia,  White. — Size  below  medium,  round,  with  small  neck;  stalk  very 
short;  eye  open;  skin  smooth,  bluish  green,  with  brown  flush,  pulp  rosy 
red.  Common  in  California. 

Kassaba. — "Medium  to  large,  globular,  flattened,  short  neck  and  stalk, 
pale  green,  pulp  reddish,  very  sweet,  dries  well.  Tree  handsomest  of 
Smyrna  varieties." — Roeding. 

Kadota;  syn.  White  Endich. — A  re-named  variety.  Medium,  golden  yel- 
low, pulp  white, Ringed  with  pink;  tree  prolific  and  long  ripening  season. 
Esteemed  for  shipping,  also  for  preserving  and  canning. 

Ladaro. — Very  large,  oblong,  pale  yellow,  brown  cheek,  flesh  deep  red, 
rich  and  sugary. 

Lipari. — Small,  greenish  yellow,  soft,  and  showing  purplish  spots;  widely 
distributed,  and  popular  for  home  use. 

Marseillaise,  White. — Medium  ovate,  pyriform;  neck  short;  stalk  me- 
dium; ribs  numerous  and  distinct;  apex  flattened;  eye  large,  open;  skin 
downy,  pale  yellowish  green,  mottled  with  white;  pulp  amber,  with  a  few 
large  seeds.  One  of  the  best  figs  for  drying.  Requires  sandy,  rich  soil. 

Mission,'1  Black.— Medium  to  large,  turbinate;  neck  long;  stalk  short; 
ribs  distinct;  eye  prominent,  open;  skin  rough,  deep  mahogany  violet,  with 
red  flush;  pulp  not  fine,  red  but  not  bright  or  brownish  amber;  sweet, 
but  not  high  flavored;  common  in  the  Southern  States,  California  and  Mex- 
ico The  oldest  fig  in  this  country.  Very  regular  and  prolific  in  bearing, 
and  free  from  souring  while  sun  drying. 

Pacific  White"— An  unknown  variety  found  growing  on  a  farm  in  Placer 
county.  Medium  size,  fine  grained,  very  sweet,  dries  well,  but  the  skin  is 
-hicker  and  more  tough  than  the  imported  fig.  That  and  its  small  size  are 
fornfa"  °bjectlons  to  Jt  Tt  is  <luite  widely  distributed  in  Southern  Cali- 

*  1£as£liere-—Large»  3  inches  by  1^5  elongated,  pyriform,  with  long  neck; 
•*u  ui       u,eye  closed'  surrounded  by  an  elevated  iris;  skin  rough,  hairy, 
with  blue  bloom;  pulp  red.     Fine  for  preserves. 

Ronde  Noire.— Large,  round,  but  irregular;  neck  distinct,  short;  eye 
.mall;  skin  smooth,  waxy,  dark  violet  brown;  pulp  amber.  Greatly  to  be 

g'     lt  is  n0t  related  to  Black  Ischia  or  Osborn 


VARIETIES   OF  THE  FIG  343 

San  Pedro,  White;  syn.  Brebas. — Very  large,  round,  flattened  on  apex; 
stalk  and  neck  short;  eye  open;  skin  thick,  tender,  of  a  bright  yellow  color 
or  greenish  in  the  shade,  without  bloom;  pulp  amber.  A  remarkable  and 
handsome  fig.  Only  the  first  crop  matures  without  caprification.  Suited 
only  for  table  use.  Requires  moist,  rich  soil. 

San  Pedro,  Black. — Very  large,  elongated  ovate,  with  no  stalk,  but  with 
well-set  neck;  skin  smooth,  violet  black  with  green  neck,  pulp  red,  coppery, 
tinted  violet.  For  table  use.  The  largest  fig  known. 

Smyrna*  (Fig  of  Commerce,  Drying  Fig  of  Smyrna,  Calimyrna). — Of 
several  attempts  to  secure  the  true  Smyrna  fig,  that  made  by  the  San  Fran- 
cisco Bulletin,  and  managed  by  G.  P.  Rixford,  first  achieved  prominence. 
Fourteen  thousand  cuttings  were  obtained  in  1882,  and  distributed  through- 
out the  State.  A  later  direct  importation  of  fig  cuttings  from  Smyrna  was 
made  by  the  Fancher  Creek  Nursery,  of  Fresno,  as  described  on  a  previous 
page.  This  has  established  itself  as  the  leading  drying  fig.  Other  figs  pre- 
viously called  Smyrna  in  this  State  are  misnamed. 

Verdal,  Round. — Below  medium,  round  pyriform  without  stalk  or  neck; 
skin  smooth,  waxy,  bluish  green;  eye  closed;  pulp  dark,  blood  red.  A 
small  fig,  but  valuable  for  canning  and  preserves;  better  than  the  Ischias 
or  Celeste.  It  does  well  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  but  is  inferior  in  the 
interior  of  the  State. 

Verdal  Longue;  syn.  Sultana. — Medium,  oblong,  turbinate;  stalk  and 
neck  short;  eye  closed;  yellow,  ribs  brownish;  flesh  red;  sweet  aromatic. 
The  latest  ripening  variety. 

There  are  many  undetermined  varieties  of  the  fig  grown  here 
and  there  in  the  State.  Some  may  be  finally  identified,  others  may 
be  new.  Some  of  them  yield  an  excellent  dried  or  preserved  fruit 
and  should  be  more  carefully  experimented  with. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  OLIVE  4 

The  olive  is  another  of  the  old  mission  fruits,  and  though  the  tree 
and  its  products  have  been  constantly  under  discussion  since  the 
American  occupation,  and  though  experimentation  has  been  con- 
stant, it  was  not  until  1885  that  the  tide  of  popular  favor  turned 
strongly  toward  the  olive.  For  twelve  years  thereafter  planting 
proceeded  with  enthusiasm  amounting  almost  to  infatuation,  until 
the  acreage  in  olives  before  1900  reached  such  a  figure  that  even 
the  most  enthusiastic  ceased  from  further  planting,  because  the 
future  of  the  products  of  the  olive  was  by  no  means  clear.  The 
competition  of  olive  oil  with  cheaper  salad  oils  worked  greatly  to 
the  disadvantage  of  the  higher-priced  article,  and  though  pure-food 
legislation  declared  that  cheaper  oils  can  no  longer  be  sold  under 
the  name  of  the  olive,  substitutes,  under  their  own  picturesque 
names,  have  become  popular. 

The  difficulty  of  producing  pickled  ripe  olives  with  good  keep- 
ing qualities  was  proven  to  be  vastly  greater  than  anticipated,  and 
canning  was  finally  resorted  to.  It  is  probable  that  during  the  first 
decade  of  this  century  the  uprooting  of  trees  far  exceeded  the 
planting  and  the  olive  acreage  decreased  considerably.  At  the  same 
time  there  was  much  progress  attained  in  the  building  and  equip- 
ment of  oil  mills  and  pickling  establishments,  and  in  mastery  of 
processes  which  yield  acceptable  products — all  of  which  have  favor- 
ably influenced  the  demand  and  price  of  the  fresh  fruit.  The  fact 
is,  the  olive  has,  for  several  decades,  been  boomed  in  California 
along  spectacular  and  speculative  lines,  and  the  industry  had  to 
outlive  the  mistakes  which  were  made. 

During  the  war  the  price  for  good  pickling  olives  ranged  from 
$140  to  $160  per  ton,  while  fancy  fruit  reached  $200  and  upwards. 
Such  prices  were  never  previously  attained  and  even  one-half  of 
these  values  would  be  profitable,  if  labor  were  reasonably  available 
and  the  trees  were  fairly  productive.  These  are  the  ruling  factors 
in  the  business,  and  will  maintain  the  olive  industry  in  spite  of  set- 
backs like  that  which  was  encountered  in  1920  through  lack  of 
adequate  sterilization  in  canning  processes  and  which  cast  a  deep 
shadow  upon  production  and  planting. 

The  olive  tree  has  survived  a  temperature  of  14  degrees  Fahren- 
heit in  California,  but  the  fruit  is  injured  by  a  slight  fall  below  the 
freezing  point.  This  may  render  unprofitable  the  late  varieties 
which  carry  their  fruit-ripening  into  the  winter  months. 

The  olive  tree  will  thrive  throughout  the  larger  part  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  it  has  been  shown  that  it  will  grow  in  a  soil  too  dry 
even  for  the  grape-vine,  and  too  rocky  for  any  other  fruit  tree,  but 
the  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  bearing  of  fruit  will  be  proportional 


THE  OLIVE  IN  CALIFORNIA  345 

to  the  amounts  of  plant  food  and  moisture,  and  it  is  idle  to  expect 
fruit  without  irrigation  if  the  soil  can  only  furnish  water  enough  for 
the  growth  of  the  tree.  There  must  be  moisture  enough  in  the  soil 
to  hold  the  fruit  plump  and  smooth.  Olives  shriveled  by  drouth 
will  usually  become  smooth  again  after  fall  rains,  but  shriveling, 
either  by  drouth  or  frost,  leaves  the  fruit  out  of  condition  for 
pickling. 

The  irrigation  of  the  olive  depends  upon  the  conditions  which 
determine  the  desirability  of  other  fruits,  as  discussed  in  Chapter 
XV.  If  the  rainfall  is  scant  usually,  or  occasionally  by  the  failure 
of  spring  rains,  a  good  irrigation  is  desirable  in  April,  and  usually 
another  in  midsummer.  Most  essential,  however,  is  a  good  irrigation 
in  September  in  the  interior  where  the  fruit  ripens  early  and  is 
likely  to  be  small  and  inferior  unless  the  tree  is  well  supplied  with 
moisture  in  the  fall.  Near  the  coast  where  the  rainfall  is  heavier, 
more  regular,  apt  to  be  earlier  in  the  autumn  and  where  the  fruit 
ripens  later,  irrigation  may  not  be  required. 

On  foothill  slopes  the  trees  bear  fruit  earlier  than  in  the  rich 
valleys,  although  in  the  latter  the  trees  attain  larger  growth.  Trees 
in  the  interior  bear  sooner  than  on  the  coast,  and  ripen  their  fruit 
earlier  in  the  season. 

The  olive  tree  is  now  thriving  in  California  in  a  great  variety  of 
soils.  It  is  productive,  if  frosts  are  not  too  severe  on  most  valley 
lands,  while  on  hillsides,  even  where  excavations  had  to  be  made 
between  boulders,  or  into  disintegrating  rock,  the  tree  has  exhibited 
thrift  and  content  with  the  situation.  But  the  conclusion  should 
not  be  drawn  that  the  olive  relishes  poor  soil.  It  may  thrive  with 
loose  rocks  or  boulders,  but  it  finds  among  them  the  elements  it 
needs  including  an  adequate  supply  of  moisture.  It  is  not  to  be 
inferred  that  the  olive  will  succeed  on  sterile  soil. 

The  olive  is  chiefly  grown  with  clean  summer  cultivation.  Grow- 
ing the  tree  in  irrigated  alfalfa,  as  discussed  in  Chapter  XIV,  is 
objectionable  because  of  the  danger  of  delaying  the  ripening  of  the 
fruit  and  bringing  it  farther  into  the  rainy  season,  which  is  a  very 
great  disadvantage. 

Although  the  relations  of  soils  to  the  qualities  of  oil  have  been 
investigated  by  the  University  of  California  Experiment  Station 
and  some  interesting  results  published,  we  have  not  had  experience 
enough  in  this  State  to  demonstrate  the  influence  of  soils  on  the 
quality  of  the  oil,  but  trade  results  have  shown  that  good  oil  has 
been  made  from  fruit  grown  on  some  of  our  best  valley  fruit  soils, 
deep  and  naturally  well  drained,  as  well  as  from  fruit  grown  upon 
drier  uplands,  and  the  production  on  deeper,  richer  lands  is  much 
larger. 

PROPAGATION    OF   THE    OLIVE 

Olives  are  propagated  from  seed,  and  from  cuttings  of  various 
kinds  and  sizes.  The  growth  from  seed  is  seldom  practiced  in  this 
State,  because  growth  from  cuttings  is  easy,  and  furnishes  the 
variety  desired  without  grafting. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Growing  Olives  from  Seed.— The  olives  should  not  be  planted 
with  the  pulp,  but  cleaned  of  this  either  by  letting  them  rot  in  a  pile 
or  by  putting  them  into  an  alkaline  solution  to  cut  the  oil.  A  simple 
way  to  hasten  germination  is  to  break  the  pits,  taking  care  not  to 
hurt  the  germ.  An  instrument  similar  to  the  nut-cracker  has  been 
invented  in  France  which  is  said  to  work  well.  When  the  kernels 
are  deprived  of  their  shell,  they  may  be  kept  moist  in  a  compost,  or 
mixture  of  cow-dung  and  sandy  soil,  and  sow  thickly  in  the  month 
of  April.  If  it  is  thought  to  be  too  much  work  to  take  the  kernels 
out  of  the  pits,  they  must  be  soaked  for  twenty-four  hours  in  a 
solution  of  one-half  pound  of  concentrated  lye  to  the  gallon  of 
water.  Most  of  the  seeds  sprout  the  first  year.  Planting  the  naked 
kernels  gives  the  quickest  result.  Without  using  this  artificial 
means  some  of  the  seeds  may  remain  dormant  at  least  for  two  years. 
Clipping  the  tip  of  the  shell,  so  as  to  open  a  small  aperture  so  that 
moisture  can  enter  readily,  will  often  cause  nine-tenths  of  the  seed 
to  grow  within  three  months. 

G.  P.  Hall,  of  San  Diego,  gives  the  following  hints  for  those  who 
desire  to  experiment  with  seedling  olives : 

After  the  pulp  has  all  been  taken  off  with  lye  water  (in  order  to  remove 
all  the  oil  and  to  roughen  the  shell),  the  seed  is  washed  in  clean  water  and 
then  kept  in  moist  sand  till  planting  time,  which  is  in  February  and  March. 
They  will  not  all  germinate  the  first  year,  so  it  is  best  to  preserve  the  seed- 
bed. Some  assist  the  germination  by  cracking  the  pits  in  an  iron  vise;  one 
turn  of  the  screw  generally  splits  the  shell.  Leave  the  pit  in  the  cracked 
shell  when  you  plant  in  the  prepared  seed-bed.  Some  use  boxes  perforated 
to  insure  drainage;  the  boxes  are  filled  up  to  within  three  inches  of  the 
top  with  good  sandy  loam,  then  the  kernels,  cracked  or  otherwise,  are 
spread  over  the  top  and  in  inch  or  more  of  sand  covers  the  whole,  which 
must  be  kept  constantly  moist.  The  cracking  of  the  kernels  greatly  ac- 
celerates the  germination,  and  a  person  can  prepare  600  or  more  seed  in 
a  day.  Take  seed  from  best  trees  and  avoid  dwarfs  of  any  kind.  Use  any 
good  kinds  of  either  pickling  or  oil  olives  as  you  may  desire. 

Large  Cuttings. — There  are  two  chief  methods  of  propagating 
the  olive  from  cuttings  now  practised  in  California.  One  uses  well- 
matured  wood,  and  the  other  young  wood  which  has  just  passed  out 
of  the  herbaceous  state.  Practice  with  hard  wood  proceeds  by 
taking  cuttings  of  sound  wood  about  a  foot  long  and  one-half  to 
one  inch  in  diameter,  and  rooting  them  as  already  described  for 
vine  cuttings,  in  Chapter  XXVI.  A  fresh  cut  should  be  made  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cutting  and  if  the  bark  has  shriveled  at  all  the 
cuttings  should  be  put  in  water  for  a  time  before  planting.  These 
large  cuttings  sometimes  remain  dormant  for  a  year  or  more,  and 
recent  propagation  has  been  largely  by  the  small-cutting  method. 

Small  Cuttings. — Propagating  by  small  cuttings  serves  an  ex- 
cellent purpose  in  rapid  multiplication;  it  enables  the  grower  to 
handle  a  large  number  of  plants  in  a  small  space,  and  the  plants 
from  small  cuttings  have  a  symmetrical  root  system  quite  resem- 
bling that  from  a  seed.  These  cuttings  are  made  from  very  small 
shoots  and  both  the  tips  and  the  lower  cuts  are  used.  In  the  en- 
graving the  figure  on  the  left  is  a  tip  cutting;  the  next,  a  cutting 
lower  down  the  shoot.  These  figures  are  about  natural  size,  and 


PROPAGATING  THE  OLIVE  347 

show  clearly  how  the  cuttings  are  made.  They  are  placed  closely 
in  boxes  of  sand  about  four  inches  deep,  rooted  under  glass  or  in  a 
lath  house,  and  after  a  few  months  are  potted  in  small  pots,  or  may 
be  reset  farther  apart  in  boxes  of  soil  or  in  the  open  ground.  In 
January  or  February,  the  wood  seems  to  be  in  the  best  condition 
in  Berkeley,  but  such  condition  may  come  at  other  times  in  other 
parts  of  the  State.  From  such  cuttings  the  trees  will  be  of  good 
size  for  planting  in  permanent  place  the  next  year.  It  is  very 
important  to  take  the  small  cuttings  just  when  the  wood  is  in  the 
right  condition,  not  too  soft  nor  too  hard.  How  to  determine  this 
point  can  not  be  described ;  it  must  be  learned  by  experience. 


Propagating  the  Olive  by  small  cuttings. 

Growing  Trees  from  Truncheons. — New  varieties  secured  from 
the  south  of  Europe  generally  came  in  the  shape  of  truncheons, 
which  are  long  sticks  of  hard  wood.  They  may  be  planted  entire, 
or  be  sawn  and  split  into  large  cuttings  (for  olive  cuttings,  even  in 
firewood  shape,  will  grow  if  properly  treated),  though  better  trees 
come  from  small  cuttings.  If  the  truncheons  are  bedded  a  few 
inches  below  the  surface  in  moist,  warm  soil,  shoots  will  appear 
which  can  be  worked  up  into  small  cuttings  when  they  reach  the 
proper  condition. 

BUDDING  THE  OLIVE 

Since  the  planting  of  a  large  area  of  Redding  Picholines  and  the 
fruit  found  to  be  that  of  a  wild  or  poor  seedling  olive  and  not  a 
superior  named  variety,  there  has  been  a  demand  for  working  over 


^  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

the  trees  into  better  varieties.  Besides,  many  of  the  imported 
varieties  have  proved  disappointing  and  a  change  to  a  variety 
profitable  in  the  region  is  imperative.  The  method  of  budding 
commonly  employed  with  fruit  trees  does  not  usually  yield  a  high 
percentage  of  success  with  the  olive,  but  shield-budding  in  the  old 
bark,  as  described  in  Chapter  XXX,  gives  good  results. 

Budding  may  be  performed  at  any  time  of  the  year  when  the 
sap  flows  freely.  If  done  late  in  the  summer,  the  buds  lie  dormant 
through  the  winter.  Best  results  are  obtained  when  the  buds  are 
inserted  early  in  the  spring,  as  the  operation  can  be  performed  to 
a  much  better  advantage,  and  the  buds  will  grow  to  some  height 
before  winter.  When  inserted  in  limbs  of  large  trees,  the  shoots 
from  the  inserted  buds  are  allowed  to  grow  until  they  have  attained 
such  a  size  as  will  justify  in  the  removal  of  the  entire  top. 

Twig  Budding. — Twig  budding  is  very  successful.  The  bud  is 
cut  deep  into  the  wood,  in  order  to  give  the  bud  as  much  bark  as 


Olive:  Twig-Bud  as  cut  Olive:  Twig-Bud  Inserted. 

possible.  The  leaves  are  partly  cut  off;  then,  with  a  sharp  point 
of  the  budding  knife,  the  greater  part  of  the  wood  inside  of  the  bud 
is  removed,  as  shown  in  the  picture.  If  part  of  the  wood  is  not 
removed,  then  the  bud  can  not  take,  as  the  wood  in  it  prevents  the 
two  barks  (the  inner  bark  of  the  bud  and  the  inner  bark  of  the 
stock)  from  uniting.  When  the  wood  has  been  partly  removed  from 
the  bud,  the  bud  is  inserted  into  the  stock,  as  budding  is  done  in 
the  regular,  ordinary  way,  and  tied  tight.  A  small  tip-twig  may  be 
used  or  a  longer  twig,  cut  back  to  the  lowest  bud  and  part  of  the 
foliage  cut  away,  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  At  the  end  of  three 
or  four  weeks  the  string  is  removed,  and  part  of  the  top  of  the  stock 
is  cut  back  to  force  the  bud  to  start.  As  the  bud  grows,  the  foliage 
of  the  stock  is  gradually  removed,  until  the  bud  is  able  to  take  up 
the  entire  flow  of  sap;  it  is  then  left  to  grow,  and  it  may  be  pro- 
tected by  tying  to  a  long  stub  of  the  branch  which  may  be  left  for 
that  purpose  above  the  point  of  insertion.  When  the  bud  has  grown 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING  OLIVES  349 

out  strongly,  what  remains  of  the  stock  above  the  bud  is  cut  smooth, 
close  to  the  bud,  to  allow  it  to  heal  over. 

Flap-Budding  the  Olive. — Although  the  use  of  a  twig  with  a 
pushing  bud  is  to  be  commended  strongly  a  dormant  bud  can  be 
forced  into  activity  quite  successfully.  Mr.  C.  A.  Wetmore  describes 
this  method : 

Late  in  the  spring,  when  advancing  warmth  has  set  the  sap  to  moving 
freely,  observe  a  tree  of  the  kind  you  desire  to  propagate.  Notice  parts  of 
limbs  with  vigorous  growth  and  clean  bark  free  from  lateral  twigs.  Where 
a  leaf  adheres  to  such  limbs  or  where  one  has  been  and  fallen  off,  there 
is  a  small  bud  or  eye.  Such  dormant  buds  or  eyes  are  lifted  from  the 
wood  together  with  a  small  piece  of  the  bark  about  one-third  or  half  an 
inch  square.  On  the  properly  selected  limbs  of  the  trees  you  wish  to  bud 
into,  make  three  cuts  with  a  knife,  so  as  to  include  a  space  a  little  longer 
than  the  piece  of  bark  to  be  inserted.  Two  parallel  cuts  are  in  line  with 
the  limb;  one  is  across  the  top.  Lifting  the  flap  of  bark  thus  made  care- 
fully with  dull  side  of  a  blade,  the  cambium  layer  of  the  wood  will  be  ex- 
posed. Slip  in  the  piece  of  bark  with  the  dormant  bud  and  press  it  close 
with  the  flap  made  on  the  limb.  Tie  the  flap  firmly  to  cover  the  whole 
piece  inserted  with  raffia  or  strips  of  cloth  or  soft  twine.  At  the  end  of 
one  week  cut  the  ligatures  and  suffer  the  flap  to  curl  up  and  dry.  If  the 
insertion  has  united  to  the  wood,  it  will  remain  green  and  fresh-looking 
about  the  dormant  eye.  If  this  freshness  continues  after  exposure,  the  bud 
has  taken.  Then  cut  with  a  knife  or  saw  into  the  limb  above  the  bud  to 
induce  the  sap  to  force  the  growth.  If  any  one  fails,  the  limb  need  not  be  cut 
into,  but  may  be  budded  in  another  place.  The  following  winter,  cut  off 
the  limb  above  the  bud  if  it  has  sprouted  well,  and,  as  sufficient  new  wood 
is  made,  the  old  branches  of  the  tree  may  be  cut  away. 


GRAFTING  THE  OLIVE 

Grafting  is  also  used  in  working  over  both  large  and  small  olive 
trees.  Good  success  can  sometimes  be  had  with  the  ordinary  method 
of  top  grafting,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  using  scions  not  larger 
than  a  lead  pencil,  and  inserting  them  in  April.  The  olive  can  also 
be  successfully  grafted  in  the  bark  according  to  the  method  shown 
in  Chapter  IX.  This  graft  is  used  for  working  in  the  top  of  the 
tree,  but  it  may  also  be  used  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  covering 
the  cut  surfaces  with  earth  when  the  scions  are  in  place.  Judge 
A.  L.  Rhodes,  of  San  Jose,  gives  the  following  explicit  account  of 
his  success  with  a  bark  graft,  as  follows : 

The  stock,  where  cut  off,  may  be  from  half  to  two  and  one-half  inches 
in  diameter;  the  scion  about  one-quarter  inch  in  diameter,  the  lower  end 
to  be  formed  by  an  oblique  cut  of  about  one  and  one-half  inches.  Split  the 
bark  of  the  top  of  the  stock  about  one  inch,  raise  the  bark  at  the  sides 
of  the  split  slightly,  insert  the  point  of  the  scion  between  the  bark  and 
wood  of  the  stock,  at  the  split,  and  press  it  down  the  length  of  its  oblique 
cut.  Fasten  it  by  binding  twine  around  both  stock  and  scion,  about  ten 
times,  very  firmly.  Apply  grafting  wax  to  top  of  stock  and  scion. 

If  the  bark  of  the  stock  be  three  or  more  years  old,  make  two  slits  in 
it,  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  the  width  between  them  equal- 
ing the  width  of  the  oblique  cut  of  the  scion,  raise  the  bark  between  the 
slits,  cut  off  about  half  of  it,  by  a  sloping  cut,  then  insert  the  scion  and 
press  it  down,  and  bind  with  twine  and  apply  grafting  wax,  as  above 
directed.  Cotton  wrapping  twine  is  of  sufficient  strength. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Stocks  the  diameter  of  one  inch  or  more  should  receive  two  or  more 
scions.  Scions  gathered  a  short  time  before  their  insertion  are  the  most 

arcessful  The  twine  around  the  stock  and  scion  should  not  be  loosened 
until  it  indents  the  bark  of  the  stock.  Protect  the  graft  from  sun  and 

vind  Wrap  paper  around  the  stock  and  scion,  the  paper  to  extend  a  few 
inches  above  the  scion— or  place  the  paper,  in  the  form  of  a  bag,  over 
scion  and  stock— and  secure  the  paper  with  twine,  tied  around  the  stock 

1  BaSrkP  grafting  may  be  performed  at  any  time  when  the  bark  of  the 
stock  can  be  readily  raised— whenever  the  bark  will  "slip."  I  grafted  in 
that  mode  in  each  week  of  April  and  May  and  the  first  of  June,  and  in 
September.  Failures  not  5  per  cent.  Twelve  scions  inserted  about  the 
last  of  September  are  all  growing.  Shield  budding  is  the  most  successful  m 
the  spring.  I  prefer  the  bark  grafting,  as  the  shield  buds  may  not  start  for 
months,  or  even  for  a  year. 

Side  Graft  on  Small  Wood.— A  satisfactory  graft  can  be  made 
with  an  oblique  cut,  as  shown  in  Chapter  IX,  which  is  superior  to  a 
split  of  the  stock,  because  on  a  small  stock  the  split  is  apt  to  con- 
tinue farther  than  desirable  when  the  scion  is  pushed  in.  With  the 
slanting  cut  in  the  stock  the  scion  can  be  firmly  pushed  into  place 
without  splitting.  The  union  of  inner  barks  of  scion  and  stock  must 
be  made  on  one  side  when  the  stock  is  larger  than  the  scion.  This 
graft  is  tied  in  and  waxed,  or  a  waxed  band  may  be  used.  In  work- 
ing small  wood  at  the  ground  surface,  the  earth  should  be  drawn 
up  around  the  graft. 

Grafting  on  Rooted  Cuttings. — Good  trees  are  made  by  grafting 
in  the  nursery  on  rooted  Picholine  cuttings.  Such  cuttings  are 
made  from  wood,  say,  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  using  a  young  scion 
with  a  starting  bud.  Such  a  scion  makes  a  saleable  tree  with  one 
year's  growth. 

PLANTING    THE    OLIVE 

All  suggestions  of  care  in  laying  off  and  planting  in  Chapters  X 
and  XI  should  be  considered  in  establishing  olive  orchards,  and  the 
precautions  against  drying  out  during  transportation  and  trans- 
planting should  be  carefully  heeded  because  the  tree  is  an  evergreen 
and  more  quickly  injured  by  exposure  and  evaporation.  In  planting 
trees  from  the  nursery  it  is  desirable  to  remove  all  foliage,  white- 
wash against  sunburn  and  save  the  strength  of  the  stem  for  a 
new  start. 

There  is  nothing  gained  by  planting  out  the  olive  too  early  in 
the  spring.  Both  cuttings  and  rooted  plants  will  do  better  if  planted 
after  the  soil  becomes  well  warmed,  and  after  the  heavy  rains  of 
the  winter  are  well  over.  Of  course  the  time  when  this  condition 
comes  is  different  from  year  to  year,  and  varies,  also,  according  to 
locality  and  situation.  During  the  first  summer  the  young  plants 
will  need  occasional  watering  in  some  situations ;  in  others,  merely 
mulching,  or  keeping  the  surface  finely  stirred,  will  suffice. 

Olive  trees  are  planted  at  different  distances,  but  the  ruling  in- 
tervals are  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet.  This  will  allow  the  trees  to 
bear  a  number  of  years  before  they  crowd  each  other ;  and  then 
removing  alternate  trees  gives  ample  distance  for  future  growth. 


TRANSPLANTING  OLIVE  TREES  351 

Some  planters  hold,  however,  that  original  planting  should  be  at 
40-feet  intervals.  But  it  is  clearly  the  part  of  wisdom  to  hold  the 
olive  to  a  low  growth  in  order  that  the  fruit  may  be  cheaply  gath- 
ered, and  this  may  be  done  by  the  proper  pruning. 

Transplanting  Old  Olive  Trees. — California  experience  shows 
that  an  old  olive  tree  can  be  successfully  transplanted  if  both  the 
branches  and  roots  are  cut  to  short  stubs  and  little  more  than  the 
trunk  reset  in  moist,  warm  soil,  but  usually  better  results  can  be 
had  by  a  more  careful  effort.  The  method  outlined  below  is  appli- 
cable to  olives  and  citrus  fruits  and,  in  a  general  way,  to  all  ever- 
green trees : 

After  the  heavy  rains  are  over  and  the  ground  is  getting  warm — 
say  in  February — cut  back  not  less  than  one-half  of  the  top.  Trench 
all  around  the  tree  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  tree;xthe  inside  edge  of  the  trench  about  two  feet  from 
the  trunk  of  the  tree.  At  the  same  time  remove  top  earth  down  to 
the  roots  to  reduce  the  weight.  This  trenching  cuts  off  all  side 
roots  and  gives  room  to  get  in  to  handle  the  ball  of  earth,  which 
rope  up  with  barley  sacks  under  the  ropes  so  as  to  hold  the  ball 
from  breaking.  When  this  is  done  well,  dig  in  and  under  the  tree 
from  the  bottom  of  the  trench  so  as  to  cut  off  the  bottom  roots. 
Carefully  pull  and  pry  the  ball  to  see  that  it  will  wobble  a  little  in 
the  hole  to  show  that  all  the  roots  are  cut.  Then  get  ropes  and 
sacks  under  the  ball,  rig  up  a  derrick  and  block  and  tackle  and  lift 
the  balled  tree  out  of  the  hole,  land  it  on  a  low  truck  and  haul  it  to 
a  hole  previously  made  ready,  and  lower  it  into  place  by  the  same 
tackle  which  lifted  it.  Fill  in  with  fine  earth  and  water-settle  it  to 
fill  all  cavities — covering  with  loose  earth  several  inches  to  keep 
from  drying.  Be  sure  the  tree  has  plenty,  but  not  too  much,  mois- 
ture during  its  first  summer  in  its  new  place. 

Large  deciduous  trees  can  be  removed  when  dormant  with  much 
less  labor,  but  it  should  be  done  in  the  fall — as  soon  as  the  soil  is 
deeply  wet  by  rains.  It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  mov- 
ing large  fruit  trees,  either  evergreen  or  deciduous,  is  seldom  com- 
mercially desirable. 

PRUNING  THE   OLIVE 

Pruning  policies  as  insisted  upon  in  Chapter  XII,  have  direct 
bearing  upon  the  commercial  growth  of  the  olive.  The  development 
of  the  tree  according  to  principles  there  laid  down  is  practicable 
and  desirable.  After  proper  low  form  is  secured,  satisfactory  bear- 
ings will  depend  upon  regular  pruning  to  secure  new  bearing  shoots 
and  thinning  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  too  dense  and 
bushy  and  from  running  out  of  reach  of  a  step-ladder,  for  both 
these  acts  are  essential  to  the  growth  of  good  bearing  wood,  low 
down.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  remembered  that  too  severe 
cutting  back  forces  the  growth  of  branches  which  form  only  wood 
buds  and  fruiting  is  postponed. 

Trees  which  have  been  allowed  to  form  umbrella-like  tops  may 
be  brought  down  to  business  again  by  cutting  back  the  main  limbs 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

and  making  selection  from  the  many  new  shoots  which  appear,  but 
by  proper  regular  pruning  a  tree  can  be  so  trained  that  the  removal 
of  large  limbs  is  seldom  necessary.  The  times  to  prune  the  olive 
are  just  after  the  gathering  of  the  fruit  or  just  before  new  growth 
starts  in  the  spring. 

Developing  the  Vase  Form. — Explicit  suggestions  as  to  the  de- 
velopment of  a  low,  vase-form  tree  may  be  helpful  to  inexperienced 
growers.  The  following  is  from  a  foreign  writer,  whose  illustra- 
tions are  presented  herewith: 

When  the  young  tree  has  attained  some  height,  it  is  the  practice  to  cut 
off  the  top,  so  that  the  main  stem  shall  be  about  four  and  a  half  feet  in 
rich  soil,  or  three  feet  in  poor  soil  or  in  locations  exposed  to  strong  winds. 
Six  or  eight  branches  are  left  to  form  the  head.  The  process  of  shaping  the 
tree  then  proceeds  as  shown  in  the  engravings.  Fig.  1  shows  the  young 
tree  to  be  cut  at  the  point  marked  by  the  dotted  line  C.  Six  branches, 
three  on  each  side,  are  left,  and  the  lower  twigs  shortened.  Each  of  the 
branches  left  develops,  during  the  year,  as  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  2,  which 
is  then  cut  at  C  again,  and  the  shoots  B  and  D  are  shortened.  This  process 
starts  out  the  upper  shoot,  and  appears  the  following  year  as  A  in  Fig.  3, 
and  it  is  again  cut  at  C.  This  causes  the  two  upper  shoots  to  develop,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  year  they  appear  as  shown  at  BB  in  Fig.  4.  Thus  they 
stand  at  the  fourth  year's  pruning,  and  each  of  them  is  cut  at  C,  and  A  is 
shortened  and  D  allowed  to  develop.  By  this  time  the  tree  has  a  spherical 
or  vase  form,  and  exposes  much  surface  to  the  sun,  which  is  desirable. 

The  young  branches  that  spring  in  the  form  of  a  cross  on  the  more 
vigorous  branches,  bear  only  wood  buds;  the  others,  which  are  weaker, 
bear  fruit  buds  on  their  whole  length  and  burst  into  blossom  at  the  spring 
of  the  second  year.  The  latter  never  blossom  again  in  the  same  place,  but 
the  shoot  extends  itself  and  forms  two  lateral  ones.  These  new  shoots 
bear  the  following  spring,  and  so  on.  It  must  therefore  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  olive  bears  only  on  the  two-year-old  wood.  If  the  new  shoots  are 
formed  every  year,  the  olive  will  bear  anually;  but  in  years  of  good  crops, 
the  sap  employed  to  nourish  the  fruit  only  produces  a  number  of  very  di- 
minutive shoots,  and  the  next  crop  is  a  short  one.  The  pruning  ought  to 
favor  the  growth  of  young  lateral  shoots,  either  by  shortening  the  terminal 
ones,  suppressing  the  "gormand"  or  fruitless  shoots,  or  by  reducing  in  a 
certain  proportion,  each  year,  the  fruit-bearing  shoots,  if  we  wish  tor  a 
crop  every  year.  The  shortening  of  a  branch  is  made  immediately  above  an 
outside  bud  in  an  oblique  direction,  the  interior  one  being  suppressed.  The 
suckers  at  the  root  of  the  tree  should  be  continually  cut  off. 

Concerning  the  time  for  pruning,  the  best  season  is  said  to  be  when  the 
winter  frosts  are  well  over  and  just  before  the  sap  starts  in  the  spring.  By 
early  pruning  the  sap  is  made  to  act  upon  the  buds  unfavorably  situated  on 
the  tree,  brings  them  out,  and  also  develops  latent  buds  on  the  old  wood. 
Thus  one  is  enabled  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  covered  with  naked 
limbs. 

A  suggestive  outline  of  pruning  policy  by  Prof.  Bioletti,  who 
has  given  many  years  to  handling  of  olive  trees  in  California  and  to 
observation  of  other  operations,  is  as  follows : 

At  the  end  of  the  first  growing  season,  no  pruning  is  necessary  except 
the  removal  of  strong  shoots  on  the  lower  half  of  the  stem  where  main 
branches  are  not  desirable. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  growing  season,  many  trees  will  require  no 
pruning  at  all.  Some,  however,  will  have  developed  strong  branches  in 
unsuitable  places.  These  should  be  removed.  Branches  which  cross  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  branches  which  are  too  crowded,  or  which  interfere 
with  the  symmetry  of  the  tree,  or  may  interfere  with  cultivation,  are  mis- 


PRUNING  THE   OLIVE 


353 


B 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

placed      If  there  is  a  single  strong  central  branch,   this  should   be  cut   off 
at  its  base  to  promote  the  desirable  open  vase  form  of  the  main  scaffold 

With  Mission  and  other  upright  growing  varieties,  the  problem  is  rela- 
tively simple.  With  spreading  varieties,  like  Manzanillo,  it  is  difficult.  In 
this  case  the  best  method  is  probably  to  drive  a  strong  stake  near  the 
trunk,  and  by  means  of  a  rope  tie  up  the  spreading  branches  in  the  posi- 
tion it  is  desired  to  have  them  in  the  mature  tree. 

This  method  should  be  continued  until  the  trunk,  main  divisions  and 
branches  are  well  established  and  the  tree  large  enough  to  bear  a  good 
crop  without  injury.  This  .condition  may  arrive  by  the  end  of  the  third 
growing  season,  or  may  be  deferred  to  the  fourth,  fifth  or  later,  according 
to  the  variety,  soil,  water,  climate  and  system  of  pruning.  The  formative 
period  is  then  practically  over  and  pruning  adapted  to  bearing  trees  should 
be  adopted.  In  a  general  way,  the  idea  is  to  open  up  the  tree  and  preserve 
the  vase  form,  so  that  the  conditions  for  fruit  production  may  be  favorable 
over  as  large  an  area  of  the  tree  as  possible.  To  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  out  branches  and  twigs  wherever  the  tree  appears  to  be  too  dense  to  allow 
of  free  penetration  of  the  sun  rays.  Each  branch  removed  should  be  cut 
off  at  its  origin  or  at  a  point  where  a  side  branch  occurs  which  it  is  desir- 
able to  leave.  This  applies  also  to  small  branches  and  twigs. 

Cutting-back  or  shortening-in  should  be  used  with  moderation.  It  has 
a  tendency  to  produce  a  dense  center  and  the  growth  of  vigorous  upright 
sterile  shoots  and  gradually  a  high-centered  tree.  It  should  be  used  only 
where  necesary  to  stimulate  growth  of  a  weak  tree  by  removing  fruiting 
wood  or  to  prevent  horizontal  branches  from  becoming  too  low. 


THE   FRUIT   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS 

Olives  should  be  picked  carefully  and  at  the  right  time.  For 
green  pickles  they  should  be  picked  very  soon  after  they  obtain 
full  size,  but  before  they  have  begun  to  color  or  soften.  For  ripe 
pickles  and  for  oil-making  the  fruit  should  be  gathered  soon  after 
the  olives  are  well  colored,  but  before  they  have  attained  the  deep 
black  which  signifies  overripeness.  If  the  olives  are  gathered  too 
green  the  oil  will  be  bitter ;  if  too  ripe,  it  will  be  rancid.  When  they 
can  be  easily  shaken  from  the  tree  they  are  ripe  enough.  If  they 
commence  to  fall  without  vigorous  shaking  they  are  overripe.  For 
whatever  purposes  the  olives  are  to  be  used  they  should  be  care- 
fully gathered  by  hand,  and  imperfect,  immature,  or  bruised  fruit 
rejected.  Sound  fruit  is  required  for  high-grade  oil  or  for  hand- 
some pickles  with  good  keeping  quality. 

The  Manufacture  of  Olive  Oil. — Olive  oil  is  made  in  this  State 
with  apparatus  of  both  Californian  and  European  design,  and,  as  a 
rule,  there  is  made  only  one,  and  at  most  but  two,  pressings  of  the 
pomace,  which  is  then  used  for  fattening  swine.  In  the  frequent 
working  over  of  the  pomace,  and  the  close  extraction  of  the  oil,  as 
practiced  in  Europe,  we  have  done  little  as  yet. 

Olive  oil  is  made  on  a  small  scale  by  a  number  of  parties  who 
use  home-made  contrivances,  or  small,  portable  cider  machinery  for 
the  crushing  and  pressing.  During  the  last  few  years  quite  a  num- 
ber of  mills  have  been  erected  at  several  points  in  California  and 
they  have  made  a  market  for  olives  produced  by  growers  who  do 
not  care  to  undertake  manufacture.  A  detailed  account  of  oil  mak- 
ing, including  descriptions  of  buildings  and  machinery,  is  beyond 


MAKING  OLIVE   OIL  355 

the  scope  of  a  treatise  on  fruit  growing.  Information  must  be  had 
by  visiting  oil-making  establishments  and  from  the  manufacturers 
of  the  appliances  used  in  them.  For  the  use  of  the  grower  who 
desires  to  make  oil  for  home  use,  a  few  suggestions  will  be  given. 

Drying. — Extraction  of  oil  from  fresh  olives  gives  the  best  oil, 
but  it  is  somewhat  troublesome,  and  it  is  customary  to  partially  dry 
them.  This  partial  drying  is  also  useful  to  keep  the  fruit  for  some 
time  or  for  shipment  before  crushing.  Place  the  olives  in  layers 
not  more  than  three  inches  deep,  on  trays  that  are  stacked  in  a  dry, 
well-aired  room,  protected  from  the  wind  and  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun.  Turn  daily  until  the  fruit  becomes  well  wrinkled.  This 
requires  about  eight  or  ten  days,  according  to  the  degree  of  tem- 
perature. To  hasten  the  drying  process,  artificial  driers,  constructed 
on  the  same  principle  as  fruit  driers,  are  sometimes  used.  The 
olives  are  placed  in  a  single  layer  upon  trays,  and  the  drier  is  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. The  drying  takes  about  forty-eight  hours — more  or  less — 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  fruit. 

Crushing. — The  olives  are  crushed  in  a  way  to  break  up  the 
flesh  and  pits  very  thoroughly. 

Pressing. — When  the  crusher  has  reduced  the  olives  to  a  mass, 
a  certain  amount  of  the  pulp  is  put  in  each  of  several  coarse  linen 
cloths  and  when  the  cloth  is  folded  back  it  makes  a  cheese  about 
three  inches  thick.  Several  of  these  cheeses  are  placed  one  above 
the  other,  with  slats  between,  in  a  screw  or  lever  press  and  the  pres- 
sure applied  gently  at  first.  From  the  liquid  which  runs  out  first 
is  made  the  very  finest  oil,  known  as  "virgin  oil."  The  pressure 
is  then  increased  very  gradually  until  the  full  power  of  the  machine 
is  reached. 

Settling  and  Clarifying. — The  liquid  from  the  press  is  dark  col- 
ored, and  it  is  conducted  into  a  receptable  for  settling.  The  first 
settling  is  conveniently  made  by  means  of  a  funnel-shaped  appa- 
ratus, which  by  its  conical  shape  facilitates  the  rapid  deposition  of 
sediment.  After  standing  for  twenty-four  hours  in  this  apparatus 
the  major  part  of  the  sediment  is  deposited  and  can  be  drawn  off 
at  the  bottom.  It  is  well  before  running  the  oil  into  the  settling 
tanks  to  pass  it  through  two  or  three  inches  of  cotton  wool.  This 
is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  funnel  with  a  perforated,  horizontal 
cross  partition,  upon  which  the  cotton  is  placed.  It  takes,  generally, 
about  one  month  for  the  oil  to  settle  sufficiently  in  the  first  tank, 
after  which  it  should  be  drawn  off  carefully  into  the  second,  and  so 
on  until  it  is  sufficiently  bright.  Three  rackings  are  usually  suf- 
ficient. 

Olives  are  sometimes  ground  and  pressed  in  portable  cider  mills 
or  ground  in  barley  crushers  for  oil  manufacture  on  a  small  scale. 
As  the  above  description  shows,  oil  making  is  a  simple  process,  and 
may  be  carried  on  at  home  with  rude  devices.  It  is,  however,  a 
process  requiring  care  and  cleanliness,  and  intelligent  personal  at- 
tention. 


356 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Pickling  the  Olive. — Olives  are  pickled  in  a  green  state,  as  is 
the  case  with  imported  olives ;  or  in  a  ripe  state,  as  largely  under- 
taken in  California.  No  one  had  any  conception  at  first  of  the  dif- 
ficulties attending  the  production  of  pickled  ripe  olives  which 
would  have  the  keeping  quality  demanded  in  an  article  of  com- 
merce. It  is  now  clearly  seen  that  treating  ripe  olives  to  extract 
the  bitterness  and  to  secure  firmness,  good  flavor  and  keeping  qual- 
ity is  one  of  the  most  difficult  propositions  in  our  horticultural 
manufacturing,  and  we  can  but  admire  the  wisdom  of  the  Spaniard 
in  teaching  Anglo-Saxons  to  enjoy  green  olives. 

Lye  Treatment  of  Ripe  Olives. — The  following  is  an  outline  of 
the  pickling  of  olives  as  drawn  from  the  University  publications 
by  Professor  Bioletti: 

1.  Gather  the  fruit  carefully  by  hand  without  bruising.     It  is  best  when 
cherry  red  or  just  turned  black.     When  green,  it  lacks  flavor  and  oil  and 
when  over-ripe  it   is   too  soft  and    the   skin   is    tough.     Soft,   shriveled,   or 
frost-bitten  olives  are  unsuited  for  pickling. 

2.  Place  the  olives   in   an   open   vessel   of   glass    or   earthenware,   or   a 
wooden  bucket  or  barrel.     Metal  vessels  should  not  be   used.     A  wooden 
cover  to  fit  loosely  inside  the  vessel  on  top  of  the   olives  will  prevent  the 
spotting  of  olives  which    float. 

3.  Make  a  lye  solution  of  three   ounces    (three  tablespoonfuls    of  soda 
lye  to  a  gallon  of  water  or  approximately  one  pound  of  lye  to  five  gallons. 

4.  Cover   the   olives    with    this    solution,    keeping    them    submerged    by 
means  of  the  wooden  cover.     Stir  and  examine  the  olives  every  hour.     As 
soon  as  the  skin  changes  color,  cut  an  olive  occasionally  to  note  by  the  dis- 
coloration of  the  flesh  how  far  the  lye  has  penetrated. 

5.  When  the  lye  has  gone  through  the  skin  but  only  a  very  short  way 
into  the  flesh,  pour  it  off  into  another  vessel.     This  will  be  in  from  three 
to  eight  hours,  according  to  the  olives  and  the  temperature. 

6.  Expose  the  olives  to  the  air  until   the  color  is  darkened  and  equal- 
ized.    They  should  be  stirred  frequently  while  exposed.     To  make  them  all 
black  requires  from  one  to  three  days  or  more,  but  the  flavor  is  better  if 
not  exposed  too  long. 

7.  When  the  desired  color  is  attained,  replace  the  old  lye  by  fresh  lye 
and  leave  with  frequent  stirring  until  it  has  penetrated  to  the  pit.     It  must 
reach  the  pit  or  the  olives  will  be  bitter,  but  if  left  long  after  reaching  the 
pit,  the  flesh  will  be  softened  and  the  color  bleached. 

8.  Replace  the  lye  with  water,  which   should  be  changed  twice   daily, 
until  all  taste  of  lye  is  removed — about  five  to  seven  days. 

9.  Then  place   for   twenty-four   hours   in   a    brine   of    five    ounces    (five 
tablespoons)  of  salt  to  a  gallon  of  water. 

Pure- Water  Process.— Pickled  olives  are  made  without  the  use 
of  lye,  but  this  process  is  only  practicable  with  olives  whose  bitter- 
ness is  easily  extracted,  and  where  the  water  is  extremely  pure  and 
plentiful,  and  even  then  it  is  very  slow  and  tedious.  The  olives  are 
placed  from  the  beginning  in  pure  water,  which  is  changed  twice  a 
day  until  the  bitterness  is  sufficiently  extracted.  This  requires  from 
forty  to  sixty  days  or  more. 

Green  Pickles.— Green  pickled  olives  are  made  by  essentially 

.e  same  processes  as  are  used  for  ripe  olives.    The  extraction  of 

i  bitterness  requires  the  same  care.    The  olives  are  pickled  soon 

ter  they  have  attained   full  size,  and  before   they   have  shown 

any  signs  of  coloring  or  softening.     They  are  rather  more  easily 


RIPE   OLIVE   REQUIREMENTS  357 

made  than  the  ripe  pickles,  as  there  is  less  danger  of  spoiling  and 
they  can  be  kept  in  casks  of  brine  as  ordinary  pickles  are. 

Canning  the  Ripe  Olive. — Canned  olives,  put  upon  the  market  in 
the  same  form  as  other  canned  fruit,  have  recently  become  popular. 
There  are  special  canneries  for  their  preparation  at  several  points 
in  the  State  and  the  general  canneries  also  handle  olives  in  consid- 
erable quantities.  The  process  is  in  the  main  like  that  of  canning 
other  fruits,  but  special  points  have  to  be  learned  through  experi- 
ence, and  an  outfit  suitable  for  large  scale  work  is  needed  for  com- 
mercial production.  Owing  to  danger  of  unwholesomeness  in  ripe 
pickled  olives,  the  following  requirements  by  the  California  Board 
of  Health  are  now  complied  with  by  commercial  canners : 

Ripe  olives  must  be  sterilized  in  canning  at  a  temperature  of  240  degrees 
Fahrenheit  for  not  less  than  forty  minutes  by  means  of  a  retort  controlled 
by  an  automatic  self-recording  thermometer  device  in  proper  working  or- 
der. It  is  within  the  power  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Food  and  Drugs  and 
California  State  Board  of  Health  to  sieze  and  condemn  all  ripe  olives  not 
produced  in  conformity  with  these  regulations.  The  enforcement  of  these 
regulations  removes  all  danger  from  ripe  olive  poisoning. 


VARIETIES   OF   THE   OLIVE   GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA 

Many  varieties  of  the  olive  were  brought  to  California  from 
southern  Europe  previous  to  1890.  Fifty-seven  varieties  were  an- 
alyzed and  elaborately  reported  upon  by  the  University  experts,  and 
of  these  about  fifteen  varieties  at  first  promised  to  rise  to  commer- 
cial account,  but  many  of  them  have  been  dropped.  It  is  an  inter- 
esting fact,  however,  that  .in  spite  of  the  efforts  put  forth  to  secure 
a  better  olive  than  the  old  Mission  variety,  this  old  sort  still  heads 
the  list. 

The  following  are  the  varieties  now  being  propagated  in  Cali- 
fornia on  a  commercial  scale,  arranged  approximately  in  the  order 
of  their  present  popularity  :  Mission ;  Manzanillo ;  Sevillano ;  Asco- 
lano. 

Other  varieties  are  sometimes  used  for  pickling  and  oil,  and  are 
retained  in  the  list,  largely  for  old  acquaintance  sake : 

The  Mission  Olive. — By  this  name  is  signified  the  variety  found  growing 
at  the  old  missions  in  California.  It  has  long  been  known  that  the  so-called 
Mission  olive  embraced  several  varieties,  or  sub-varieties  at  least. 

Common  or  Broad-Leaved  Mission  Olive. — The  variety  of  olive  most  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Mission;  ovate,  oblique — sometimes  very  much  so — the 
pit  straight  or  slightly  curved,  fruit  very  variable  in  size,  growing  singly 
or  in  clusters  of  two  or  three,  or  even  five;  time  of  ripening,  late,  in  the 
coast  region  sometimes  not  before  February,  but  generally  in  December;  in 
interior  localities  in  November;  tree  vigorous  and  a  good  bearer,  preferred 
by  picklers. 

Redding  Picholine. — Imported  by  the  late  B.  B.  Redding,  and  supposed  to 
be  a  large  pickling  variety,  but  it  proved  to  be  a  small  seedling — a  shoot 
coming  from  the  root  below  the  graft,  probably.  It  roots  very  readily  from 
cuttings  and  is  used  as  a  stock  on  which  to  graft  improved  varieties. 

Oblonga. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  An  olive  of  a  peculiar, 
club-like  shape,  being  narrow  at  the  stem  end,  broad  at  the  point,  rounded 
and  strongly  oblique;  generally  pointed  at  both  ends.  The  pulp  loses  its 


358 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


bitterness  comparatively  quickly  in  pickling.  This  olive  ripens  early — at 
least  two  or  three  weeks  earlier  than  the  Broad-leaved  Mission;  color,  dark 
purple. 

Manzanillo. — Imported  by  F.  Pohndorff  from  Spain.  As  the  name 
("small  apple")  indicates,  this  variety  is  nearly  round,  with  a  pit  of  rounded 
oval  shape,  rather  squarely  cut  off  at  the  base.  This  variety  ripens  early — 
several  weeks  earlier  than  the  Broad-leaved  Mission  olive;  the  fruit  grows 
generally  singly  on  long  stems;  a  trifle  larger  than  Mission;  quality  of 
pickles  excellent;  not  a  good  bearer  in  all  places  and  ripe  fruit  subject  to 
rot  in  hot  regions. 

Columbella.— Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  General  form, 
broadly  oval;  very  even  in  size,  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  pale  yellow 
color  which  all  the  fruit  assumes  before  turning  fully  ripe  and  becoming 
dark  purple;  pit  small,  straight  and  sharp  pointed;  the  pulp  contains  little 
bitterness;  flavor  very  rich;  ripens  late,  later  than  the  Broad-leaved  Mis- 
sion. Tree  hardy  in  dry  places  and  a  prolific  bearer.  Also  called  "Colum- 
ella." 

Nevadillo  Blanco. — Imported  by  -F.  Pohndorff  from  Spain.  Oval,  slightly 
oblique,  pointed,  resembling  somewhat  a  Mission,  but  is  generally  more 
elongated  in  proportion  to  its  diameter  than  the  latter;  pit  small,  curved, 
and  generally  pointed  at  both  ends;  the  fruit  is  borne  in  clusters  of  three 
to  five;  ripening  not  much  earlier  than  the  Mission;  a  fine  oil  olive,  largely 
planted,  but  disappointing  in  some  regions  as  a  shy  bearer  and  subject  to 
frost  injury,, 

Oblitza.— Imported  by  the  late  G.  N.  Milco  from  Dalmatia;  resembles  the 
Pendoulier,  and  may  be  identical;  fine  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley;  very 
large  oval,  but  broad  and  rounded  at  both  ends;  grows  in  clusters;  tree 
a  good  grower,  hardy  and  productive;  fruit  excellent  for  pickles;  ripens  in 
November  in  the  interior — about  the  same  as  the  Mission. 

Sevillano. — Recently  largely  planted  as  the  variety  exported  from  Spain 
as  the  "Queen  olive."  Very  large;  only  useful  in  pickling;  when  ripe,  bluish 
black;  clingstone.  Tree  a  strong  grower,  leaves  deep  green,  greenish  white 
underneath.  Described  by  Mr.  Roeding  as  a  regular  bearer,  but  requires 
deep,  rich,  well-drained  soil,  and  will  not  stand  much  cold.  Sells  at  high 
prices  because  of  great  size;  ripens  early. 

Ascolano.— "White  olive  of  Ascoli."  Very  large,  "large  as  a  French 
prune  and  much  like  one  in  shape"  (Bioletti).  Excellent  for  pickles,  but 
not  desirable  in  color  of  either  green  or  ripe  pickles,  and  has  to  be  carefully 
handled  in  pickling.  Reported  a  good  bearer  and  has  recently  been  quite 
largely  planted. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  ORANGE 

The  orange  leads  all  fruits  of  California.  In  Chapter  VI  will 
be  found  the  numbers  of  trees  and  value  of  product  for  1920,  and 
the  railway  shipments  beyond  State  lines  for  a  term  of  years,  upon 
which  the  supremacy  of  the  orange  rests.  In  view  of  this  leader- 
ship it  seems  fitting  to  take  a  little  wider  range  in  the  discussion 
of  the  significance  of  the  orange  in  the  development  of  California 
than  has  been  indulged  in  the  consideration  of  other  fruits,  and 
this  is  justified  by  the  fact  that  the  orange  is,  in  the  public  mind, 
the  chief  exponent  of  the  horticultural  resources  of  the  State  and 
its  attributes  in  this  direction  are  shared  in  varying  degrees  by  the 
other  fruits.  The  greatness  of  orange  growing  in  California  be- 
comes, then,  in  various  ways  the  token  of  our  advancement  in  one 
of  the  highest  of  the  agricultural  arts,  and  in  the  mastery  of  long- 
distance commercial  distribution  of  fresh  fruits.  These  achieve- 
ments are  also  a  demonstration  of  the  quality  of  our  agricultural 
citizenship. 

THE  ORANGE  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  WORLD 

From  the  beginning  the  orange  has  reigned  as  king  in  the  inter- 
national fruit  trade  of  the  world.  The  grape  has  always  been  and 
is  still,  greater  in  the  value  of  its  contribution  to  commerce  and  in 
the  distance  it  safely  traverses,  but  the  grape  rules  not  as  a  fruit, 
but  through  its  manufactured  products,  while  the  orange  carries 
its  natural  beauty,  fragrance  and  flavor  unchanged  around  the 
world.  From  the  earliest  times  the  orange  has  not  only  been 
accepted  in  northern  climes  as  a  symbol  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
salubrity  and  sumptuousness,  but  by  its  own  distinctive  character- 
istics as  a  fruit  it  has  won  recognition  as  befitting  the  highest  uses 
of  mankind.  By  its  nature  too  the  orange  ministers  to  its  own 
commercial  popularity.  It  endures  long  shipment;  it  ripens  slowly 
and  through  a  season  of  several  months  which  constitute  the  winter 
in  northern  latitudes  when  local  fruits  are  scant  or  absent  and  the 
refreshment  in  the  citric  juices  is  most  welcome.  The  production  of 
such  a  commercial  commodity  has  from  the  earliest  times  consti- 
tuted an  important  industry. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  though  the  orange  thrives  in  the 
tropics  it  does  not  resent  the  slight  touch  of  frost  which  character- 
izes semi-tropical  situations.  It  is  also  significant  that  the  fruit 
grown  in  semi-tropical  countries,  especially  those  which  have  a 
more  or  less  distinctly  marked  two-season  climate,  differs  in 
character  from  the  strictly  tropical  orange  and  is  firmer,  heavier, 
more  sprightly  in  flavor  and  with  much  better  keeping  and  carrying 
qualities.  The  tropical  orange  has  but  small  commercial  impor- 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

tance ;  the  semi-tropical  orange  rules  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 
That  the  semi-tropical  orange  should  have  this  distinctive  character 
is  most  fortunate,  for  it  ministers  directly  to  the  will  for  industry 
which  is  superior  in  semi-tropical  countries.  By  the  seven  degrees 
of  frost  which  the  orange  tree  will  endure  without  injury,  it  has 
gained  the  seventy  degrees  of  north  latitude  through  which  its  fruit 
freely  seeks  a  market.  Because,  though  the  tropical  orange  would 
reach  most  distant  markets  in  small  quantities,  it  could  never  attain 
the  commercial  supremacy  which  the  fruit  now  enjoys. 

The  sweet  orange  is  a  native  of  eastern  Asia  and  was  carried 
thence  to  India  and  to  Asia  Minor.  It  possibly  reached  Portugal 
from  India  through  the  early  Portuguese  navigators.  Thus  the 
distribution  of  the  fruit  was  westward.  The  history  of  modern  com- 
mercial orange  growing  consists  of  a  series  of  progressive  move- 
ments always  trending  westward  and  gaining  in  volume — the  newer 
centers  of  production  outstripping  the  older  and  ultimately  largely 
displacing  tkeir  product  from  the  greatest  markets  of  the  upper 
divisions  of  the  temperate  zone.  When  the  Moors  introduced  orange 
growing  into  Algeria  and  Spain  they  displaced  the  traffic  from 
Asia  Minor  and  gave  the  Mediterranean  region  for  several  hundred 
years  undisputed  possession  of  the  markets  of  the  north  of  Europe 
and  possession  also  of  the  American  demand  when  that  arose. 
When  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  carried  the  orange  to  the  West 
Indies  and  to  Florida  they  laid  the  foundation  for  an  industry  which 
American  enterprise  developed  in  Florida  until  that  district  not 
only  contended  with  the  Mediterranean  region  for  American 
markets,  but  was  planning  to  invade  northern  Europe  by  direct 
ship-loads  when  the  demonstration  came  that  the  climate  of  north- 
ern Florida  and  of  the  Gulf  coast  westward  was  too  treacherous  for 
commercial  ventures  in  orange  growing — at  least  with  the,  then 
popular  varieties  and  methods  of  propagation.  But  as  the  Florida 
supply  failed  through  the  severe  freezing  of  1895,  California  came 
forward  and,  though  Florida  has  re-established  her  citrus  industry, 
California  is  now  not  only  supplying  the  larger  part  of  the  oranges 
consumed  in  the  United  States,  but  is  selling  the  highest  priced 
oranges  in  the  London  market  against  a  world  of  competitors. 

In  support  of  this  contention  let  it  be  noted  that  the  most 
important  statistical  statement  of  the  world's  citrus  fruits  in  the 
English  language  was  published  April  15,  1914.*  It  shows  that 
the  annual  citrus  fruit  crop  of  the  world  is  equal  to  from  ninety 
to  one  hundred  million  boxes  of  California  size,  which  would  fill 
two  hundred  and  thirty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  car- 
loads of  California  capacity.  Of  these  the  United  States  and  Spain 
produce  thirty  per  cent  each;  Italy  twenty-five  per  cent;  Japan 
and  Palestine  each  less  than  five  per  cent ;  the  balance,  scattering. 
The  acreage  both  in  California  and  Florida  is  increasing.  The 
normal  product  of  the  United  States  is  approximately  78,000  car- 
loads, and  California,  in  view  of  recent  plantings,  50,000  carloads. 

"Bulletin  11,  California  Citrus  Protective  League,  Los  Angeles,  "The  World's  Pro- 
SecJetary  Coramerc«  ™  Citrus  Fruits  and  Their  By-products,"  by  F.  O.  Wallschlaeger, 


THE   ORANGE   IN   COMMERCE  3£1 

All  the  countries  thus  mentioned  as  contributing  to  the  world's 
commercial  product  are  endowed  with  semi-tropical  and  not  with 
tropical  climates. 

RELATION  OF  CALIFORNIA  TO  THE  WORLD'S  ORANGE 

PRODUCT 

Competition  with  the  product  of  California  is  working  hardship 
in  the  Mediterranean  region  because  this  region  can  more  than 
supply  Europe,  and  needs  American  markets  as  an  outlet.  Italy 
has  exported  six  million  dollars  worth  of  oranges  and  lemons  in  a 
year,  but  recently  prices  have  declined  and  the  interest  is  depressed. 
Every  effort  is  being  made  to  secure  relief  from  local  taxation  and 
from  duties  imposed  by  north  European  countries.  The  Spanish 
product  of  oranges  and  lemons,  which  ranks  with  that  of  the  United 
States,  has  to  meet  heavy  tariffs  in  all  countries  except  the  United 
Kingdom  and  the  belief  at  Valencia  is  (U.  S.  Commercial  Relations, 
Vol.  2,  1902,  page  686)  that  the  limit  of  British  consumption  of 
Valencia  oranges  at  paying  rates  has  been  reached;  in  fact,  the 
British  markets  collapsed  under  the  heavy  shipments  of  1901. 
When  it  is  stated  that  the  value  of  oranges  imported  into  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1900  was  $10,603,950,  and  such  a  free  buyer 
has  more  than  enough,  it  can  be  realized  how  important  it  is  to 
the  Mediterranean  producers  that  the  populous  countries  of  central 
Europe  should  hold  less  strictly  to  agrarian  interests  which  aim  to 
hamper  the  entrance  of  food  supplies  even  if  they  can  not  them- 
selves produce  them.  Manifestly  the  American  product  can  only 
enter  such  markets  with  a  fancy  product  which  will  win  an  extra 
price,  except  as  a  little  difference  in  the  ripening  season  may  afford 
an  opportunity. 

Because  of  the  decreased  import  duties  under  the  tariff  of  1913 
the  commercial  position  of  the  orange  in  the  United  States  was 
such  as  to  awaken  apprehension,  but  the  war  brought  full  demand 
and  increased  prices,  in  1921  we  are  confronted  by  the  need  of  a 
tariff  which  will  preserve  the  American  citrus  industry.  The 
product  of  the  West  Indies  is  a  direct  menace  to  the  Florida  product, 
which  meets  it  in  point  of  market  season,  and  the  Mexican 
product,  which  was,  before  the  Mexican  revolution,  undergoing 
expansion  at  the  hands  of  American  capitalists,  is  constantly  feared 
by  the  California  growers  because  the  Mexican  railway  will  give  it 
quick  entrance  to  the  great  central  states  and  constant  advantage 
in  distribution  to  the  East  and  the  Northwest.  The  orange  from 
the  West  Indies  and  South  Florida  is  different  from  the  California 
orange  in  main  ripening  season  and  in  character  of  the  fruit,  but 
the  differences  do  not  give  full  relief.  With  the  late  ripening 
varieties,  the  California  grower  extends  his  shipments  into  the 
autumn,  and  thus  laps  upon  the  early  fruit  from  Florida  and 
Jamaica,  while  the  parts  of  California  which  bring  earliest  maturity 
to  the  fruit  are  shipping  before  the  Southern  fruit  is  cleared  away. 
In  fact,  California  can  keep  the  markets  supplied  with  oranges  fresh 
from  the  trees  and  in  prime  condition  the  year  round. 


362 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


As  to  the  difference  in  oranges  grown  under  humid  and  arid 
conditions,  the  moisture  being  supplied  by  rainfall  in  one  case  and 
by  irrigation  in  the  other,  there  has  been  shown  in  the  arid  region 
orange  a  superior  density,  thinness  and  texture  of  rind,  higher 
sugar  and  higher  acid  percentages  and  a  more  sprightly  or  vinous 
flavor.  The  popular  conception  of  the  superior  sweetness  of  the 
orange  grown  in  humid  countries  is  due  not  to  a  greater  amount 
of  sugar  in  the  juice,  but  to  less  amount  of  acid.  The  following 
are  the  determinations  of  sugar  and  acid  of  fully  ripe  Southern 
California  and  Florida  navel  oranges : 

Total  sugar,        Citric  acid, 
per  cent.  per  cent. 

California  Navel  9.99  1.45 

Florida  Navel    7.46  0.95 

Of  course,  the  quality  of  an  orange  is  largely  inherent  in  the 
variety,  but  all  varieties  are  similarly  changed  by  growth  under 
humid  or  arid  conditions  of  climate  and  soil,  and  this  modification 
becomes  a  factor  of  much  industrial  importance.  This  fact  is  strik- 
ingly illustrated  by  the  standing  of  the  navel  orange  in  California. 
This  variety  has  been  grown  for  a  century  or  more  as  the  chief 
orange  in  Bahia,  Brazil,  whence  it  came  to  California.  In  Brazil  it 
demonstrated  no  shipping  qualities,  and  according  to  Burke  (U.  S. 
Special  Consular  Reports,  Vol.  1,  page  411)  would  need  to  be  picked 
before  maturity  if  to  be  shipped,  while  as  grown  in  California  and 
Arizona  it  is  picked  at  full  maturity  and  is  successfully  shipped  all 
over  the  United  States  and  to  Europe.  An  examination  of  the  Bahia 
district  in  1913,  by  A.  D.  Shamel  and  associates,  showed  that  the 
orange  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  export  industry  of  California 
is,  in  its  home,  only  an  article  of  local  trade. 

Orange  growing  in  Florida  is  recovering  from  serious  reverses. 
The  product  of  1894  was  about  4,000,000  boxes.  Then  came  the 
disastrous  freezing  in  December  of  1894  and  February,  1895,  with 
a  temperature  of  14  degrees  Fahrenheit  at  Jacksonville,  and  in  the 
latter  year  only  75,000  boxes  were  shipped.  In  1920  the  orange 
product  of  California  and  Florida  compared  as  follows  :* 

Boxes.         Farm  Value. 

California   18,700,000        $51,425,000 

Florida    8,500,000          18,700,000 

In  Louisiana  the  freezing  of  1895  nearly  annihiliated  the  citrus 
fruit  interest  and  only  recently  has  there  been  any  disposition  to 
resume  production  on  a  commercial  scale.     In  Texas  there  is  an 
experimental    orange    industry    on    the   basis    of    hardy    Japanese 
varieties,  largely.    Its  future  is  a  matter  of  conjecture.   In  the  south- 
western corner  of  Arizona  there  is  a  small  orange  industry  which  is 
successfully  shipping  navel  oranges  to  distant  markets.    Conditions 
tavor  early  ripening  and  an  advantage  is  secured  by  sale  in  advance 
e  mam  California  product.    The  orange  industry  of  the  United 
now  largely  supplying  the  home  demand  for  the  fruit. 

•Yearbook  1920.  U.   S.   Department  of  Agriculture. 


WHY   CALIFORNIA   ORANGES   LEAD  353 

Imports  of  oranges  reached  their  highest  value  in  1883  at  $3,010,662, 
and  have  since  then  declined.  The  value  in  1913  was  $227,827.50 — 
much  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  imports  of  thirty  years  before.  The 
value  of  imported  oranges  in  1919  was  $52,790. 

The  orange  industry  of  the  United  States  is  unique  in  the  high 
social  and  financial  standing  of  those  who  have  engaged  in  it,  and 
in  the  striking  features  of  its  development.  Both  in  Florida  and 
in  California  large  scale  production  was  first  undertaken  by  North- 
ern men  who  had  gained  wealth  and  had  lost  health  in  the  pursuit 
of  it.  They  brought  capital  and  commercial  ability  to  the  ventures 
which  they  exploited.  The  professional  classes  of  the  North  also 
participated  largely  in  the  work,  bringing  scholarship,  insight  and 
experience  in  organization.  There  were  a  few  also  who  possessed 
horticultural  experience,  but  the  other  classes  largely  predominated. 
The  result  has  been  the  development  of  an  industry  characteris- 
tically American  in  spirit  and  new  in  methods.  It  has  borrowed 
very  little  from  the  practices  of  old-world  orange  growers.  Free 
from  tradition  and  prejudice  it  proceeded  rapidly  upon  the  results 
of  original  investigation  and  experiment,  establishing  a  system  of 
culture  and  of  commercial  handling  of  the  product  which  are  with- 
out precedent  in  the  older  orange  regions  of  the  world.* 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  CITRUS  CONDITIONS  IN 
CALIFORNIA 

Citrus  culture  conditions  exist  in  suitable  situations  from  Shasta 
to  San  Diego  county — an  air-line  distance  of  more  than  six  hundred 
miles.  It  is  so  surprising  that  practically  the  same  climate  should 
be  found  through  a  distance  of  between  seven  and  eight  degrees  of 
latitude  that  many,  even  of  those  who  have  lived  in  California,  do 
not  appreciate  the  fact,  nor  know  the  explanation  of  it.  An  effort 
is  made  toward  such  explanation  in  Chapter  I  of  this  work.  Even 
at  the  risk  of  repetition  the  subject  will  be  reviewed  with  special 
reference  to  the  occurrence  of  conditions  affecting  the  growth  of 
citrus  fruits. 

First:  California  is  not  only  blessed  with  benign  ocean  influ- 
ences, but  Northern  California  is  additionally  protected  from  low 
winter  temperatures  by  the  mountain  barrier  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
extending  southward  from  the  multiplied  masses  of  protecting 
elevations  in  the  Shasta  regi9n,  while  Southern  California  enjoys 
the  protection  of  the  Sierra  Madre  and  other  uplifts  on  the  north  and 
east  of  her  citrus  region.  Northern  blizzards  are,  therefore,  held 
back  from  entrance  to  California  and  are  forced  to  confine  them- 
selves to  southerly  and  easterly  directions  over  the  interior  parts  of 
the  Pacific  slope,  while  the  great  blizzards  of  the  Northwest  traverse 

*The  literature  of  citrus  fruits  in  California  is  large.  In  addition  to  continuous  ex- 
position in  local  horticultural  journals,  there  are  frequent  articles  in  the  popular  maga- 
zines. The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  at  Washington,  has  pub- 
lished several  important  reports  and  bulletins;  as,  also  has  the  California  Experiment  Sta- 
tion— of  which  there  is  a  branch  at  Riverside.  The  industry  has  also  developed  a  special 
treatise,  entitled  "Citrus  Fruits:  an  account  of  the  Citrus  Fruit  Industry  with  special  ref- 
erence to  California  requirements  and  practices  and  similar  conditions,"  by  Dr.  J.  E.  Coit, 
of  the  University  of  California.  It  is  a  very  satisfactory  exposition  of  things  the  citrus 
grower  needs  to  know.  Published  by  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.;  522  pages;  fully  illustrated. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

the  Mississippi  Valley  and,  if  they  have  sufficient  impetus,  extend 
to  the  Gulf  and  carry  destruction  to  semi-tropical  growths  even  in 
Northern  Florida.  The  ocean  then  bringing  warmth  and  the  high 
mountains  defending  against  cold,  combine  their  influences  to  give 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  California  semi-tropical  winter  tempera- 
tures. 

Second:  Although  this  striking  similarity  does  exist,  in  citrus 
districts  north  and  south,  there  is  another  even  more  startling 
proposition  involved  and  that  is  the  influence  exerted  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Coast  Range  as  the  western  boundary  of  the  great 
interior  valley  of  the  State,  and  intervening  between  that  great 
valley  and  the  ocean.  The  several  ridges  of  the  Coast  Range  with 
their  enclosed  small  valleys  serve  as  a  colossal  wind-break  against 
northwest  winds,  which  might  otherwise,  now  and  again,  bring  a 
temperature  too  low  for  citrus  fruits,  where  now  they  are  safe 
from  injury.  The  chief  effect  of  these  mountains  is  to  protect  the 
northern  interior  valleys  and  foothills  from  the  raw  winds  of  early 
springtime,  and  to  allow  the  sun  as  he  crosses  each  day  higher  in 
his  course,  to  expend  the  increasing  heat  directly  in  promoting 
vernal  verdure.  The  result  is  a  protected  interior  region  in  Central 
and  Northern  California,  of  quick  growth  in  all  lines — early  pas- 
turage, early  grain  harvest  and  early  fruit  ripening.  The  valleys 
of  Southern  California,  which  have  thus  far  been  largely  developed, 
have  no  high  range  between  them  and  the  ocean.  They  are  open 
on  the  west  because  the  Coast  Range  of  mountains  takes  a  sharp 
turn  eastward  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State  and  afterward 
curves  southward,  passing  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  chief  pro- 
ductive region.  The  influence  of  this  opening  of  the  valleys  of 
Southern  California  is  not  so  unfavorable  as  such  opening  would 
be  at  the  north,  because  ocean  winds  are  gentler  and  warmer  there, 
and  there  is  winter  service  rendered  by  this  eastward  trend  of  the 
Southern  California  mountains,  as  has  been  said,  but  the  fact 
remains  that  the  absence  of  high  barriers  against  ocean  influences 
retards  the  springtime  and  causes  a  slow  development  of  summer 
conditions  and  late  ripening  of  fruits,  while  the  presence  of  high 
barriers  at  the  north  so  hastens  springtime  and  summer  heat,  that 
early  summer  fruits  in  California  are  shipped  from  the  north  to  the 
south — a  thing  which  does  not  occur  anywhere  else  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  It  is  due  to  this  same  early  start  which  the  local  topog- 
raphy gives  to  the  orange,  followed  by  the  high  summer  heat  which 
is  essential  to  the  development  of  a  good  orange,  that  the  orange 
reaches  an  acceptable  commercial  condition  at  an  earlier  date  in 
suitable  interior  places  at  the  north  and  is  at  present  being  almost 
wholly  shipped  to  eastern  markets  before  free  movement  begins  at 
the  south.  This  early  marketing  also  relieves  the  growers  of  much 
anxiety  and  costly  frost  righting,  because  the  fruit,  which  is  always 
more  susceptible  to  injury  than  the  tree,  is  out  of  the  way  before 
the  frost  period,  which  usually  begins  about  Christmas,  is  reached. 

There  is  in  Southern  California,  east  of  the  mountains,  a  district 
which  has  thus  far  been  but  scantily  developed  where  protection 
from  ocean  influences  tends  to  early  ripening  of  fruits.  The  same 


PREVALENCE   OF   CITRUS   CONDITIONS  355 

is  true  of  some  parts  of  Arizona  adjacent,  and  small  quantities  of 
early  fruits  move  westward  and  northward  from  that  region.  That 
region  is  not  in  view  in  this  discussion,  for  too  little  has  been 
accomplished  in  citrus  lines  to  warrant  conclusions  which  recent 
planting  in  that  part  of  the  State  may  soon  supply. 

Third :  Still  another  feature  of  local  topography  must  be  men- 
tioned as  influencing  citrus  conditions  north  and  south  and  explain- 
ing why  winter  temperature  has  fallen  no  lower  at  the  north  than 
at  the  south.  At  the  north  the  snow  fields  of  the  high  mountains 
are  farther  from  the  valleys  and  mesas,  where  citrus  fruits  are 
grown,  than  they  are  at  the  south.  The  benches  and  low  foothills 
of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  for  instance,  are  forty  to  fifty  miles  from 
the  high  range  to  the  east  of  them  and  there  intervene  countless 
ridges  of  high  foothills  and  small  valleys,  and  before  the  citrus 
plantations  can  be  reached  by  the  descending  air  currents  they  are 
considerably  warmed  by  rustling  over  so  much  land  which  has  been 
warmed  by  the  ampler  winter  sunshine.  From  many  of  the  south- 
ern citrus  regions  one  looks  almost  directly  upward  and  outward 
upon  the  grand  snow-clad  mountains,  whose  crests  are  but  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  miles  away.  It  is  a  splendid  scenic  effect — ripening 
oranges  and  dazzling  snow  fields  in  the  same  glance  of  the  eye,  but 
it  is  sometimes  not  so  grand  as  a  pomological  proposition. 

Fourth  :  Another  protective  influence  for  citrus  fruit  trees  during 
the  frosty  period  of  December  and  January,  is  the  low  canopy  of 
land  fog  which  covers  the  interior  valley  of  Central  and  Northern 
California  much  of  the  time  at  that  season  of  the  year  and  checks 
the  radiation  of  ground  heat  which  is  apt  to  take  place  rapidly  under 
a  clear  sky.  Though  the  nights  are  thus  often  protected  from  the 
frosts,  the  day  temperature  is  held  low,  which  is  also  of  account, 
because  the  citrus  trees  are  held  dormant,  which  is  desirable,  as 
there  is  no  fruit  to  ripen.  On  the  other  hand,  the  higher  day  temper- 
ature in  Southern  California  is  valuable  in  that  district  because  the 
later  fruit  is  still  maturing.  The  winter  aspects  of  the  trees  in 
Northern  and  Southern  California  are  therefore  quite  different;  in 
the  north,  the  dark  green  of  dormancy ;  in  the  south,  the  gold  of  the 
fruit  and  the  oft-protruding  light  green  of  the  winter  wood  growth. 
In  both  regions  all  growth  conditions  seem  good ;  each  after  its  own 
kind,  and  the  two,  in  a  sense,  complementary. 

During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  rapid  extension  of 
orange  planting,  particularly  in  the  suitable  lands  on  the  eastern 
rim  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Sacramento  Valley. 
The  orange  product  of  the  northern  district  is  normally  about  one- 
eighth  of  the  State  product.  Nearly  five-sixths  of  all  the  trees  north 
of  the  Tehachapi  mountains  are  in  the  citrus  districts  of  eastern 
Tulare  County. 

THE  GENERAL  OUTLOOK  FOR  THE  ORANGE 

At  the  present  time  orange  growing  has  a  very  promising  out- 
look. The  prospect  for  much  larger  consumption,  at  the  East  and 
abroad,  is  very  encouraging.  The  orange  is  passing  from  its  old 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

statifs  as  a  luxury  to  its  proper  recognition  as  a  staple  winter  fruit 
for  dwellers  in  cold  climates.  For  such  use  the  agreeable  acid  and 
sprightly  flavor  of  the  California  fruit  especially  commend  it.  The 
consumption  of  the  fruit  per  capita,  away  from  California,  is  still 
small  and  will  be  greatly  increased  when  people  know  better  its 
desirability  and  the  reasonable  prices  at  which  it  can  be  secured. 
This  wider  distribution  is  to  be  confidently  expected  and  the  rapid 
increase  in  population  through  the  great  West  and  North  is  each 
year  giving  California  growers  nearer  markets  of  growing  con- 
sumptive capacity.  It  will  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  whole 
country,  as  well  as  California,  to  have  production  steadily  increased. 

Some  considerations  in  this  line  are  given  to  the  closing  pages 
of  Chapter  VI.  To  fully  appreciate  the  advantage  of  California  in 
supplying  the  whole  northern  half  of  the  North  American  continent, 
especially  with  early  fruits  and  semi-tropical  fruits,  one  should 
calculate  the  exceedingly  small  area  of  suitable  fruit  land  in  Cali- 
fornia as  compared  with  the  area  of  the  half-continent  indicated, 
which  is  our  logical  consuming  territory  and  in  which  development 
and  population  are  now  increasing  so  rapidly.  Take  a  map  of  the 
continent,  place  your  thumb  over  the  area  of  California  and  gaze 
at  the  uncovered  area,  north  of  the  fortieth  parallel,  if  you  please, 
and  estimate  the  duty  of  California  in  coming  decades.  Millions 
will  multiply  on  the  continent,  but  the  safe  area  for  tender  fruits 
will  never  increase  an  acre.  From  this  point  of  view,  it  really 
seems  impossible  for  California  to  create  an  over-supply  of  fruits 
which  are  distinctively  her  province  to  grow.  There  are  likely  to 
be  temporary  surpluses  and  problems  in  distribution,  but  a  general 
over-supply  seems  unreasonable. 

The  development  of  the  orange  industry  in  California  to  utilize 
the  splendid  natural  adaptations  which  have  been  discussed,  to 
make  good  the  large  investments  which  have  been  made,  and  to 
afford  a  field  for  the  profitable  employment  of  the  high  quality  of 
American  citizenship  which  has  entered  the  list  of  producers,  several 
things  are  essential.  First,  the  advancement  of  horticulture  art  and 
science.  Second,  the  maintenance  for  a  time  at  least,  of  a  sufficient 
protective  tariff,  as  has  already  been  suggested.  Third,  the  exten- 
sion of  co-operative  handling  and  distribution  of  the  product  as  now 
embodied  in  the  successful  operation  of  the  California  Fruit 
Growers'  Exchange  and  its  auxiliaries  in  all  the  producing  districts. 
Fourth,  the  application  of  the  results  of  systematic  and  intelligent 
inquiry  and  experiments  into  the  durability  of  the  fruit  in  transit  as 
affected  by  cultural  and  commercial  practices,  and  the  effective 
advertisement  of  the  desirability  of  oranges  as  food  in  parts  of  the 
country  which  have  largest  consuming  capacity. 

SOILS  AND  SITUATIONS  FOR  THE  ORANGE 

While  citrus  conditions  do  exist  through  large  areas  of  California, 

there  is  still  danger  of  loss  and  disappointment  through  unwary 

individual    investments    and    unwise    locations    of    citrus    colony 

nterprises.    The  tracts  of  land  for  orange  planting  even  in  a  favor- 


SOILS    FOR   THE    ORANGE  357 

able  citrus  climate  are  limited  in  area  and  every  citrus  climate  has 
numerous  places  where  local  meteorological  conditions  will  prove 
destructive  to  the  profit  of  the  enterprise,  if  not  to  the  life  of  the 
trees.  The  orange  is  a  hardy  tree,  judged  within  its  temperature 
limits,  but  there  is  no  money  in  a  tree  which  is  subjected  to  any 
kind  of  hardship.  For  this  reason  the  selection  of  a  good  depth  of 
strong,  free  loam  should  be  made,  for  such  is  essential  not  only 
to  good  growth  of  the  young  tree,  but  to  its  support  through  the 
long  productive  life  which  the  orange  enjoys.  Depth  of  good  soil 
is  not  only  a  storehouse  of  plant  food,  which  will  postpone  the  use 
of  purchased  fertilizers,  but  it  is  a  reservoir  of  water  so  that  irriga- 
tion can  be  applied  in  larger  amounts  at  longer  intervals.  While 
it  is  quite  possible  to  grow  an  orange  tree  and  to  secure  good  fruit 
on  shallower  soils,  if  conditions  are  kept  just  right  by  frequent  use 
of  water  and  fertilizers  in  just  the  right  amounts,  such  conditions 
impose  heavy  burdens  in  their  constant  requirements  of  extra  care 
and  expenditure,  and  these  are  handicaps  of  no  small  economic 
importance.  The  tree  can  not  live  upon  climate  as  a  man  may, 
because  a  tree  can  not  speculate ;  it  must  have  a  good  foundation  in 
the  earth  as  well  as  a  good  outlook  in  the  sky. 

Growing  orange  trees  on  defective  soils  has  brought  disappoint- 
ment and  loss  in  all  parts  of  California.  Ample  supplies  of  irrigation 
water  available  have  encouraged  over-irrigation  where  trees  have 
been  planted  above  hardpan  and  drainage  is  absent.  Dying-back 
and  yellow  leaf  have  appeared  in  some  groves  and  have  been 
accounted  for  by  digging  to  find  the  roots  bedded  in  mud  and  slush. 
All  plantings  over  clay  sub-soils  should  be  guarded  against  this 
danger.  Digging  deep  holes  and  filling  them  with  good  soil  is 
setting  a  trap  for  the  future  failure  of  the  tree  unless  the  deep  hole 
is  properly  drained  by  the  nature  of  the  sub-soil  or  by  artificial 
provision.  On  the  other  hand,  planting  over  a  gravelly  sub-soil  is 
often  disappointing,  because  the  water  passes  through  the  sub-soil 
as  through  a  sieve,  and  the  tree  shows  distress  although  generous 
amounts  are  applied  to  the  surface.  Wide  observation  through  the 
State  teaches  that  such  warnings  are  needed  by  the  unwary.  There 
has  also  been  injury  to  the  tree  from  planting  over  sub-soils  carrying 
excess  of  lime. 

Local  temperature  conditions  even  in  sections  generally  suited 
to  orange  culture  should  be  carefully  ascertained.  Frosty  places 
must  be  avoided.  A  few  feet  difference  in  elevation  may  change 
profit  to  loss,  but  one  must  not  therefore  draw  the  hasty  conclusion 
that  all  small  elevations  are  favorable.  The  experience  of  the  last 
few  years  shows  that  nothing  is,  on  the  whole,  more  dangerous  than 
the  warm  bottom  land  in  a  small  elevated  valley  which  seems 
naturally  protected  on  all  sides.  There  are  many  such  places  which 
are  far  more  treacherous  than  the  uplands  of  the  broad  valleys, 
which  may  be  considerably  lower.  The  benches  around  the  sides 
of  the  small  valley  may  be  safe  and  the  bottom  of  the  same  valley 
dangerous  because  there  is  no  adequate  outflow  for  cold  air  to  the 
large  valley  below.  Look  out  for  small  valleys  which  have  divides 
of  crumpled  hills  where  they  debouch  into  the  main  valley.  Cold 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

air  can  be  dammed  and  held  back ;  consequently  the  low  land  of  a 
small  valley  may  be  worse  than  lower  land  in  the  main  valley, 
because  in  the  latter  there  are  air  currents  which  prevent  accumula- 
tion of  cold  air  in  particular  places.  These  air  movements  make 
some  plantings  on  the  upper  plains  of  the  main  valley  safe,  though 
the  whole  region  may  seem  to  the  eye  rather  flat  and  low,  but,  of 
course,  broad  sinks  of  the  main  valley  may  also  be  dangerous.  Too 
great  elevations  are  to  be  guarded  against.  Where  one  approaches 
the  reach-down  of  mountain  temperatures  and  loses  the  warming 
influences  of  the  valley  mesas,  the  danger  line  is  at  hand. 

An  ample  water  supply  is  essential.  Small  waterings  which  may 
bring  satisfactory  growth  to  a  young  tree  are  no  measure  of  the 
needs  of  a  bearing  tree.  The  orange  is  using  water  all  the  year, 
as  discussed  in  Chapter  XV.  Its  crop  requires  nearly  a  year  to  reach 
maturity.  Both  in  leaf  growth  and  fruit  growth  it  nearly  doubles 
the  activity  of  the  deciduous  tree,  and  all  the  time  it  is  pumping 
water  with  its  roots  and  pouring  forth  water  into  the  air  through  its 
exposed  surfaces.  No  investment  in  orange  planting  can  be  profit- 
able without  assurance  of  adequate  water  supply. 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ORANGE 

The  orange  is  grown  from  cuttings,  layers  and  seeds.  Growth 
from  the  seeds  is  the  method  almost  exclusively  followed,  and  by 
far  the  best,  but  the  others  will  be  mentioned  briefly. 

Growth  from  Cuttings. — The  method  of  propagation  is  described 
in  Chapter  VIII. 

Growth  from  Layers. — The  orange  roots  readily  by  layering,  the 
drooping  branches  being  partly  cut  through,  buried  in  the  soil  with 
the  terminal  shoots  above  the  ground.  Layers  must  be  kept  moist. 
Layering  may  be  employed  to  obtain  a  few  plants  easily,  but,  other- 
wise, it  cuts  no  figure  in  propagation.  Layers  and  cuttings,  of 
course,  reproduce  the  original  variety  without  recourse  to  budding. 

Growth  from  Seed. — The  orange  is  grown  upon  seedlings  of  the 
bitter  orange  or  orange  of  Seville,  generally  called  "Florida  sour 
stock" ;  of  the  common  or  sweet  orange  and  of  the  pomelo  or  Grape 
Fruit.  Good  plump  seed  should  be  selected  in  growing  orange 
seedlings  either  for  their  own  fruitage  or  to  use  as  stocks  for  bud- 
ding. 

When  seedlings  for  fruiting  are  grown,  select  seed  from  a  choice 
variety  in  a  situation  where  other  citrus  species  are  not  grown ;  but 
the  orange  can  not  be  trusted  to  come  true  from  seed,  and,  more 
than  this,  the  seedling  class  for  fruiting  purposes  has  been  prac- 
tically abandoned  as  unprofitable  to  plant,  though  fruit  from  old 
seedling  trees  is  occasionally  sold  at  a  profit. 

In  securing  seed  the  fruit  is  allowed  to  rot  and  when  thoroughly 
decayed,  it  is  pulped  by  mashing  in  a  barrel,  and  the  mass  is  washed, 
a  little  at  a  time,  on  a  coarse  sieve,  the  pulp  passing  through,  and  the 
seed  being  caught  on  the  wires,  and  pieces  of  skin  thrown  out.  The 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ORANGE  359 

plump  seed  will  sink  if  thrown  into  water,  and  the  imperfect  can  be 
skimmed  from  the  top.  The  seed  should  never  be  allowed  to  dry, 
and  unless  it  is  to  be  sown  at  once,  should  be  stored  by  mixing  with 
moist  sand,  from  which  it  can  be  afterwards  removed  by  sifting ;  or 
it  can  be  kept  for  a  time  in  water,  changing  the  water  from  time  to 
time  to  prevent  souring.  The  best  time  for  sowing  orange  seed  is 
after  the  ground  has  become  warm  in  the  spring. 

Orange  seedlings  are  grown  either  in  boxes  or  in  the  open 
ground.  In  either  case  a  rich  sandy  loam  which  will  not  bake 
should  be  secured  or  artificially  made  by  mixing  sand  with  rich 
garden  loam.  Boxes  of  about  two  square  feet  area  and  six  inches 
deep  are  convenient  to  handle.  The  bottom  should  have  holes,  or 
sufficient  crevices  for  good  drainage.  Fill  the  boxes  about  four 
inches  with  the  prepared  soil,  place  the  seeds  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  apart  each  way,  sift  over  them  about  an  inch  of  the  soil,  or  a 
little  less  of  the  soil,  and  a  layer  of  clean  sand  if  it  is  at  hand.  It 
is  essential  that  the  soil  should  be  kept  moist,  and  light  sprinkling 
daily,  or  every  other  day,  with  water  that  has  been  warmed  by 
standing  in  the  sun,  is  desirable.  Seed  can  be  sown  in  boxes  in  the 
house  at  any  time  if  plenty  of  light  and  heat  are  given.  If  the  boxes 
are  to  be  out-of-doors,  it  is  best  to  sow  in  the  spring,  and  to  rig  up  a 
cover  of  cheap  cotton  cloth,  suspended  about  a  foot  above  the  sur- 
face, to  prevent  effect  of  frost  at  night,  and  of  burning  by  sun  heat 
by  day.  The  seedlings  usually  appear  in  about  six  weeks,  and  with 
good  care  in  weeding  and  keeping  sufficiently,  but  not  excessively, 
moist,  they  will  make  a  growth  of  about  a  foot  the  first  season. 
Some  growers  collect  the  boxes  in  a  sheltered  place,  and  build  over 
them  a  lath  house,  tacking  on  old  sacks  or  other  cloth,  to  shield 
them  from  the  sun  and  frost.  The  lath  house  keeps  animals  from 
running  over  the  boxes,  etc. 

Growing  seedlings  in  an  open  bed  involves  about  the  same  opera- 
tions. To  guard  against  intrusion,  it  is  advisable  to  make  board 
sides  to  the  bed  about  a  foot  high,  and  to  make  lath  frames  which 
will  reach  across,  resting  on  the  edge  boards.  A  cloth  sun-and-frost 
shade  is  also  desirable,  to  be  laid  over  the  lath  frames  when  it  seems 
needed.  Beds  should  be  made  narrow  enough  so  that  one  can  easily 
reach  half  way  across  from  each  of  the  long  sides  for  weeding,  etc. 
In  open  seed  beds  it  is  usual  to  broadcast  the  seed  evenly,  using 
about  one  gallon  to  200  square  feet,  which  should  give  about  5000 
seedlings. 

The  Orange  Nursery. — Planting  out  in  nursery  is  usually  done 
after  the  ground  is  thoroughly  warmed  in  the  spring,  and  the  seed- 
lings are  then  about  a  year  old.  The  preparation  of  nursery  ground 
and  the  planting  out  of  the  seedlings  can  be  done  as  described  in 
Chapter  VIII.  Orange  seedlings  should,  however,  be  given  greater 
distance  apart  in  the  nursery  than  is  usual  for  deciduous  trees, 
because  the  orange  remains  longer  in  the  nursery,  and  because  it  is 
usually  desirable,  when  taking  up,  to  sack  the  ball  of  earth  embrac- 
ing the  roots.  If  the  roots  are  not  to  be  sacked,  about  nine  inches 
will  do  between  the  plants ;  if  to  be  sacked,  the  distance  should  be 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  The  rows  should  not  be  too  close.  If  horse 
cultivation  is  to  be  used,  at  least  four  feet  between  the  rows  should 
be  allowed,  and  even  greater  distance  is  desirable.  In  taking  the 
seedlings  from  the  seed  beds,  a  few  should  be  lifted  at  a  time,  and 
their  roots  kept  shaded  and  moist  until  the  ground  closes  on  them 
in  the  nursery  row.  To  get  an  even  stand  in  the  nursery,  small  and 
weak  plants  should  be  placed  by  themselves,  or  set  in  boxes  to  take 
another  year  before  going  into  nursery. 

Young  trees  in  nursery  are  very  liable  to  frost  injury,  and  it  is 
wise  to  protect  them  by  some  sort  of  a  cover  during  the  winter.  A 
framework  covered  with  cypress  brush  is  often  used,  the  whole 
being  cleared  away  in  the  spring  to  allow  of  summer  cultivation. 
Cultivation  of  trees  in  nursery  is  about  the  same  as  with  deciduous 
fruit  trees.  The  horse  should  be  used,  and  the  surface  kept  perfectly 
pulverized.  The  cultivator  should  follow  irrigation  as  soon  as  the 
soil  will  admit  of  it.  Frequency  of  irrigation  of  nursery  depends,  of 
course,  upon  local  conditions.  Some  give  two  or  three  irrigations, 
by  running  the  water  in  a  little  trench  alongside  the  rows,  at  inter- 
vals of  two  weeks,  for  a  time  after  planting,  and  then  irrigate  once  a 
month  during  the  summer.  It  is  important  that  irrigation  should  not 
be  continued  too  late  into  the  fall,  because  the  young  tree  should 
harden  its  wood  before  cold  weather.  Nor  is  it  desirable  that  the 
growth  be  too  rapid.  A  good  growth  of  sound  wood  is  better  than 
extra  size. 

Length  of  Time  in  Nursery. — Seedlings  are  usually  budded  after 
being  out  one  or  two  years  in  the  nursery,  or  at  two  or  three  years 
from  the  planting  of  the  seed.  At  a  convenient  time  in  the  winter 
the  lower  shoots  and  thorns  are  removed  from  the  seedlings,  so  as  to 
leave  a  clean  stem  of  about  six  inches  for  the  convenience  of  the 
budder. 

Intensive  Work  in  the  Citrus  Nursery. — In  addition  to  the  fore- 
going general  reflections  the  reader  may  be  interested  in  a  specific 
sketch  of  pushing  a  citrus  nursery  as  described  by  Mr.  R.  E. 
Hodges : 

Mr.  Allen  Dodson,  of  Los  Angeles  County,  put  17  hay-rack  loads  of  the 
rottenest  manure  he  could  find  on  a  sandy  space  290x60  feet.  This  had  to 
be  worked  and  reworked  to  leave  no  lumps  of  manure.  The  sand  is  neces- 
sary to  prevent  baking.  Then  he  planted  8y2  bushels  of  seed,  watered 
carefully  about  every  other  day  and  kept  the  weeds  down  for  rix  weeks 
before  they  came  up.  They  grew  about  a  foot  before  cold  weather  came. 
Around  the  seedling  bed  were  set  upright  2x4s  twenty  feet  apart  and  6  feet 
out  of  the  ground  for  head-room.  From  post  to  post  were  1x3  boards  on 
which  laths  were  nailed  upright  about  l*/2  inches  apart.  Above  these  laths 
is  a  two-foot  open  space  and  then  a  roof  similar  to  the  sides  but  made  in 
^0-foot  squares  so  it  may  be  easily  removed.  This  open  space  (to  get  head- 
room) should  also  be  lathed,  on  the  south  and  west  at  least,  because  the 
low  winter  sun  shines  directly  onto  the  seedlings  and  may  turn  them  yellow. 
jne  shadows  under  the  lath  are  perpetually  moving  with  the  sun  so  that 
iirect  light  never  stays  long  at  a  time  on  a  given  tree.  The  movable  roof 

m?jfo1ctneasy  t0  set  up  the  outflt  9n  new  ground.  One  year  Mr.  Dodson 
Id  185,000  seedlings  from  a  certain  plot  and  tried  it  again  the  next  year 
on  the  same  place,  getting  only  4,000  salable  ones.  He  had  used  only  a 
third  as  much  manure  the  second  year,  thinking  to  have  some  advantage 
from  that  applied  before 


THE   ORANGE   NURSERY  371 

BUDDING  THE  ORANGE 

The  orange  root  is  the  best  foundation  for  an  orange  tree,  and 
seedlings  of  the  Florida  sour  orange  are  now  being  used  almost  to 
the  exclusion  of  other  stock,  for  its  great  hardiness  and  thrift  and  to 
escape  gum  disease — being  less  subject  to  that  trouble.  Oranges 
have  also  been  worked  upon  pomelo  seedlings,  which  force  a  strong 
growth,  root  deeply  and  are  satisfactory.  Of  course,  many  lemon 
and  recently  many  pomelo  trees  have  been  worked  over  to  the 
orange,  but  in  these  cases  the  orange  root  was  below  the  other  wood. 
All  lemon  roots  are  not  suitable  for  the  orange.  The  Japanese  prac- 
tice of  dwarfing  with  the  citrus  trifoliata  has  never  prevailed  in  this 
State.  Recently  the  trifoliata  stock  has  been  used  to  some  extent  to 
secure  earlier  ripening  of  fruit,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  tree  is 
sufficiently  free  growing,  also  that  the  effect  of  free-growing  top 
increases  the  development  of  the  root,  but  experience  favors  the 
other  roots  for  standard  trees. 

Budding  is  almost  exclusively  employed.  The  best  time  to  bud 
is  about  the  time  the  new  growth  starts  on  the  seedling  in  the 
spring,  though  some  practice  budding  in  midsummer  and  fall.  Good, 
well-matured  buds  only  should  be  used ;  those  from  both  base  and 
tip  of  the  shoots  are  frequently  defective.  Buds  should  be  taken 
only  from  fruiting  branches ;  not  from  sterile  sucker  growth,  and 
from  trees  which  are  known  to  bear  abundantly  a  good  type  of 
fruit.*  For  spring  budding,  buds  can  be  taken  from  fruiting  trees 
and  kept  dormant  in  moist  sand  in  a  cool  place  until  the  seedlings 
show  a  sap-flow  suitable  for  budding. 

The  method  of  budding  described  in  Chapter  IX  is  that  usually 
employed  in  budding  citrus  trees,  and  the  rules  for  loosening  the 
ligature,  etc.,  are  similar.  Midsummer  buds  are  apt  to  have  soft 
growth  at  the  coming  of  cold  weather;  fall  buds  remain  dormant 
until  spring;  spring  buds  start  to  grow  almost  immediately,  and 
have  the  benefit  of  the  whole  summer  season  for  growth  and 
maturing  of  wood. 

Budding  Nursery  Seedlings. — A  detailed  description  of  the  way 
budding  of  nursery  seedlings  is  rapidly  done  by  Mr.  H.  A.  Randall 
of  Whittier,  who  has  budded  1600  seedlings  in  a  9-hour  day,  is 
graphically  given  by  Mr.  R.  E.  Hodges,  as  follows : 

When  the  bark  slips  nicely  on  the  stocks,  and  when  the  weather  is  likely 
to  be  clear  and  warm,  is  the  time  to  bud  citrus  seedlings.  The  buds  "take" 
finely  when  sap  is  flowing  vigorously  on  warm  days  in  February  and  March. 

Fat  buds  on  plump  sticks  are  selected.  Long  narrow  buds  make  it  hard 
to  close  the  bark  evenly  over  them,  as  is  very  necessary.  Leaf  stems  are 
left  %  inch  long  when  cutting  bud  sticks,  for  convenience  in  handling  the 
buds. 

The  transverse  cut  on  the  young  stock  is  made  with  the  edge  ot  the 
blade  sloping  upward,  and  the  vertical  cut  made  upward  from  that,  so  there 
would  be  every  chance  to  shed  rain.  Buds  are  inserted  six  to  eight  inches 

*The  importance  of  selecting  buds  from  prolific  trees  of  the  best  types  and  of  taking 
buds  from  fruiting  wood  has  been  fully  demonstrated  by  A.  D.  Shamel.  Details  of  his 
work  are  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Washington,  D. 
C.,  in  a  series  of  publications  of  which  definite  citation  can  be  had  by  application  to  the 
Bureau.  Buds  from  selected  trees  are  furnished  by  the  Supply  Department  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Fruit  Growers'  Exchange  of  Los  Angeles,  and  are  chiefly  used  by  propagators. 


372  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

above  ground  to  help  avoid  gum  disease,  especially  with  lemons,  for  the 
stocks  are  resistant. 

Having  cut  the  bud  and  inserted  it  immediately,  the  knife  point  is  stuck 
crosswise  into  the  bark  below  the  bud  so  it  can  be  quickly  shoved  upward 
to  place. 

A  strip  of  waxed  cloth  a  foot  long  and  three-eighths  inch  wide  is 
wrapped  around  each  bud,  covering  it,  unless  it  is  so  prominent  that  the 
cloth  might  injure  it.  The  covering  prevents  undesired  shoots  before  the 
union  is  firmly  made.  Two  turns  of  the  cloth  are  made*  below  the  bud, 
letting  the  end  of  the  strip  project  between  the  two.  The  third  turn  is 
made  above  or  over  the  bud,  and  after  another  turn  or  two,  the  job  is  fin- 
ished by  twisting  the  ends  together.  Thus  the  cloth  also  sheds  water  from 
the  bud. 

After  the  bud  has  started  out  well  the  cloth  wrap  is  removed  and 
the  top  of  the  stock  cut  off  at  a  short  distance  above  the  bud- 
Suckers  on  the  old  stock  should  be  continually  looked  for  and 
removed.  The  tender  shoot  of  the  bud  may  be  protected  by  tying 
to  the  stub,  and  when  the  growth  of  the  bud  has  become  strong 
enough  to  support  itself,  the  old  stock  is  smoothly  sawn  away  above 
the  bud  and  the  wound  covered  with  liquid  drafting  wax  or  paint. 

The  care  of  budded  trees  in  nursery  is  similar  to  that  of  the  seed- 
lings of  the  previous  year.  If  too  great  a  tendency  to  branch  low 
down  is  observed,  the  tips  of  the  lower  shoots  should  be  pinched, 
but  it  is  not  desirable  to  under-prune  much;  the  retention  of  the 
lower  branches  thickens  the  stem.  Sometimes  a  very  rank  growth 
on  the  bud  will  need  a  stake  to  strengthen  it  or  to  protect  it  from 
blowing  out.  The  intrusion  of  gophers  and  other  vermin  should  be 
resolutely  and  persistently  guarded  against. 

Working  Over  Old  Trees. — Old  orange  trees  can  be  transformed 
into  improved  varieties  either  by  budding  or  grafting,  as  described 
at  the  close  of  Chapter  IX,  though  re-working  by  grafting  has  been 
almost  entirely  superseded  by  budding.  The  common  way  to  bud 
over  an  old  tree  is  to  cut  back  part  of  the  branches  and  force  out 
new  shoots,  the  best  of  which  are  selected  for  budding  and  the 
others  removed.  Sometimes  only  a  part  of  the  tree  is  removed  at 
first,  and  when  the  new  buds  have  grown  out  on  that,  the  other  part 
is  similarly  treated.  Others  remove  the  whole  top  except  a  single 
low  branch  to  maintain  sap  circulation  until  after  the  new  buds 
start. 

Budding  into  old  bark  has  been  widely  adopted  as  the  quickest 
way  to  secure  a  new  tree.  As  with  working  into  old  bark  in  other 
trees,  it  is  necessary  to  take  an  older  bud  and  a  larger,  thicker  shield 
of  bark  behind  it,  than  when  budding  into  younger  stock.  Some 
remove  the  wood  from  the  back  of  the  shield,  but  generally  it  is  not 
done.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  practice  approved  by  the  Red- 
lands  Horticultural  Club : 

Keep  the  buds  carefully  in  a  damp  cloth.  Slide  the  bud  upward,  above 
the  cross  section.  Bind  around  the  bark,  steering  clear  of  the  bud  proper, 
?.  wrapping  of  waxed  cloth,  already  prepared,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide. 
When  enough  of  this  has  been  wrapped  about  the  tree  trunk  or  branch  to 

Ce^i       r    Lk  and  bud  in  place'  rub  the  end  of  the  muslin  strip  with  the 

i      ™e  budding  knife,  down  upon  the  muslin  already  wound  about 

This  will  hold  the  waxed  wrapping  firmly  in  place      From  ten 


PLANTING   ORANGE   GROVES  373 

days  to  two  weeks  after  the  buds  have  been  inserted,  cut  off  the  entire  top 
of  the  tree,  above  the  buds,  and  cover  the  stump  of  trunk  or  large  branch 
with  grafting  wax — applied  hot — with  a  brush. 

As  soon  as  the  wax  is  put  on — and  it  must  be  put  on  as  soon  as  the  top 
is  sawed  off — whitewash  the  tree,  over  the  waxed  cloth,  also  over  the  bud, 
over  every  part  of  the  tree  that  is  left,  except  the  stump  ends,  to  which  the 
hot  wax  has  been  applied.  Immediately  the  buds  will  begin  to  grow. 
From  ten  days  to  two  weeks  after  whitewashing  take  off  the  muslin  wrap, 
and,  if  the  work  has  been  done  carefully  in  accordance  with  the  above  di- 
rections, 90  per  cent  of  the  buds  will  develop — perhaps  more.  A  prime  ne- 
cessity for  this  work  is  a  razor-sharp  budding  knife. 

There  is  a  variation  in  practice  in  cutting  back  the  stock  above 
the  bud.  Instead  of  cutting  back  at  once,  heroically,  as  just 
described,  some  girdle  the  branch  or  cut  back  part  of  the  top  at  a 
distance  above  the  bud,  cutting  down  to  the  bud  after  it  shows  good 
strong  growth,  tying  the  young  growth  to  the  stub  at  first  to  protect 
it.  Others  insert  the  bud  in  the  fall,  cutting  back  to  start  the  bud 
after  the  fruit  on  the  old  top  is  gathered.  It  is  very  important  to 
watch  for  suckers  below  the  bud  and  remove,  to  pinch  them  back,  to 
make  a  bunch  of  leaves.  The  growth  from  the  bud  itself  often  needs 
pinching  to  induce  low  branching.  Twig-budding  can  also  be  used 
on  the  orange  by  the  method  already  described  for  the  olive. 

Budding  in  old  trees  is  best  done  in  February  and  March,  when 
the  sap  flow  is  strong,  but,  as  stated,  can  be  done  in  the  fall  and  the 
bud  allowed  to  lie  dormant  until  spring. 


PLANTING  ORANGES  IN  ORCHARD 

As  already  stated,  orange  trees  are  planted  out  at  a  greater  age 
than  deciduous  fruit  trees.  Budded  trees  are  given  one  or  two 
years'  growth  in  nursery  and  one  or  two  years'  growth  on  the  bud, 
which,  added  to  the  year  in  seed  bed,  makes  them  three  to  four 
years  of  age  from  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  Seedlings,  to  be  planted 
out  as  such,  are  allowed  two  years'  growth  in  the  nursery,  which 
makes  them  three  years  old  from  the  seed.  For  this  length  of  time 
and  the  unusual  care  involved  in  their  growth,  taking  up  from 
nursery  and  the  preparation  for  carriage,  orange  trees  of  planting 
age  are  of  much  greater  cost  than  deciduous  fruit  trees. 

Since  the  growing  of  seedlings  for  their  fruit  has  practically 
ceased,  the  distance  between  the  trees  in  orchard  planting  has 
ranged  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet.  All  the  varieties  now 
propagated  are  quick  to  bear  fruit,  and  if  properly  shaped  will  find 
ample  space  in  these  distances — the  greater  distance  on  the  richer 
soil  as  a  rule. 

Preparation  of  land  for  orange  planting  by  deep  and  thorough 
cultivation  and  laying  off  to  secure  straight  rows  by  the  square, 
quincunx,  and  hexagonal  methods  have  been  quite  fully  discussed 
in  Chapter  X,  and  Chapter  XI  has  suggestions  for  planting,  many 
of  which  are  applicable  to  the  setting  of  orange  trees.  There  are, 
however,  special  methods  employed  in  lifting  the  orange  trees  from 
nursery  rows  and  in  placing  them  in  permanent  position,  which  will 
be  outlined. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

The  orange,  in  common  with  other  evergreen  trees,  is  exceed- 
ingly sensitive  to  exposure  of  its  roots,  and  for  this  reason  the  hand- 
ling of  the  young  trees  is  very  different  from  that  of  ordinary 
orchard  trees.  Three  ways  are  employed  for  securing  this  constant 
moisture  of  the  roots,  as  follows  : 

Packing  in  Wet  Straw. — As  fast  as  the  trees  are  lifted  from  the 
nursery  ground  by  digging  carefully  so  as  to  loosen'  and  secure  all 
the  roots  possible,  they  are  packed  in  damp  and  partially  rotten 
straw,  proper  receptacles  being  at  hand  so  that  the  roots  are  not 
exposed  by  carrying  them  any  distance.  In  taking  up,  all  roots 
bruised  by  the  spade  are  cleanly  cut  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  tap- 
root is  cut  away  at  a  depth  of  a  foot  or  so  from  the  surface.  This 
use  of  wet  straw,  if  faithfully  carried  out,  will  answer  well  in  taking 
trees'  short  distances  for  planting,  but  the  use  of  a  puddle  on  the 
roots  before  packing  in  damp  straw  gives  additional  assurance  of 
success.  Large  shipments  of  trees  have  been  made  by  packing  roots 
in  damp  moss  in  specially  made  chests  holding  100  to  125  trees. 
These  chests  have  top  and  one  side  on  hinges  so  that  the  roots  can 
be  thoroughly  bedded  in  the  moss  as  filling  proceeds.  The  hinged 
side  and  top  are  then  brought  together  and  closed  with  hasp  and 
staple. 

Puddling  the  Roots. — This  method  is  also  used  for  deciduous 
fruit  trees,  as  mentioned  in  Chapter  XL  It  consists  in  having  a  thin 
puddling  of  loamy  soil  with  preponderance  of  sand  rather  than  of 
clay,  into  which  the  roots  are  dipped  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  lifted 
from  the  nursery.  This  mixture,  which  should  be  about  as  thick  as 
cream,  may  be  made  in  a  hole  in  the  ground,  or,  better  still,  in  a  box 
or  cask  large  enough  to  allow  complete  plunging  of  the  roots.  As 
soon  as  dipped,  and  with  all  the  mud  which  will  adhere,  the  roots  are 
packed  in  wet  straw.  If  the  trees  are  to  remain  thus  packed  for  any 
length  of  time  the  greatest  care  must  be  observed  to  keep  the  straw 
damp,  and  water  must  be  applied  gently  to  avoid  washing  the 
puddle  from  the  roots. 

Sacking  the  Roots  with  a  Ball  of  Earth. — This  is  a  very  satis- 
factory way  to  move  orange  trees,  and  if  it  is  well  done,  the  tree 
does  not  wilt,  and  may  be  moved  long  distances  and  handled  more 
freely  than  the  puddled  roots.  To  ball  and  sack  trees,  dig  a  trench 
along  one  side  of  the  row  about  six  inches  away  from  the  tree,  and 
about  a  foot  and  a  half  deep.  By  careful  digging  under  each  tree 
from  this  trench  the  tap-root  is  reached,  and  severed  by  a  cut  with 
a  sharp  spade.  The  side  roots  are  also  cut  by  thrusting  the  spade 
down  on  the  three  sides  not  opened  by  the  trench.  The  top  earth 
is  carefully  removed  nearly  down  to  the  highest  lateral  roots,  and 
after  being  sure  that  the  roots  are  severed  all  around,  the  tree  is 
lifted  out  with  the  ball  of  earth  which  encloses  the  remaining  roots. 
This  ball  is  rounded  off  carefully  and  then  placed  on  a  half  of  a 
grain  sack  or  other  piece  of  burlap,  the  corners  of  which  are  drawn 
up  and  tied  around  the  stem  of  the  tree  with  baling  rope.  It  is  also 
an  additional  surety  of  safety  to  allow  the  baling  rope  to  run  under 
and  around  the  ball  to  aid  in  holding  it  together.  The  balled  trees 


PLANTING  ORANGE  TREES  375 

must  be  carefully  handled  so  as  not  to  break  the  ball,  which  would 
result  in  tearing  to  pieces,  as  well  as  exposing,  the  roots. 

The  manner  of  handling  the  trees  depends  somewhat  upon  the 
character  of  the  nursery  soil.  Successful  balling,  of  course,  requires 
a  certain  amount  of  adhesiveness  in  the  soil. 

One  can  not  be  too  careful  in  the  handling  of  orange  trees. 
Though  they  will  stand  harsh  treatment  when  in  permanent  place, 
they  must  be  most  carefully  transplanted.  Lifting  from  the  nursery 
when  the  soil  is  too  dry,  exposure  of  the  roots,  or  careless  planting, 
will  consign  the  tree  to  a  slow,  sickly  growth,  and  often  kill  it 
outright. 

Cutting  Back  at  Transplanting. — The  rule  of  reducing  the  top 
to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  roots,  is  vital  in  moving  orange  trees, 
but  sometimes  cutting  back  is  carried  too  far  and  subsequent  growth 
is  checked  rather  than  promoted.  Some  growers  cut  back  the  young 
trees  a  little  while  before  lifting  them  from  the  nursery.  Some  take 
off  all  leaves  after  planting  out,  and  claim  that  growth  starts  sooner 
and  more  strongly,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  defoliation  is  advis- 
able, except  in  case  of  wilting,  when  it  is  necessary. 

Digging  Holes  and  Setting  Trees. — The  same  considerations 
which  require  extra  care  in  lifting  trees  for  nursery,  rule  in  putting 
them  in  permanent  place.  All  authorities  on  the  subject  specify 
exceptional  care  in  preparing  the  tree  holes  as  a  profitable  invest- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  planter.  Large  and  deep  holes  are  com- 
mended, provided  the  planting  is  done  in  a  deep,  free  soil.  Deep 
holes  would  be  more  injurious  than  beneficial  in  a  tight  sub-soil, 
unless  drainage  were  furnished,  but  there  are  good  orange  trees 
now  bearing  in  such  places — good  enough  at  least  to  be  an  ornament 
and  acceptable  fruit  producers  for  family  use. 

On  large-scale  planting  in  deeply  prepared  soils,  holes  large 
enough  to  allow  good  spreading  of  the  roots  are  sufficient.  Hand- 
ling the  soil  at  planting  has  been  fully  described  in  Chapter  XI,  and 
the  importance  of  bringing  the  soil  into  firm  contact  with  the  roots 
has  been  urged.  The  use  of  water  in  planting  citrus  fruit  trees  is 
especially  desirable.  Transplanting  should  be  done  just  as  the 
growth  is  starting  in  the  late  spring  or  early  summer,  and  this 
is!  the  opening  of  the  dry  season  and  rains  can  not  be  expected. 
Therefore,  when  the  roots  are  arranged  and  the  top  soil  lightly 
trampled  around  them,  water  is  run  in  the  hole  and  the  earth  com- 
pacted around  the  roots  by  water  settling.  After  the  water  has 
settled  away,  the  hole  is  filled  and  the  surface  left  loose  to  prevent 
evaporation. 

These  instructions  apply  to  the  planting  out  of  trees  which  are 
taken  up  with  long  roots  and  puddled.  In  planting  out  balled  trees, 
the  sack  is  not  removed,  but  after  the  tree  is  embedded  in  the  earth, 
the  tying  rope  is  cut.  The  sack  soon  decays  in  the  soil. 

Orange  trees  can  be  successfully  transplanted  at  different  times 
of  the  year,  but  the  best  time,  as  just  stated,  is  after  the  ground  gets 
well  warmed  by  the  spring  sunshine.  The  date  at  which  this  con- 
dition arrives  depends  upon  locality.  Experience  seems  to  indicate 


--,  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

that  the  young  orange  tree  is  in  best  condition  to  transplant  just  as 
the  new  growth  is  starting  out,  and  preferably  when  it  has  not 
grown  out  more  than  two  inches.  In  setting  the  tree,  it  should 
stand  not  lower  than  in  the  nursery.  Root  injury  is  sometimes  due 
to  deep  planting. 

Forcing  the  growth  of  trees  with  fertilizers  should  not  be  neces- 
sary in  good  soil  but  it  has  been  done  successfully.  I,n  planting  the 
Arlington  Heights  orchards  at  Riverside,  this  method  was  followed : 

About  a  pound  of  dried  blood  was  mixed  with  the  earth  when  the  tree 
was  placed  and  the  hole  filled;  then  a  deep  furrow  was  plowed  each  side 
the  row  and  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  water  would  flow. 
For  a  short  space  near  each  tree  these  furrows  were  filled  with  manure 
and  two  pounds  more  of  blood,  then  the  furrow  was  back  plowed  to  cover 
the  manure.  Thus  for  two  years  the  young  trees  had  food  ready  for  the 
roots  to  lay  hold  on,  and  they  made  a  record  of  bearing  an  average  of 
three  boxes  of  lemons  per  tree  at  three  years  from  planting. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  that  transplanted  orange  trees  do  not 
become  dry  after  planting.  The  methods  of  irrigation  are  described 
in  Chapter  XV.  Good  cultivation  should  also  attend  the  orange 
from  its  first  planting  onward.  This  subject  is  fully  discussed  in 
Chapter  XIII. 

PRUNING  THE  ORANGE 

All  the  considerations  urged  in  Chapter  XII  in  favor  of  low- 
headed  and  strongly  branched  trees  apply  to  the  orange,  though 
the  habit  of  the  tree  in  growth  and  bearing  requires  different  prun- 
ing policies.  The  orange  tree  is  more  disposed  naturally  to  assume 
a  good  form  than  most  other  trees,  and  for  this  reason  most  exper- 
ienced growers  declare  their  belief  in  pruning  as  little  as  possible. 
This  is  unquestionably  good  policy  providing  attention  enough  is 
given  to  securing  a  shapely  and  convenient  tree,  and  to  overcome 
the  tendency  in  the  young  tree  to  run  out  very  long  shoots  which 
result  later  in  unsymmetrical  shoulders  with  hollows  beneath  them 
and  obviate  a  weeping  habit,  which  interferes  with  irrigation  and 
prevents  the  development  of  good  bearing  space  above.  It  is  so  easy 
to  bring  the  orange  tree  into  good  form  by  a  little  hard  thinking 
about  what  shape  is  desirable  and  a  little  timely  cutting  and  pinch- 
ing to  secure  it. 

It  has  long  been  held  that  the  orange  tree  should  assume  a  com- 
pact wall  of  foliage,  the  interior  of  the  tree  being  considered  merely 
the  framework  to  support  this  and  pump  sap  into  it.  Recently  the 
importance  of  removing  dead  wood  from  the  center  of  the  tree  is 
being  urged,  even  though  the  cost  is  considerable,  and  a  rational 
thinning  of  branches  to  admit  light  and  air  in  sufficient  amount  to 
secure  good  fruit  near  the  center  of  the  tree  is  also  being  advocated 
and  practiced  to  some  extent.  All  these  progressive  tendencies 
carry  the  orange  nearer  to  the  application  of  the  principles  of  prun- 
ing which  are  discussed  in  detail  in  Chapter  XII,  including  the 
rational  recourse  to  more  severe  pruning  or  cutting  back  to  induce  a 
growth  of  new  and  stronger  wood  for  subsequent  bearing.  In  other 
cases  cutting  back  of  varieties  inclined  to  make  a  rank  wood  growth, 


PRUNING  ORANGE  TREES  377 

like  the  Valencia  Late  to  encourage  a  better  supply  of  fruiting  wood, 
is  being  advocated.  It  seems  clear  that  there  are  important  ends  to 
be  gained  by  more  pruning  of  the  orange  tree,  and  by  earnest  think- 
ing and  close  observation  along  this  line. 

It  has  been  held  that  it  was  necessary  to  prune  the  young  tree 
to  quite  a  high  head  at  first  to  allow  for  the  natural  droop  of  the 
branches  and  the  result  is  seen  in  many  young  trees  with  slim  stems 
and  umbrella-like  tops.  It  is  better  to  develop  a  stout  stem  by 
allowing  for  a  time  a  low  growth  upon  it  and  then  raise  it  later  by 
removal  of  the  lower  growth  which  has  done  good  service  and  out- 
lived its  usefulness.  By  wise  under-pruning  it  is  possible  not  only 
to  secure  a  shapely  and  convenient  tree  but  also  -to  train  the  lower 
growth  so  that  it  shall  present  good,  low  bearing  wood  without 
groveling  in  the  dust. 

Unquestionably  the  drooping  habit  of  budded  orange  trees  is 
largely  due  to  their  treatment.  A  grower  who  does  not  believe  in 
pruning  allows  the  branches  to  extend  too  far  horizontally,  and  the 
weight  of  the  foliage  and  the  early  fruiting  bring  the  branches  to 
the  ground.  To  relieve  the  lower  branches  of  the  young  tree  of  a 
part  of  this  weight  will  enable  them  to  assume  a  better  direction, 
and  this  slight  relief  at  first  will  prevent  much  branch-sawing  in 
later  years.  The  young  tree  as  it  comes  from  the  nursery  usually 
starts  upon  an  upright  course.  If  stopped  at  about  three  feet  it 
can  be  led  to  develop  strong  and  well-arranged  branches,  with 
proper  spacing  between  them  to  prevent  too  many  main  branches, 
much  as  has  been  described  for  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  Chapter 
XII.  The  adjacent  engraving,  Fig.  1,  shows  a  young  tree  in  plant- 
ing condition,  stopped  at  three  feet  and  needing  only  a  slight  cutting 
back  of  the  laterals  to  be  ready  to  begin  its  orchard  life.  If  young 
trees  are  transplanted  short  distances  and  at  the  right  time  they 
do  not  need  so  much  cutting  back  as  is  commonly  given  them.  If 
allowed  to  grow  from  the  start  shown  in  Fig.  1,  pruning  only  to 
prevent  long  branches  from  running  out  at  random,  and  removing 
branches  which  may  start  strongly  from  near  the  base,  the  tree  will 
assume  the  branch-form  shown  in  Fig.  2  and  at  from  two  to  three 
years  after  planting  in  the  orchard.  At  about  this  age  the  removal 
of  lower  branches  begins,  as  they  have  served  their  purpose  in 
shading  the  trunk  and  bearing  the  first  fruit.  These  branches  are 
removed  one  by  one  until,  when  the  tree  is  five  years  in  the  orchard, 
it  has  lost  all  branches  below  the  two-foot  line.  The  higher  branches 
assume  the  more  horizonal  habit,  too  great  out-shooting  is  re- 
pressed, and  at  about  five  years  orchard-age  the  tree  attains  a  height 
of  about  twelve  feet  and  is  of  the  general  form  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
The  next  few  months  will  bring  its  foliage  to  the  ground  to  remain 
there  or  to  be  under-trimmed,  as  the  notion  of  the  grower  may  be. 

BUILDING   DOWN    AND    NOT    SAGGING    DOWN 

It  is  perfectly  feasible  and  rational  to  secure  a  good  form  of  low 
tree  without  removal  of  large  branches  and  without  relying  upon 
the  sag  of  the  branches  from  a  high  head.  It  requires  rather  more 


378 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Fig.  1.  Orange  tree  at  planting    Fig.  2.  Branch  form  of  orange  before 
in  orchard.    Three  feet  high.  removing  lower  branches. 


Fig.  3.  Good  form  of  five-year-old 
orange  tree. 


Good  form  secured  by  training. 


DEVELOPING    FORM    IN    ORANGE    TREES  379 

watchfulness  and  attention  and  study  of  the  subject  than  some 
growers  desire  to  give,  but  the  results  when  attained  are  very  satis- 
factory. The  method  is  that  of  J.  H.  Reed,  of  Riverside,  and  has 
been  followed  by  him  for  a  number  of  years  with  his  own  orchard 
and  others  of  which  he  has  had  charge.  It  will  be  found  readily 
intelligible  with  the  help  of  the  sketches.  Mr.  Reed  would  begin 
with  a  young  nursery  tree  like  that  already  shown  in  Fig.  1.  He 
does  not  believe  in  much  cutting  back  before  planting  providing  a 
fair  amount  of  roots  are  left  in  the  ball  at  transplanting.  If  the 
tree  has  been  properly  planted  and  cared  for,  it  will  soon  begin  to 
put  out  new  growth,  usually  first  along  the  stem,  the  strongest 
growth  being  lowest  down.  As  many  of  these  young  branches 
along  the  stem  as  are  not  desired  for  permanent  branches,  are  rubbed 
off,  the  earlier  the  better,  at  least  before  woody  fiber  is  deposited 
in  them.  Mr.  Reed  rubs  off  promptly  all  below  a  point  about  two 
feet  from  the  ground,  if  there  is  a  prospect  of  getting  sufficient 
good  branches  above  that  point.  If  not  he  saves  them  down  to 
eight  or  even  twelve  inches  lower  if  need  be. 

Mr.  Reed's  idea  is  to  build  the  head  along  a  considerable  length 
of  the  trunk  and  not  have  the  branches  bunched  at  the  top,  and  this 
is  the  same  idea  that  is  urged  in  the  development  of  the  trunk  of 
the  deciduous  fruit  tree  in  Chapter  XII.  He  finds  it  impossible  to 
do  this  in  the  nursery  because  if  it  is  attempted  to  form  a  head  18 
orV  24  inches  along  the  upper  portion  of  the  stem  instead  of  one 
bunched  near  the  top  of  it,  the  lower  branches  will  appropriate 
most  of  the  sap  and  the  upper  portion  will  not  be  well  developed ; 
while  if  this  upper  story  is  well  established  in  the  nursery  the  lower 
portion  can  be  built  on  without  detriment  to  the  upper,  if  nutriment 
sufficient  for  both  is  furnished.  Fig.  4  will  show  approximately 


Fig.  4.  Branch  form  of  orange  six  months 
after  planting. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

the  branch-form  of  the  young  tree  at  about  six  months  from  plant- 
ing and  the  shoots  with  which  the  building-down  is  begun.  The 
first  step  is  to  check  the  drooping  habit.  Upon  this  point  Mr.  Reed 
says: 

The  common  notion  that  the  branch  of  the  Navel  orange  naturally  tends 
down  is  a  mistake  which  grows  out  of  the  fact  that  in  its  rapid  growth  the 
new  part  of  the  stems  and  large  leaves  are  so  loaded  with  sap  that  they 

gull  the  stems  from  their  natural  upright  position,  and,  'unless  relieved, 
old  them  there  till  the  deposit  of  woody  fiber  fixes  the  branches  in  the 
drooping  or  unnatural  position.  If  the  tips  of  these  rapidly  growing  branches, 
with  their  heavy  leaves,  be  clipped  at  the  right  time,  the  branches  will  spring 
back  to  the  erect  position,  where  they  will  remain  to  send  out  new  branches. 
It  is  wonderful  how  the  orange  tree  can  be  molded  like  a  thing  of  wax 
by  pinching  and  clipping  here  and  there,  if  done  at  the  right  time. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  result  of  this  clipping  of  heavy  shoots  to  allow 
them  to  assume  a  more  upright  growth  and  the  encouragement  of 
new  shoots  below  the  two-foot  mark.  Fig.  6  gives  the  branch  form 
of  a  five-year-old  tree,  with  its  lower  story  of  bearing  wood  well 
developed,  and  Fig.  7  is  the  foliage-form  of  the  same  tree,  about 
fifteen  feet  high,  with  its  leaves  and  fruit  reaching  to  the  ground. 
As  to  how  low  the  branches  should  be  allowed,  Mr.  Reed  says  that 
until  recently  he  has  thought  it  best  to  keep  the  lower  branches 
clipped  back  so  that  the  fruit  would  not  touch  the  ground,  but  he 
is  persuaded  that  it  is  better  to  let  them  come  to  the  ground  even 
if  considerable  fruit  rests  on  it.  He  finds  that  many  of  the  best 
orchardists  do  this,  and  claim  that  there  are  really  less  culls  among 
the  fruit  on  the  ground  than  on  the  less-protected  branches  above. 

Later  Pruning  of  the  Orange. — After  the  form  of  the  orange  is 
well  established  the  aim  should  be  to  preserve  a  compact,  sym- 
metrical and  convenient  form.  It  is  desirable  that  weak  wood 
should  be  removed;  dead  interior  branches,  which  have  given  up 
the  struggle  for  the  light,  should  also  be  removed.  It  is  an  ap- 
palling undertaking  to  get  into  the  inside  of  an  old  orange  tree  and 
saw  off  and  drag  out  the  dead  wood,  but,  as  already  stated,  the 
conviction  is  growing  that  this  should  be  done.  Of  the  growing 
shoots  there  is  a  reasonable  amount  of  thinning  to  be  done.  The 
clipping  back  of  ambitious  shoots  multiplies  laterals.  There  should 
be  a  good1,  cover  of  leaves,  but  the  crowding  of  leaves  on  leaves 
excludes  light  and  air  and  weakens  the  tree  by  lessening  the  vigor 
of  leaf  action.  Dead  twigs  which  appear  among  good  bearing  shoots 
should  always  be  removed. 

The  gourmand  shoots  or  suckers  should  usually  be  repressed, 
unless,  by  clipping,  one  can  be  turned  into  a  branch  where  a  branch 
is  needed.    The  importance  of  removing  sucker  growths  when  in- 
capable of  thus  being  rendered  useful  is  being  recognized  as  a  fixed 
policy  in  pruning,  although  there  are  dissenters  who  contend  for 
e  desirability  of  using  suckers  more  freely  for  the  sake  of  renew- 
ing the  bearing   wood    of    the    tree    continually  by  training  new 
anches  from  suckers.    On  the  other  hand,  the  anti-suckers  claim 
it  good  trees  have  been  diverted  from  bearing  fruit  of  good  type  to 
that  which  is  in  all  respects  inferior,  by  allowing  supremacy  to 


BRANCH  FORMS  OF  ORANGE  TREES 


381 


Fig.  5.  Tendency  of  clipped  branches  to  rise. 


Fig.  6.  Branch  form  of  five-year-old      Fig.  7.  Foliage  form  of  five-year-old 
tree  built  down,  tree. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

sucker-growths.  Probably  there  is  truth  on  both  sides  of  the  con- 
troversy Growth  of  new  fruit  wood  from  old  is  desirable,  and 
suckers  from  stem  or  main  branches,  showing  the  marks  of  wild 
erowth  should  be  repressed— but  perhaps  it  is  more  rational  to 
study  how  to  use  the  outbreaks  of  the  tree  toward  freedom  than  to 
make  a  rule  for  their  thoughtless  extirpation. 

4     • 

PRUNING  FOR  CONTINUOUS  RENEWAL 

As  to  the  pruning  of  bearing  orange  trees  there  are  among 
California  growers  irreconcilable  views  and  conflicting  practices 
which  defy  reduction  to  suggestions  of  universal  application.  It 
seems  as  clearly  impossible  to  prescribe  rules  for  pruning  the  orange 
as  for  other  fruit  trees.  Evidently  the  grower  must  observe  closely 
and  think  hard  about  what  he  sees.  A  very  rational  outline  of  the 
subject  was  recently  prepared  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Neff  of  Anaheim  as 
follows : 

Pruning  is  as  necessary  to  success  in  growing  oranges  as  with  other 
fruits,  and  if  altogether  neglected  the  crop  will  be  disappointing  though 
other  care  has  been  given.  Oranges  which  bring  the  highest  prices  do  not 
grow  on  trees  which  have  small  leaves  and  slender  twigs,  neither  do  young 
and  abnormally  vigorous  trees  have  smooth  fruit,  hence  we  must  have  the 
medium,  and  this  can  be  brought  about  by  judicious  pruning.  If  we  take 
a  tree  having  small  leaves  and  small  twigs  we  find  it  will  bloom  profusely 
but  that  too  many  of  the  blossoms  will  fall  and  that  the  remaining  small 
fruits  will  drop  badly  until  but  a  light  crop  is  left  and  these  are  of  small 
sizes.  By  pruning  out  sufficient  of  the  old  growth  the  new  wood  will  be 
larger  and  the  leaves  will  grow  larger,  which  in  turn  will  produce  larger 
and  better  fruit.  Small  leaves  and  fine  fruit  are  not  found  on  the  same 
branch. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  detailed  instructions  as  to  the  amount  taken  out  as 
each  tree  requires  treatment  in  some  manner  different  from  its  neighbor, 
but  observation  of  the  trees  in  the  orchard  will  soon  teach  the  grower  to 
take  out  the  proper  amount  to  produce  the  desired  sizes. 

The  pruning  of  Valencia  orange  trees  is  often  neglected  because  there 
are  always  oranges  on  the  trees  and  the  grower  dislikes  to  take  any  off 
without  selling  them,  so  the  pruning  is  limited  to  the  dead  branches  while 
the  pruning  should  be  such  as  to  keep  the  branches  from  dying.  Pruning 
of  Navel  orange  trees  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  gathered,  while 
Valencia  orange  trees  should  be  pruned  in  May  or  early  in  June  when  the 
fruit  which  is  cut  off  in  pruning  can  be  sold. 

The  openings  made  by  pruning  should  not  be  so  large  that  sucker 
growth  will  form  in  such  spaces.  This  growth  will  need  much  watching 
and  pinching  of  tips  to  prevent  unduly  long  branches  which  do  not  pro- 
duce fruit.  If  large  branches  must  come  out  use  a  sharp  fine-toothed  saw. 
'Cut  close  to  the  body  or  main  branch  so  the  wound  will  heal  quickly,  and 
cover  with  mineral  paint. 

The  most  profitable  form  of  an  orange  tree  is  that  of  a  deeply  corru- 
gated column,  though  not  always  attainable.  This  allows  light  to  reach  the 
interior  of  the  tree  and  furnishes  the  largest  possible  fruiting  surface  on 
the  outer  part  of  the  tree.  When  the  corrugated  form  can  not  be  produced 
to  the  full  height  of  the  tree,  smaller  openings  can  be  made  by  cutting  out 
branches  which  start  two  or  three  feet  back  from  the  outside  of  the  tree. 

Mr.  Neff's  plan  of  maintaining  vigor  in  bearing  trees  by 
systematic  pruning  thus  consists  in  treatment  of  the  exterior  of 
the  tree  so  that  it  shall  not  show  a  smooth  wall  of  foliage  but  corru- 
gations more  or  less  vertical — these  upright  valleys  or  cuts  illumi- 


CALIFORNIA   ORANGE  VARIETIES  383 

nating  their  own  sides  and  carrying  light  toward  the  center  of  the 
tree  also.  Thus  one  can  get  a  much  greater  surface  of  adequately 
lighted  bearing  wood.  Prof.  C.  S.  Paine  of  Redlands  aims  to  secure 
the  same  result  by  operating  upon  the  interior  of  the  tree  in  this 
way : 

By  cutting  out  from  the  top  of  the  tree  several  larger  branches  at  their 
junction  with  the  trunk  of  other  branches,  there  is  left  an  open  space  in 
the  tree  top  which  may  be  likened  to  an  inverted  cone  or  a  deep  basin.  In 
old  trees  the  topmost  limbs  lose  vital  force  sooner  than  limbs  issuing 
nearer  the  ground;  thus,  the  loss  to  the  tree  of  such  limbs  is  of  less  mo- 
ment than  elsewhere.  After  opening  the  top  growth  renewal  took  place 
on  the  exposed  parts  of  the  trunks  and  limbs  around  the  basin  and  new 
growth  issues  not  alone  from  the  new  bark,  but  also  from  the  under  sides 
of  the  twigs  and  branches  of  the  limbs  below,  which  become  fruit  bearers. 

Both  these  methods  of  opening  from  the  sides  and  from  the  top 
are  more  rational  and  less  heroic  than  cutting  back  the  tree  to 
stubs  and  renewing  the  whole  top.  In  fact  it  is  believed  that  such 
loss  can  be  avoided  by  systematic  pruning  which  will  induce  the 
tree  to  keep  continually  renewing  itself  while  fruit-bearing. 


PRUNING  FROZEN  TREES 

The  widespread  freezing  of  citrus  trees  which  occurred  in  Jan- 
uary, 1913,  demonstrated  that  the  orange  tree  is  hardier  against  a 
drop  of  the  mercury  to  12  or  15  degrees  Fahr.  than  any  Calif ornian 
supposed.  Very  few  trees  were  seriously  frozen,  though  very  many 
lost  good  fruiting  wood,  even  with  the  temperature  lower  than  has 
been  experienced  for  sixty  years,  and  the  crop  gathered  in  1914 
demonstrated  the  quick  recovery  of  the  trees.  Policies  in  the 
pruning  of  frozen  trees  and  in  treatment  of  rare  injuries  like  bark- 
splitting,  were  carefully  studied  through  field  studies  and  actual 
tests,  by  the  citrus  experts  of  the  California  Experiment  Station, 
and  it  was  shown  that  pruning  should  not  be  undertaken  for  several 
months  or  until  the  tree  demonstrated  useless  parts  to  be  removed. 


DISEASES   OF   THE   ORANGE 

Citrus  fruit  trees  are  subject  to  many  insect  pests  and  diseases, 
and  though  we  may  not  have  the  worst  the  world  knows  we  have 
enough  to  keep  many  experts  continually  busy  investigating  and 
prescribing  for  them.  The  California  Experiment  Station  at 
Berkeley  has  made  many  publications  on  these  subjects  and  is 
always  ready  to  identify  suspected  specimens  and  to  give  detailed 
information.  The  subject  is  too  wide  and  varied  to  be  discussed 
in  this  connection. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  ORANGE 

Though  many  varieties  of  the  orange  have  been  introduced  in 
California,  but  few  are  largely  grown.  During  the  last  twenty 
years  there  has  been  a  pervading  disposition  to  concentrate  upon 


-OA  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

•JCVT 

the  Washington  Navel,  and,  except  to  get  other  varieties  either 
earlier  or  later  to  extend  the  season,  there  seems  little  reason  to  go 
beyond  the  Navel  for  commercial  purposes.  The  Valencia,  which 
stands  next  to  the  Navel  but  afar  below  it,  is  grown  because  its 
late  ripening  makes  it  profitable  after  the  Navel  crop  is  marketed. 
Not  only  have  recent  plantings  been  largely  of  this  variety,  but  old 
trees  of  other  kinds  have  been  budded  over  to  it. 

As  already  claimed  in  the  opening  pages  of  this  chapter,  the 
Washington  Navel  is  the  greatest  commercial  orange  in  the  world. 
As  it  goes  from  California  into  the  world's  commerce  it  is  a  com- 
bined product  of  grower's  skill  and  climatic  conditions  operating 
upon  its  own  natural  qualities  and  characters.  Neither  of  these 
factors  alone  could  achieve  its  present  position.  The  navel  mark 
is  neither  peculiar  to  it  nor  determinative  of  it,  for  there  are  other 
navels  which  are  inferior  here  and  our  navel  is  inferior  elsewhere ; 
and  even  in  Bahia,  whence  it  came,  it  has  no  such  quality  and 
standing,  because  in  coming  to  California  it  passed  from  humid, 
tropical  to  arid,  semi-tropical  environment,  as  already  suggested. 

Although  California  has  apparently  no  need  for  changes  of  type 
in  oranges  and  has  worked  diligently  and  long  for  the  attainment 
of  the  types  which  are  at  present  supreme  in  her  industry,  there  is 
still  opportunity  for  improvement  within  the  types.  Such  improve- 
ment is  probably  to  be  attained  not  by  hybridizing,  but  by  selection. 
The  Washington  Navel,  like  other  members  of  the  citrus  family,  is 
keenly  disposed  to  variation,  and  some  of  its  variations  have  been 
named  and  propagated  as  the  lists  below  will  show,  but  variations 
appear  as  degradations  as  well  as  improvements.  The  pursuit  of 
such  and  other  improvements,  and  their  opposites  also,  is  now  being 
systematically  taken  up  at  the  Citrus  Experiment  Station  at  River- 
side, which  is  a  branch  of  the  University  of  California  Experiment 
Station  at  Berkeley,  and  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  by  Mr.  A.  D.  Shamel,  as 
already  indicated  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  budding  the 
orange. 

The  shipping  season  of  each  of  the  orange  varieties  grown  in 
California  is  as  follows:  Washington  Navels,  in  November  and 
December  from  Northern  and  Central  California  and  from  Decem- 
ber to  June  in  Southern  California ;  Valencias,  from  June  to  Octo- 
ber inclusive;  Seedlings,  from  March  to  July  inclusive;  Mediter- 
ranean Sweets,  from  March  to  July  inclusive. 

DESCRIPTIONS  OF  VARIETIES 

Washington   Navel    (Bahia,    Riverside    Navel).— Fruit    large,    solid,    and 
eavy;  skin  smooth  and  of  a  very  fine  texture;  very  juicy;  highly  flavored, 
h  melting  pulp;  is  practically  seedless,  only  in  exceptional  cases  are  seed 
id;  tree  is  a  good  and  prolific  bearer,  medium  thorny,  a  rapid  grower, 
though  it  does  not  attain  a  very  large  size;  bears  when  very  young,  corn- 
ring  to  bear  as  early  as  one  year  old  from  the  bud;  ripens  early      This 
variety  was  imported  from  Bahia,  Brazil,  in  1870,  by  Mr.  W.  Sanders,  of  the 
irtment  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  and  in   1874  two  trees  were  re- 
from  Washington  by  Mrs.  Tibbetts,  of  Riverside,   Cal.     Trees  were 


XII. — View  in  bearing  orange  orchard. — (See  page  359.) 


*  i 


• . — 

Plate  XIII.-The  Mammoth  Blackberry  .-(See  page  410.) 


CALIFORNIA  ORANGE  VARIETIES  335 

also  received  about  the  same  time  by  Alexander  Craw,  but  the  Riverside 
trees  were  first  in  fruit,  and  the  excellence  of  the  variety  being  at  once 
recognized,  it  was  propagated  rapidly  and  took  the  name  Riverside  Navel 
from  the  place  where  its  characteristics  were  first  made  known.  As  it  came 
to  be  largely  grown  in  other  districts  as  well,  a  broader  name,  Washington 
Navel,  recognizing  its  receipt  from  the  national  capital,  was  adopted. 

There  is  much  tendency  to  variation  in  the  Washington  Navel,  and  sub- 
varieties  are  to  be  found  involving  departures  in  the  direction  of  thinness 
and  silkiness  of  rind,  etc.,  as  well  as  interior  changes.  The  first  to  be- 
come prominent  of  these  is  Thomson's  Improved  Navel,  which  A.  C. 
Thomson,  of  Duarte,  Los  Angeles  County,  claimed  to  have  produced  by  a 
process  of  propagation,  but  which  is  believe'd  to  be  a  natural  variation.  It 
is  a  very  refined  fruit;  generally  held  to  be  too  fine  for  ordinary  handling, 
and  not  otherwise  superior  to  the  Washington  Navel. 

Golden  Buckeye  Navel.— Introudced  by  Mr.  R.  M.  Teague,  San  Dimas. 
Young  wood,  slender  but  strong;  tree  of  striking  appearance;  fruit  marked 
with  bands  of  deeper  color,  skin  very  smooth;  pulp  aromatic  with  sugges- 
tion of  pineapple  flavor. 

Golden  Nugget  Navel. — Also  by  R.  M.  Teague.  Young  wood  willowy  and 
slender,  tree  umbrageous;  fruit  smooth,  solid,  thin-skinned,  rather  oblong 
and  good  size,  rich  golden  color;  pulp  free  from  rag,  and  delicious;  said  to 
average  larger  than  common  Washington. 

Navelencia.-— Another  navel  variation  held  to  be  a  cross  with  Valencia 
by  Thomson.  Resembling  Navel  but  more  drawn  out  at  the  stem  end. 
Large,  handsome  and  later  than  Navel. 

Australian  Navel. — A  coarser  type  of  the  Navel  introduced  from  Aus- 
tralia in  1874  by  Lewis  Wolfskill  of  Los  Angeles,  and  largely  propagated 
formerly.  It  has  now  been  practically  abandoned  for  the  Washington  Navel. 
It  seems  to  be  of  more  account  at  some  points  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley 
than  elsewhere.  Recently  held  to  be  undistinguishable  from  inferior  types 
produced  by  sucker  growths  on  Washington  Navel  trees. 

Jaffa. — A  variety  introduced  in  early  years  but  largely  discarded.  It  has 
recently  been  propagated  in  the  San  Joaquin  district,  where  it  has  shown 
desirable  characteristics.  Resembles  Valencia.  Late  but  is  earlier  in  ripen- 
ing— following  the  Navel. 

Valencia  Late"(Hart's  Tardiff). — Medium  size,  oblong,  pale  yellow,  flesh 
rich,  deep  yellow,  sprightly  and  crisp;  tree  a  strong  grower,  slightly  thorny. 
Ripens  late  and  valuable  for  late  shipping. 

Malta  Blood. — Fruit  small  to  medium,  oval;  flesh  fine  texture  and  flavor, 
streaked  and  mottled  with  red;  few  seeds.  The  tree  is  thornless  and  regu- 
lar and  heavy  bearer. 

Ruby. — Medium  size,  roundish;  when  ripe  often  reddened  by  deep  red 
pulp  within;  juicy  and  sprightly,  often  rather  acid;  tree  vigorous,  thornless 
and  a  good  bearer. 

Mediterranean  Sweet. — Fruit  medium  to  large,  pulp  and  skin  of  fine  tex- 
ture, very  solid  and  few  seeds;  ripens  late,  often  not  until  May  or  June. 
The  tree  is  thornless  and  of  dwarf  habit  of  growth,  and  is  inclined  to  over- 
bear. It  was  at  one  time  the  most  widely-distributed  variety  in  the  State, 
next  to  the  Washington  Navel,  but  has  recently  been  largely  budded  over. 
It  was  introduced  and  named  by  T.  A.  Garey,  of  Los  Angeles. 

Paper  Rind  St.  Michael. — Fruit  small,  round,  very  firm  and  very  juicy; 
pale,  thin  skin;  very  elegant  in  appearance.  It  ripens  late  and  keeps  well 
on  the  trees  as  late  as  August;  tree  is  of  dwarf  habit,  medium  thorny,  a 
good  bearer  and  very  desirable. 

Kumquat  (Citrus  Japonica). — Fruit  very  small,  oblong  or  olive  shaped, 
rind  thick,  yellow,  smooth;  sweet-scented;  very  little  pulp;  containing  many 
seeds;  tree  dwarf  (a  bush),  a  prolific  bearer.  Chiefly  used  for  conserves. 

Dancy's  Tangerine,  or  Kid  Glove. — Leaves  broad,  fruit  flat,  small  to  me- 
dium, reddish;  skin  separating  readily  from  the  pulp;  flesh  juicy  and  aro- 
matic. 


386 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:     HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Satsuma.  (Unshiu  Oonshiu.) — A  considerable  acreage  of  this  variety, 
planted  ten  years  ago  on  dwarfing  stock,  has  availed  very  little  commer- 
cially. At  present  there  is  disposition  to  grow  the  variety  on  sweet  orange 
stock  because  of  its  earliness,  but  this  practice  has  been  recently  con- 
demned by  Florida  experience,  where  it  is  held  it  must  be  grown  on  the  tri- 
fplicata  root.  Tree  quite  hardy,  fruit  irregular  in  size,  but  usually  medium 
size,  flattened;  rind  easily  detached;  fine  texture,  sweet  and  nearly  seedless. 

Mandarin,  Willow-Leaved. — Medium  sized,  flattened,  deep  yellow;  flesh 
dark  orange,  skin  loose;  tree  compact,  ornamental.  4 

King.— Of  the  Mandarin  class;  large,  rough-skinned,  skin  and  segments 
loose,  pulp  high  flavored,  sweet,  aromatic. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

THE  GRAPE  FRUIT  OR  POMELO  IN  CALIFORNIA 

This  citrus  fruit  achieved  a  very  sudden  interest  in  California 
because  of  the  prices  commanded  by  Florida  pomeloes  about  twenty- 
five  years  ago.  When  this  supply  of  Eastern  cities  was  cut  off  by 
the  serious  frost  injuries  in  Florida  in  1895  there  arose  a  passion 
for  planting  the  trees  in  California,  and  a  considerable  acreage  was 
planted,  and  as  the  tree  is  a  very  rapid  grower  and  precocious  in 
fruit-bearing,  large  shipments  were  made  in  1898,  but  the  results 
were  not  satisfactory,  and  since  that  time,  although  pomeloes  some- 
times sell  to  good  advantage,  the  demand  is  on  the  whole  light  and 
irregular.  The  local  consumption  of  pomeloes  in  California  is  in- 
creasing, but  does  not  warrant  much  acreage.  For  these  reasons 
early  plantings  were  largely  grafted  over  to  the  orange. 

Within  the  last  decade  Florida  regained  her  grape-fruit  leader- 
ship and  has  produced  such  quantities  that  recourse  to  juice-making 
seems  necessary  to  realize  profit  on  the  surplus — even  though  the 
type  of  grape  fruit  produced  in  Florida  gives  her  the  preference 
in  the  fresh  fruit  markets  of  the  country  during  its  season.  Cali- 
fornia has  however  recently  demonstrated  a  possibility  of  selling 
to  advantage  before  and  after  the  Florida  season  and  this  has  re- 
awakened local  interest  in  production.  The  California  State  Board 
of  Equalization  reports  143,423  grape  fruit  trees  in  bearing  in  the 
spring  of  1920  and  149,802  trees  below  bearing  age — more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  latter  being  located  in  Imperial  County,  where  the  fruit 
matures  very  early  and  fruit  is  sweeter  than  is  commonly  found, 
the  bitter  less  pronounced,  the  rag  tender,  and  altogether  as  desir- 
able to  eat  without  sugar  as  the  average  orange.  Confidence  that 
such  fruit  ripening  very  early  may  steal  a  march  on  the  Florida 
product  is  the  secret  of  the  large  planting  which  has  been  indicated. 
On  the  other  hand  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  holding  the  fruit 
on  the  trees  in  the  later  citrus  districts  not  only  improves  its  quality 
but  brings  it  on  sale  after  the  Florida  crop  is  disposed  of  and  gives 
the  grower  an  advantage  similar  to  that  realized  by  growers  of  the 
Valencia  orange,  who  get  high  prices  after  the  Navels  are  out  of 
the  way. 

Justification  of  the  renewed  interest  in  the  grape  fruit  is  also 
found  in  the  fact  that  fruit  of  much  finer  points  than  the  common 
California  product  can  be  had  by  selection  of  better  varieties  which 
are  to  be  found  in  California  orchards  and  propagating  exclusively 
such  selections.  Mr.  A.  D.  Shamel,  whose  work  with  the  orange 
has  been  cited  in  the  preceding  chapter,  believes  that  he  has  found 
a  strain  of  Marsh's  Seedless  which  is  of  dependable  superiority, 
and  is  now  being  largely  propagated.  It  thus  appears  that  though 
the  grape  fruit  has  been  of  such  little  importance  that  it  has  been 
considered  almost  negligible,  it  has  problems  the  solution  of  which 
may  make  it  great. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:    HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 
ooo 

SHALL  IT  BE  "GRAPEFRUIT"  OR  "POMELO"? 

Grapefruit  is  the  accepted  American  commercial  name  for  the 
fruit  and  an  accepted  commercial  name  is  too  valuable  to  disre- 
gard The  last  report  of  the  manager  of  the  California  Fruit  Grow- 
ers' Exchange,  our  great  citrus  marketing  organization,  makes 
several  references  to  grapefruit  and  does  not  use  the  name  pomelo 
at  all.  Dr.  W.  T.  Swingle  points  out  in  the  Standard  Encyclopedia 
of  Horticulture  that  "pomelo"  and  "pummelo"  are  contractions  of 
the  Dutch  "pompelmoes"  and  cover  nearly  all  fruits  of  citrus 
grandis,  and  he  advices  that  we  use  it  in  this  generic  sense  and 
apply  it  to  all  the  species  of  the  genus  except  the  grapefruit  group, 
which  he  holds  to  be  distinct  enough  from  the  others  to  merit  a 
separate  name.  It  is  therefore  likely  that  we  shall  henceforth  use 
the  term  grapefruit  in  California  because  pomelo  means  too  much 
in  a  botanical  sense  and  too  little  in  a  commercial  way. 

CULTURE  AND  PRUNING  OF  THE  GRAPEFRUIT 

The  grapefruit  is  so  like  the  orange  that  its  propagation,  plant- 
ing, shaping  the  trees,  and  general  culture  thereof  are  almost  iden- 
tical with  the  same  acts  for  the  orange,  as  detailed  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  The  treatment  of  bearing  trees  to  insure  continuous  thrift 
and  the  restoration  of  them  after  neglect  and  over-bearing  are 
practically  the  same.  The  following  specific  suggestions  for  prun- 
ing the  mature  grapefruit  tree,  which  are  drawn  from  the  practice 
of  Mr.  Herman  Brussow  of  Whittier,  as  applied  to  grapefruit  trees 
of  Mr.  Louis  Farnsworth  in  the  Imperial  Valley,  are  also  pertinent 
to  the  treatment  of  the  old  orange  tree : 

Grapefruit  trees  like  Valencia  oranges  tend  to  bear  heavily  in  alternate 
years.  Prune  while  the  trees  are  dormant  in  the  winter  before  an  off  year. 
Go  over  a  tree  systematically  three  times.  Where  limbs  are  low,  creep 
under  on  your  knees,  and  saw  out  enough  to  give  the  remainder  good 
clearance  from  the  ground,  and  take  out  everything  low  in  the  crotches. 
Inside  fruit  wood  to  be  left  above  will  hang  down  in  this  space  later.  It 
is  necessary  to  leave  enough  clearance  for  circulation  of  air  under  the 
tree  and  to  cultivate  closely  so  the  ground  will  not  sour. 

The  second  time  over  the  tree  is  pruned  with  long-handled  clippers, 
also  inside,  and  clearing  out  the  low  brush  so  you  can  stand  up.  Don't 
take  out  limbs  that  would  leave  holes  in  the  side  of  the  tree.  Where  it  is 
a  question  which  of  two  crowding  limbs  comes  out,  take  the  lower.  Prune 
out  all  dead  and  crossing  wood.  Do  not  leave  any  twigs  which  would  hang 
on  the  ground  with  fruit  on.  Leafless  twigs  of  fruit  wood  will  have  leaves 
and  flowers  shortly  after  irrigation,  within  a  month,  along  in  February  here 
in  Imperial.  Don't  cut  them  out,  thinking  they  are  dead. 

Standing  up  for  the  last  of  the  second  inside  pruning,  you  can  locate  the 
limbs  that  should  still  be  cut  much  better  than  from  the  outside,  though  the 
third  time  over  the  tree  will  be  from  the  outside. 

Where  much  is  being  taken  from  the  tree  anyhow,  leave  all  possible, 
to  be  pruned  two  years  hence,  to  avoid  too  much  shock  by  removal  of 
leaves.  Where  it  is  a  question  whether  to  leave  twigs  under  or  on  top  of  a 
limb,  leave  those  on  top,  to  grow  upward  so  they  may  replace  the  end 
brush  of  that  limb  when  it  shall  be  taken  off  in  the  future. 

It  is  better  to  cut  two  branches  of  a  limb  off  in  two  different  cuts  than 
in  one,  because  quite  often  in  making  the  first  cut  the  "picture  develops"  and 
shows  the  remaining  branch  to  be  needed  on  the  tree. 


GRAPEFRUIT  VARIETIES  339 

Suckers  should  never  be  sawed  or  clipped  out  when  they  are  soft 
enough  to  be  pulled  out.  Neither  should  they  be  pulled  out  by  pulling  in 
one  direction,  because  that  makes  an  ugly  break  in  the  bark.  While  pull- 
ing gently  the  sucker  should  be  worked  back  and  forth  so  as  to  crack  the 
bark  all  around  and  then  pulled  off.  If  a  sucker  is  cut  off  it  is  likely  that 
four  times  as  many  suckers  will  start. 

Varieties. — The  following  comprise  about  the  only  varieties 
grown  in  this  State: 

Standard  Marsh  Seedless. — The  trees  produce  large  and  regular  crops. 
The  fruits  have  a  slightly  flattened  shape.  Ripe  fruits  very  smooth,  satin- 
like,  ivory  white  color,  thin  rind,  from  nine  to  ten  seeds  each,  being  com- 
mercially seedless.  The  rag  is  tender,  having  a  slightly  bitter  taste,  which 
is  pleasant  and  agreeable.  The  fruits  have  an  abundance  of  juice  that  spurts 
from  the  fruit  when  they  are  cut.  The  juice  possesses  the  desired  and  typical 
grapefruit  quality,  a  highly  developed  pleasing  flavor  that  is  only  equaled 
amongst  California  citrus  fruits,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  by  the  fine 
flavor  of  the  Washington  Navel  orange.  This  type  is  worthy  of  a  separate 
varietal  name  in  that  it  has  been  successfully  isolated  in  California  by  bud 
selection  and  is  being  extensively  propagated  by  California  citrus  growers. 
—A.  D.  Shamel. 

This  type  is  commended  for  exclusive  propagation  by  the  Grape  Fruit 
Club  of  California.  Selections  of  Marsh  Seedless  are  also  being  made  by 
leading  propagators,  some  preferring  lemon  yellow  as  a  skin  color. 

Nectar.— A  Florida  seedling,  grown  at  Duarte,  flat-round,  heavy;  peel 
smooth  and  bright,  pale-lemon  color;  oil  cells  small  and  numerous;  flesh 
dense,  firm  texture,  abundant  juice,  vinous,  excellent,  bitter-sweet  element 
distinct;  few  seeds  and  little  rag;  sizes  from  42  to  80  to  the  box.  Grown 
by  A.  P.  Griffith  of  Azusa. 

Imperial. — Medium  to  large,  peel  very  smooth,  medium  thin  and  of  fine 
texture;  little  rag,  juice  abundant,  fine  aromatic  flavor,  good  keeper  and 
shipper.  Tree  upright  and  heavy  bearer. 

Triumph.- — Medium  size,  peel  smooth,  clear,  thin  and  fine  grained;  very 
juicy,  heavy  and  good  flavored;  juice  free  from  bitterness;  very  little  rag; 
an  early  and  prolific  bearer. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE   LEMON,   LIME  AND   CITRON 

Lemon  growing  is  a  very  unique  and  distinctive  branch  of  Cali- 
fornia horticulture,  which  in  the  present  advancement  of  culture 
and  preparation  for  the  market  well  illustrates  the  originality  and 
invention  which  the  California  fruit  grower  has  displayed  in  his 
undertakings.  Lemon  growing  in  California  is  old  because  it  rose 
at  the  old  missions  in  the  second  century  back  of  us,  but  successful 
lemon  growing  as  a  great  industry  is  new  and  constantly  assuming 
new  phases.  For  the  old  seedling  lemons  were  bad,  and  though 
enterprising  growers  soon  learned  that  fact  and  set  about  getting 
better  ones,  it  took  years  to  secure  them  and  to  learn  how  to  grow 
and  handle  them  so  that  the  Californian  could  compete  with  the 
Sicilian  fruit  in  the  markets  of  the  United  States.  Nor  was  time 
the  only  thing  sacrificed — hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  were 
lost  before  the  California  grower  could  put  upon  the  market  a  good 
lemon,  fit  to  stay  good  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time.  Unprofitable 
plantings ;  expensive  curing  houses,  which  did  not  cure  well ;  count- 
less experiments  which  yielded  only  loss  and  disappointment — all 
these  are  wrecks  upon  the  rock  of  American  lemon  growing.  And 
that  is  equivalent  to  saying  California  lemon  growing,  for  there 
are  no  lemons  commercially  produced  elsewhere  in  this  country. 

Naturally  Californians  sought  first  to  know  how  lemons  were 
grown  and  handled  abroad.  At  cost  of  great  effort  and  outlay  they 
learned  practically  nothing  that  they  could  do  and  a  great  deal  that 
it  was  not  necessary  to  do.  Then  they  assumed  a  more  rational 
mood — a  disposition  to  discern  what  principles  are  involved  in  the 
problem,  and  to  apply  them  in  their  own  way  according  to  con- 
ditions locally  prevailing.  Along  this  line  grand  success  has  been 
attained  by  a  few  masterful  men  conducting  large  lemon  enter- 
prises or  smaller  undertakings  of  their  own,  while  the  mass  of 
lemon  planters,  for  one  reason  or  another,  have  never  reaped  the 
reward  they  expected.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  lemon 
growing  is  a  much  harder  and  more  exacting  enterprise  than  orange 
growing,  and  for  this  reason  many  have  new-topped  their  trees  to 
oranges  and  thus  escaped  difficulties  which  they  could  not  over- 
come. 

With  the  aid  of  the  protective  tariff  the  most  resolute  and 
capable  have  attained  success,  and  the  California  lemon  became 
known  and  highly  esteemed  upon  its  merits  everywhere.  The  tariff 
has  somewhat  offset  cheap  labor  in  Italy  and  cheap  water  transpor- 
tation from  the  Mediterranean  region,  and  our  lemons  could  some- 
times compete  with  the  foreign  product  not  only  in  the  West  but 
even  in  the  cities  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  All  this  has  been  ac- 
complished within  two  decades  and  it  is  a  notable  result.  But  the 
California  contention  that  the  lemon  should  be  encouraged  with 


REQUIREMENTS   OF  THE  LEMON  391 

increased  protection  to  enable  producers  to  push  the  issue  of  an 
American  lemon  for  Americans  to  a  successful  termination,  was 
rejected  by  the  tariff  of  1913.  This  danger  to  American  production 
was  temporarily  averted  by  the  war,  but  must  now  be  guarded 
against  anew.  Whether  the  lemon  can  weather  the  storms  of  all 
kinds  which  buffet  it  remains  to  be  demonstrated. 

The  vicissitudes  in  California  lemon  production  can  hardly  be 
more  forcibly  set  forth  than  by  the  following  figures  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture : 

Boxes  Produced  Farm  Value 

1918  3,667,000  $  9,167,000 

1919  6,551,657  18,999,810 

1920  4,500,000  2,700,000 

Thus  the  fruit  passed  from  profit  to  loss  in  succeeding  years — 
the  latter  being  due  to  the  inrush  of  foreign  fruit  under  the  low 
tariff  of  1913  and  to  the  increase  of  overland  freight  rates  during 
1920 — both  of  which  were  to  the  advantage  of  importers. 

The  best  pack  of  California  lemons  has  a  uniformity  of  size,  a 
finish  of  skin,  a  juiciness  and  keen  acidity  which  are  unrivaled  in 
the  world.  Numerous  careful  tests  have  been  made  of  the  California 
lemon  in  Atlantic  cities  in  comparison  with  the  best  south  Euro- 
pean product,  and  the  superiority  of  the  American  fruit  has  thus 
been  demonstrated. 

SITUATIONS   AND    SOILS   FOR  THE   LEMON 

The  lemon  does  best  in  a  practically  frostless  situation.  Such 
places  are  found  in  largest  area  in  the  southern  half  of  the  coast 
regions  of  California,  but  also  exist  at  favoring  elevations  in  the 
interior.  The  moderating  influence  of  proximity  to  salt  water,  and 
the  effect  of  local  topography  and  environment,  which  give  frost- 
free  nooks  or  belts,  are  elements  favoring  the  lemon  grower.  In 
such  situations  the  lemon  blooms  and  fruits  continuously  through- 
out the  year. 

While  the  lemon  requires  a  less  extreme  of  low  temperature 
than  the  orange,  it  also  thrives  with  a  less  extreme  of  high  tempera- 
ture and  less  duration  of  it.  It  apparently  does  not  require  as  much 
heat  to  develop  acid,  which  is  the  charm  of  the  lemon,  as  it  does 
sugar,  which  is  essential  to  an  acceptable  orange ;  therefore  a  coast 
situation  which  may  not  yield  a  sweet  orange  may  produce  a  good 
lemon,  although  it  is  a  fact  that  in  the  southern  coast  region,  where 
the  largest  commercial  production  of  lemons  is  now  achieved,  the 
orange  also  does  well.  Another  advantage  of  the  lower  summer 
temperature  is  that  the  continuous  ripening  is  not  interfered  with, 
as  it  is  by  high  summer  heat,  which  hastens  maturity  and  brings 
the  mass  of  the  fruit  to  marketable  condition  in  the  winter — a  sea- 
son when  the  demand  for  the  lemon  is  very  small.  This  objection 
is,  however,  being  measurably  overcome  by  the  proper  storage  and 
treatment  of  the  fruit  for  sale,  at  a  considerable  interval  after  pick- 
ing, as  will  be  mentioned  presently.  But  both  the  curing  and  stor- 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

age  of  lemons  are  more  easily  secured  in  the  more  equable  tempera- 
ture and  moister  air  of  the  coast  region. 

The  lemon  delights  in  a  sandy  loam,  and  probably  our  best  or- 
chards are  on  such  soil,  but  the  trees  thrive  in  other  soils.  There  is 
a  difference  of  opinion  among  growers  as  to  what  soil  is  to  be 
especially  sought  for.  There  are  profitable  lemon  orchards  in 
Southern  California  located  upon  deep  clay  loams,  and  even  upon 
strong  red  clay  soils.  As  with  some  other  fruits,  the  choice  of  soil 
is,  to  a  certain  extent,  governed  by  the  stock  on  which  the  lemon 
is*  worked,  for  it  is  no  longer  grown  upon  a  lemon  root  as  it  was 
in  early  days  in  California. 

PROPAGATING  AND  PLANTING 

The  prevailing  stock  for  the  lemon  is  the  orange  seedling,  either 
the  sweet  or  sour  stock,  under  the  same  conditions  that  each  is  pre- 
ferred for  the  orange,  the  sour  stock  resisting  measurably  the  effects 
of  ill-drainage  of  heavy  land  or  flat,  low  places.  The  orange  root 
thrives  on  a  greater  variety  of  soils  than  the  lemon,  and  produces 
a  healthy  lemon  tree  where  the  lemon  on  its  own  root  would  fail. 
The  growth  of  orange  seedlings  for  budding  has  been  described  in 
Chapter  XXXII.  If  lemon  seedlings  should  be  desired  they  may 
be  grown  in  the  same  way.  Plants  either  for  permanent  growth 
or  for  stocks  for  budding  can  be  grown  from  cuttings,  as  explained 
in  Chapter  VIII.  The  budding  of  the  lemon  is  practically  the  same 
as  of  the  orange,  which  has  been  described.  An  old  tree  can  be 
changed  from  one  variety  to  another  by  the  methods  described  for 
the  orange,  and  oranges  can  be  worked  into  old  lemon  trees  and 
good  fruit  secured  if  the  lemon  tree  is  thrifty  and  growing  upon  an 
orange  root.  Such  working  of  old  lemon  trees  is  not  always  profit- 
able and  replanting  would  often  be  better. 

Planting  of  the  lemon  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  orange.  The 
distance  in  planting  varies  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet.  Irriga- 
tion of  lemon  and  orange  trees  is  also  similar. 

PRUNING  THE    LEMON 

The  pruning  of  the  lemon  is  essentially  different  from  that  of 
the  orange,  because  the  habit  of  the  tree  is  different.  The  lemon 
requires  constant  attention  to  bring  it  into  good  bearing  form  and 
keep  it  there;  the  orange,  after  it  is  well  shaped,  simply  needs 
attention  to  encourage  it  to  retain  the  bearing  form  to  which  it 
seems  naturally  disposed.  The  orange  largely  provides  itself  with 
satisfactory  bearing  wood ;  the  lemon  devotes  itself,  even  when  it 
is  old  enough  to  know  better,  to  a  rangy  rambling  wood  growth 
with  bearing  wood  upon  the  ends  of  willowy  rods  where  it  is  swept 
about  in  the  wind  and  burned  in  the  sun,  instead  of  nestling  it 
neatly  among  the  leaves  as  the  orange  does. 

The  rational  proceeding  with  the  lemon  is,  then,  to  develop  it 
at  first  into  a  low,  stocky  and  strong  form,  such  as  is  described  in 


PRUNING  THE  LEMON  393 

Chapter  XII  for  deciduous  trees.  This  may  be  secured  by  pinching 
so  as  not  to  allow  running  out  of  long  branches  at  first,  or  it  may 
be  secured  by  severe  cutting  back  of  the  long  growths  of  the  young 
tree.  In  either  case  low  branches  will  be  secured.  Make  good 
selections  from  these  branches  to  form  a  symmetrical  tree  and  cut 
back  the  growth  which  comes  upon  them  to  cause  it  to  branch  in 
its  turn.  In  this  way  plenty  of  good,  strong  wood  is  secured  low 
down,  and  with  short  distances  between  the  laterals.  Strong,  up- 
right shoots  (usually  called  "suckers")  which  break  out  at  points 
where  branches  are  not  desired,  should  be  rubbed  off  or  cleanly 
cut  away.  Haying  secured  about  the  right  branching  in  about  the 
right  places  no  strong  sprouts  should  be  allowed,  and  the  tree  should 
be  encouraged  to  make  smaller  laterals,  which  will  be  the  bearing 
wood.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  this  rational  plan  of 
restricting  wood  growth  and  directing  the  energies  of  the  tree  to 
fruit  has  in  some  cases  been  pursued  too  far  and  the  tree  has  re- 
sented repression  by  diminished  thrift.  The  pruner  must  allow 
freer  growth  of  shoot  to  secure  better  foliage.  The  pruning  of  the 
lemon  as  of  other  trees  must  always  be  pursued  with  judgment 
rather  than  by  recipe. 

When  the  adequate  growth  of  bearing  wood  within  reach  is 
borne  in  mind  it  appears  that  the  pruning  of  the  lemon  involves 
many  of  the  considerations  urged  in  Chapter  XII  for  deciduous 
fruits;  the  method  of  making  a  strong,  short  trunk,  the  arrange- 
ment of  branches,  the  prevention  of  long  growths,  the  encourage- 
ment of  low,  bearing  twigs,  the  thinning  of  twigs  to  prevent  the 
tree  from  becoming  too  dense,  the  points  to  be  observed  in  cutting 
back,  not  by  shearing  but  by  treating  each  branch  according  to 
its  position  and  vigor — all  these  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  lemon 
pruner.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  work  must  be  reso- 
lutely continued  and  the  tree  always  prevented  from  wild  growth 
and  kept  down  to  bearing  on  the  smaller  twigs,  which  are  promoted 
and  retained  for  that  purpose.  The  building-down  process  described 
for  the  young  orange  is  easily  applicable  to  the  lemon. 

Old  lemon  trees  which  have  been  allowed  to  grow  away  into  a 
long,  rangy  form  and  to  bear  fruit  too  high  for  profit,  can  be 
brought  down  to  good  form  by  severe  cutting  back  and  after- 
treatment  of  the  new  shoots,  keeping  the  smaller  horizontal  growths 
and  cutting  out  cleanly  the  strong  upright  shoots,  or  cutting  them 
back  if  more  branches  are  needed.  The  time  for  pruning  the  lemon 
depends  upon  the  end  in  view;  if  a  young  tree,  to  promote  wood 
growth,  prune  at  the  opening  of  the  growing  season  in  the  spring; 
in  older  trees,  to  repress  growth  and  advance  fruiting,  prune  in 
midsummer. 

A  very  suggestive  description  of  the  actual  operation,  for  all 
those  who  have  lemon  trees  too  high  for  economical  picking  and 
needing  renewal  of  thrift  for  abundant  bearing,  is  the  following: 

While  the  fruit  is  off  is  the  very  best  time  for  renewal  of  old  lemon 
trees  by  heavy  pruning  of  their  tops,  according  to  Mr.  C.  C.  Teague,  man- 
ager of  the  Limoneira  orchards  in  Ventura  County.  Heavy  top  cuts  made 
between  May  1  and  August  15  have  been  found  to  induce  a  vigorous  growth 


394  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

of  new  wood,  which  will  set  a  fine  crop  of  lemons  the  following  spring. 
Heavy  pruning  after  August  15  or  September  1  makes  the  new  growth 
come  so  late  in  the  season  that  it  is  short  and  stubby  and  does  not  make 
enough  fruit.  Lower  wood  of  good  foliage  and  color,  which  is  left,  will 
bloom  in  the  fall  for  the  crop  to  be  picked  the  following  spring. 

The  heavily  pruned  trees  lose  about  one-fourth  of  their  height  and  over 
half  of  their  brush.  Cuts  are  made  as  low  as  necessary  in  the  tops  to  get 
rid  of  most  of  the  big  brush  on  each  main  limb.  Always  a  horizontally 
growing  branch  is  left  just  below  the  cut.  Few  main  limbs  are  taken  out  at 
the  head  of  the  tree  on  account  of  the  danger  of  starting  decay  in  the  trunks. 
All  considerable  wounds  are  covered  with  a  mixture  of  asphaltum  and  creo- 
sote. This  is  applied  with  a  brush  fixed  at  an  angle  on  the  end  of  a  long 
stick;  for  many  of  the  cuts  are  10  to  12  feet  up.  The  tops  are  heavily 
thinned  out,  but  inside  and  low-growing  fruit  brush  is  partly  cut  back 
and  left  to  the  fullest  extent  possible.  It  has  been  found  that  after  the 
heavy  topping  even  the  leafless,  seemingly  dead,  twigs  in  the  skirts  of  the 
tree  will  put  out  leaves  and  fruit  when  light  is  let  in  through  the  opened 
centers.  Not  even  the  dead  twigs  in  the  skirts  are  taken  out,  because  un- 
observant pruners  would  take  much  live  wood  with  it. 

Too  much  of  the  skirt  growth  was  cut  from  the  first  trees  heavily 
pruned,  and  long  growth  was  left  on  the  corners  of  the  top.  Both  of  these 
practices  were  seen  to  be  serious  faults.  The  upper  corners  whipped  in 
the  wind,  bore  terminal  fruit,  and  by  the  extra  leverage  and  exposure 
split  off  more  limbs. 

On  trees  so  pruned  three  weeks  previously  an  abundant  shooting  of  new 
growth  was  already  seen  all  along  the  main  limbs,  even  down  to  the  head 
of  the  tree,  the  more  horizontal  limbs  having  the  most  numerous  shoots. 
These  will  bear  fruit  abundantly  close  to  the  strong  framework  of  the  tree 
for  years  to  come,  if  kept  properly  thinned  out.  Many  of  them  will  set  fruit 
next  spring.  Meanwhile  the  old  growth  left  in  the  skirts  will  set  fruit  more 
abundantly  this  fall  to  mature  next  spring. 

As  there  is  some  fruit  on  the  brush  cut  out,  pickers  follow  the  pruners 
and  save  the  fruit.  Following  closely  after  the  pruners  is  a  spray  rig  apply- 
ing whitewash  to  all  the  main  limbs  to  prevent  sunburn. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  harvesting  lemons  is  a  continuous 
operation  as  will  be  stated  presently,  keeping  the  bearing  wood  of 
the  tree  within  easy  reach  is  more  imperative  from  an  economic 
point  of  view  than  with  trees  from  which  fewer  pickings  gather 
the  crop. 

Pruning  is  also  related  to  preventing  infection  of  the  fruit  with 
lemon  rot  fungus  spores  from  the  ground.  Fruits  which  touch  the 
ground  or  upon  which  dirt  is  splashed  by  rains  is  first  infected. 
This  question  of  infection  is  discussed  in  Bulletin  190  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Experiment  Station. 

PREPARATION   OF   LEMONS    FOR    MARKETING 

The  lemon  as  taken  from  the  tree  is  not  in  condition  for  market- 
ing except  to  packers  who  wish  to  undertake  the  curing.   To  secure 
best  results  in  quality  and  in  keeping  properties,  the  lemon  should 
be  carefully  cut  from  the  tree  as  soon  as  proper  size  is  reached, 
o  allow  the  fruit  to  hang  upon  the  tree  until  lemon  color  is  as- 
imed,  gives  a  lemon  which  is  deficient  in  juice,  oversized,  apt  to 
levelop  bitterness,  and  prone  to  decay.     Two  and  five-sixteenths 
ings  are  used  for  winter  pickings  and  2y2  for  spring  and  summer, 
lever  more  than  six  weeks  being  allowed  to  elapse  between  pick- 
?s,  and  the  fruit  is  usually  picked  once  a  month.     By  careful  at- 


PICKING   AND   CURING   LEMONS  395 

tention  to  this,  desirable  sizes  and  good-keeping  stock  are  obtained. 
Neglect  of  this  is  the  weak  point  of  many  of  the  lemon  growers  of 
California.  Good  results  can  not  be  obtained,  even  by  the  best 
methods  of  keeping  lemons,  unless  the  fruit  is  picked  at  the  proper 
time  and  properly  handled. 

If  gathered  before  the  color  begins  to  turn,  properly  cured 
lemons  may  be  kept  for  months,  and  they  will  improve  in  market 
qualities,  by  a  thinning  and  toughening  of  the  skin,  and  by  increase 
of  juice  contents.  This  curing  of  the  fruit,  as  it  is  called,  is  accom- 
plished in  many  simple  ways.  If  the  fruit  is  gathered  and  placed 
in  piles  under  the  trees,  where,  with  low-headed  trees,  it  is  com- 
pletely shaded  by  the  foliage,  it  processes  well  and  comes  out 
beautiful  in  color  and  excellent  in  quality,  providing  it  is  a  good 
variety.  Some  have  trusted  wholly  to  this  open-air  curing  under 
the  trees,  merely  protecting  the  fruit  by  a  thin  covering  of  straw, 
or  other  light,  dry  materials.  Others  let  the  fruit  lie  a  few  days 
under  the  trees,  carefully  shaded  from  the  sun,  and  place  it  in  boxes 
or  upon  trays,  and  keep  it  months  in  a  darkened  fruit-house,  pro- 
viding ventilation  but  guarding  the  fruit  against  draughts  of  air. 
Gathering  the  fruit  while  still  green  and  packing  with  alternate 
layers  of  dry  sand,  has  given  excellent  marketable  fruit,  but  of 
course  the  handling  of  so  much  sand  is  too  expensive  nor  is  it  at 
all  necessary. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  lemon  storage  in  Southern 
California,  and  many  curing  and  storage  houses  have  been  con- 
structed. Naturally  there  is  great  variation  in  design  and  method 
of  operation.  The  largest  and  latest  design  of  lemon  curing  and 
storage  houses  is  that  of  the  Limoneira  Company  at  Santa  Paula,  in 
Ventura  County,  and  is  described  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Killingsworth  as 
follows : 

The  entire  plant  is  constructed  of  reinforced  concrete  and  hollow  tile, 
and  is  600  feet  long.  The  main  room  in  the  center  of  the  building,  where 
the  lemons  are  graded  and  packed,  is  166  by  200  feet,  and  is  designed  so  that 
and  other  floor  may  be  placed  between  the  present  floor  and  the  joists.  At 
each  end  of  the  main  room  there  is  a  storage  room  160  by  218  feet  each.  A 
reinforced  concrete  fire-wall  extends  above  the  roof  and  separates  the  main 
room  from  the  two  end  rooms.  A  concrete  basement  ten  feet  in  the  story 
extends  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  entire  building.  As  the  fruit  is  brought 
from  the  orchard  it  is  received  at  the  two  end  rooms,  where  the  washing 
machinery  is  located,  there  being  two  in  each  room;  one-half  of  each  room 
is  set  apart  for  the  washing  machines,  the  other  half  is  enclosed  and  used 
for  storage.  When  the  fruit  is  washed  it  is  either  placed  in  one  of  these 
rooms  or  in  the  basement,  being  conveyed  in  boxes  on  a  traveling  belt  and 
there  remains  until  cured,,and  ready  to  be  placed  on  the  market,  or  held  in 
storage  as  market  conditions  are  favorable  or  otherwise.  Two  electric 
driven  elevators  carry  the  fruit  to  the  main  floor  of  the  center  or  general 
work  room,  where  it  is  graded  and  placed  on  trays  two  feet  square,  from 
which  it  is  taken  when  being  packed. 

The  old  tent  system  of  curing  lemons,  which  originated  at  this  ranch,  has 
been  supplanted  by  a  ventilator  system.  When  necessary  the  air  is  drawn 
from  the  curing  rooms  by  an  electric  fan,  to  which  is  connected  a  24-inch 
pipe  reduced  to  ten  inches  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  underground 
pipes  extending  the  full  length  of  the  basement.  These  pipes  are  six  and 
eight  inches  in  diameter  with  two-inch  holes  on  the  top  side,  at  intervals 
of  six  feet,  and  it  is  through  these  holes  the  air  is  drawn  from  the  base- 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


ment  by  the  fan.    The  hour  and  length  of  time  the  fan  is  in  motion  depends 

.on  the  weather  and  condition  of  the  fruit.    The  fan  is  naturally  used  more 

often  when  the  basement  is  full  of  fruit;  however,  temperature  and  humidity 

are  the  ruling  factors.     Along  the  sides  of  the  basement  windows  are  ar- 

meed  with  covers  that  are  mechanically  operated  so  that  a  number  can 

be  opened  and  closed  at  one  time.     This  is  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  tree 

circulation  of  air  when  the  fan  is  in  motion. 

lie  storage  capacity  of  the  building  is  450  cars  of  lemons.  In  addition, 
ten  cars  of  box  material,  paper  and  nails,  automatic  box-making  machines 
and  equipment  of  various  kinds  may  also  be  stored.  The  four  machines 
have  a  maximum  capacity  of  washing  ten  to  twelve  cars  daily,  and  the 
packing  and  shipping  capacity  is  ten  -cars  daily. 

Mr.  Teague  of  the  Limoneira  Company  has  concluded  that 
proper  conditions  for  keeping  lemons  lie  just  between  the  points 
where  they  wilt  and  where  they  sweat,  inducing  neither  if  possible, 
for  too  much  moisture  induces'  decay  and  too  little  causes  shrivel- 
ing. The  fragment  of  the  stem  left  on  the  fruit  by  the  cutter  may 
be  used  as  a  test ;  if  it  adheres,  the  conditions  are  right  for  slow 
curing;  if  it  detaches  easily,  the  best  keeping  quality  is  not  being 
secured. 

This  position  indicates  a  belief  that  a  proper  degree  of  atmos- 
pheric humidity  is  requisite  in  lemon  curing  and  storage.  Mr.  A. 
D.  Shamel  also  places  stress  upon  the  factor  of  air-moisture  and 
has  designed  a  "humidifier"  by  which  this  can  be  assured  even  in 
interior  situations  where  it  is  likely  to  be  most  essential.  In  the 
recently  built  lemon  house  of  the  James  Mills  Orchard  Company 
at  Maxwell  on  the  west  side  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  a  humidifier 
is  used  consisting  of  a  series  of  blankets  suspended  from  a  water 
tank  so  that  the  moisture  reaches  down  the  entire  width  of  the 
blanket,  perhaps  three  or  four  feet.  The  blankets  hang  close  to  each 
other  and  parallel.  At  one  end  of  this  humidifier  a  large  electric 
fan  sends  a  blast  of  air  over  the  blankets,  taking  from  them  mois- 
ture and  reducing  the  temperature.  This  cooled,  and  to  a  degree 
moisture  laden,  air  is  then  forced  into  the  lemon  store  rooms. 

With  proper  curing  facilities  lemons  picked  in  November  and 
December  may  be  kept  until  the  following  July.  Later  pickings 
may  not  keep  so  well  and  may  be  marketed  first.  Of  the  finer 
points  in  lemon  handling,  however,  there  is  much  which  must  be 
learned  by  experience. 

Forced  curing  of  lemons,  by  which  green  fruit  may  be  colored 
in  about  two  weeks,  is  done  by  burning  oil  stoves  in  a  closed  room. 
The  change  is  effected  by  the  products  of  combustion  and  not  by 
the  heat  alone.  The  process  is  described  in  detail  in  Bulletin  No. 
232  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  February  13,  1912. 

VARIETIES  OF  LEMONS  FOR  CALIFORNIA 
During  the  earlier  years  of  California  lemon  growing  there  were 
continuous  efforts  put  forth  to  secure  better  lemon  varieties.  Dur- 
ing the  last  two  decades  three  varieties  have  been  accepted  as  satis- 
factory and  nearly  all  others  have  been  dropped.  The  three  are 
Eureka,  Lisbon,  and  Villa  Franca,  arranged  according  to  present 


THE   LIME   AND    CITRON  397 

degree  of  popularity  in  Southern  California,  where  nearly  the  whole 
commercial  product  is  now  made,  although  some  plantings  have 
been  undertaken  farther  north,  chiefly  in  the  citrus  belt  on  the  east 

side  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 
»/ 

Eureka. — A  native  of  California,  originated  by  C.  R.  Workman,  at  Los 
Angeles,  from  seed  imported  from  Hamburg  in  1872,  only  one  seed  growing 
from  which  buds  were  put  by  him  on  orange  stock.  Distributed  by  T.  A. 
Garey,  of  Los  Angeles.  Tree  very  free  from  thorns.  Fruit  medium  size, 
sweet  rind,  a  good  keeper,  few  seeds;  very  popular,  especially  in  coast  re- 
gions. Less  popular  in  the  interior  because  of  scant  foliage. 

Lisbon. — Imported  from  Portugal;  first  grown  by  D.  M.  Burnham,  of 
Riverside.  Fruit  uniformly  medium  size,  rather  oblong,  fine  grain,  thin 
sweet  rind,  strong  acid;  few  seeds;  a  good  keeper;  tree  is  a  strong  grower, 
with  compact  foliage,  prolific  bearer,  but  starts  bearing  late;  quite  thorny, 
but  thorns  decrease  in  size  as  the  tree  grows  older;  popular  at  interior 
points,  especialjy  in  the  Tulare  county  region. 

Villa  Franca. — Imported  from  Europe.  Medium  size,  oblong,  slightly 
pointed  at  the  blossom  end,  rind  thin,  without  bitterness,  acid  strong,  juicy, 
nearly  seedless.  Tree  thornless,  branches  spreading  and  somewhat  droop- 
ing, foliage  abundant;  withstands  lower  temperature  than  other  imported 
varieties. 

THE   LIME 

The  lime  (Citrus  medica  acida)  has  proved  much  less  hardy  than 
the  lemon.  It  has  been  killed  in  situations  where  the  orange  and 
lemon  have  not  been  injured.  Unless  adequate  protection  is  thought 
worth  the  effort,  there  is  little  use  in  planting  the  lime,  except  in  a 
frostless  situation.  Such  localities  are  found  near  the  ocean  in 
Southern  California,  and  here  and  there  at  proper  elevation  around 
the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  and  in  the  interior  both  north  and  south ; 
still  the  growth  of  the  lime  must  be  counted  very  hazardous.  There 
is  less  inducement  to  experiment  with  the  fruit  from  the  fact  that 
the  Pacific  Coast  markets  are  well  supplied  with  Mexican  limes, 
usually  at  prices  which  leave  no  opportunity  for  competitors. 

Limes  are  grown  from  seed,  the  variety  usually  coming  true") 
from  seed.  The  trees  are  small  and  are  frequently  grown  in  hedge 
form.  The  common  variety  is  the  Mexican.  The  Imperial,  a  large, 
rather  hardy  variety,  is  favorably  reported  by  several  growers. 
Bearss  Seedless  has  been  successfully  and  profitably  grown  by  Mr. 
R.  Gallegos  at  the  Mission  San  Jose  in  Alameda  County. 


THE   CITRON 

This  fruit  (Citrus  medica  cedra)  is  little  grown  in  California, 
although  it  is  quite  hardy  and  could  be  produced  over  a  large  area. 
The  only  use  for  the  fruit,  which  resembles  a  monstrous  lemon,  is 
in  its  candied  rind,  and  no  one  has  deemed  it  worth  while  to  push 
competition  with  the  imported  candied  citron,  though  very  fine  ex- 
perimental lots  have  been  produced,  and  the  interests  of  the  fruit- 
preserving  establishments  in  the  product  recurs  periodically.  There 
have  been  collections  of  citron  trees  imported  from  the  Mediterra- 
nean region  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 


398 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


planted  at  several  points  in  Southern  California.  As  yet  no  con- 
siderable product  has  been  reached.  Samples  of  the  candied  article 
have  been  approved  by  experts  as  very  satisfactory. 

An  outline  for  the  preparation  of  candied  citron  is  as  follows: 
The  fruit,  before  assuming  a  yellow  color,  and  also  when  bright 
yellow,  is  picked  and  placed  in  barrels  filled  with  brine,  and  left 
for  at  least  a  month.  The  brine  is  renewed  several  times,  and  the 
fruit  allowed  to  remain  in  it  until  required  for  use",  often  for  a 
period  of  four  or  five  months.  When  the  citrons  are  to  be  candied 
they  are  taken  from  the  barrels  and  boiled  in  fresh  water  to  soften 
them.  They  are  then  cut  into  halves,  the  seed  and  pulp  are  removed, 
and  the  fruit  is  again  immersed  in  cold  water,  soon  becoming  of  a 
greenish  color.  After  this  it  is  placed  in  large  earthen  jars,  covered 
with  hot  syrup,  and  allowed  to  stand  about  three  weeks.  During 
this  time  the  strength  of  the  syrup  is  gradually  increased.  The  fruit 
is  then  put  into  boilers  with  crystallized  sugar  dissolved  in  a  small 
quantity  of  water,  and  cooked;  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  boiled 
again  until  it  will  take  up  no  more  sugar.  It  is  then  dried  and 
packed  in  wooden  boxes. 

ORNAMENTAL   CITRUS   SPECIES 

There  are  grown  in  this  State  for  curiosity  or  ornament  various 
minor  citrus  species,  including  the  Bergamot  and  the  dwarf  orna- 
mental sorts  from  Asia.  There  are,  of  course,  the  ornamental 
species  grown  by  florists  for  their  fragrant  bloom. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

MINOR  SEMI-TROPICAL  FRUITS  IN  CALIFORNIA* 

A  number  of  interesting  fruits  are  now  grown  in  this  State 
which,  for  one  reason  or  another,  have  not  yet  attained  any  great 
commercial  importance,  although  some  of  them  are  rapidly  ad- 
vancing in  popular  esteem  and  likely  to  gain  much  higher  place 
in  the  markets.  Others  will  probably  never  be  grown  except  for 
home  use  and  garden  ornament. 


THE  BANANA 

The  banana  has  been  a  favorite  plant  for  experimental  culture 
for  many  years,  and  though  good  fruit  has  been  grown  at  various 
points  in  the  State,  the  culture  is  too  hazardous  to  warrant  large 
investment,  and  if  this  danger  was  not  present,  the  abundant  sup- 
plies available  from  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  would  probably  reduce 
the  profits  to  a  narrow  margin.  The  banana  can  be  trusted  only 
in  protected  situations  and  in  small  numbers  which  can  be  given 
special  attention.  With  these  conditions  the  banana  may  yield  very 
acceptable  fruit  for  home  use  and  be  an  ornament  to  the  garden. 
Its  beauty  is,  however,  seriously  impaired  by  winds,  which  whip 
its  tender  leaves  into  shreds  and  give  the  plant  an  unkempt  ap- 
pearance. 

The  largest  number  of  bananas  are  seen  in  Los  Angeles  and 
Santa  Barbara,  and  one  grower  at  an  elevation  near  the  latter  place 
reports  his  table  supplied  daily  throughout  the  year  with  the  fruit 
of  the  Cavendish  species,  which  is  the  most  commonly  grown  sort. 
The  Yellow  Martinique  or  Yellow  Costa  Rica,  the  Orinoco,  the 
Hawaiian  Lele,  Hart's  Choice,  and  a  large-fruited  variety  known 
in  Los  Angeles  County  as  the  Baldwin,  are  also  approved  by 
growers. 

THE    CHERIMOYER    OR   PERUVIAN    CUSTARD    APPLE 

The  oldest  cherimoyer  (Anona  cherimolia)  is  growing  in  Santa 
Barbara.  The  fruit  was  introduced  about  fifty  years  ago,  and  the 
parent  tree  has  for  many  years  produced  abundant  fruit  in  such 
perfection  that  the  seeds  have  readily  germinated,  and  the  trees 
thus  propagated  have  been  in  successful  bearing  in  several  Santa 
Barbara  gardens.  The  leaves  are  oval  and  pointed  at  both  ends; 
flowers  solitary,  very  fragrant,  and  having  a  greenish  color.  Good 
specimens  of  the  fruit  are  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  often 
heart-shaped,  grayish  brown  or  nearly  black  when  fully  ripe.  The 
flesh,  in  which  thirty  or  forty  brown  seeds  are  found,  is  soft,  sweet, 

*A11  the  fruits  mentioned  in  this  chapter  and  others  are  treated  exhaustively  in 
"Manual  of  Tropical  and  Subtropical  Fruits,"  by  Wilson  Popenoe,  Macmillan  Co..  N.  Y., 
1920. 


4QQ  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  being  most  palatable  when  near  decay. 
Mr.  I.  H.  Cammack,  of  Whittier,  describes  the  pulp  as  of  the  con- 
sistency of  ice  cream  or  a  custard  flavored  with  a  blending  of  pine- 
apples and  bananas.  If  it  has  a  fault  it  is  too  rich.  Apparently  it 
has  no  particular  season  for  ripening,  yet  the  best  specimens  seem 
to  be  found  in  Santa  Barbara  in  April  and  May.  The  cherimoyer 
is  also  found  in  gardens  in  San  Diego  and  Los  Angeles  counties. 
It  needs  a  well-protected  situation.  The  fruit  has  been  marketed 
on  a  limited  scale  in  Los  Angeles,  and  larger  plantations  have  been 
made  especially  in  the  Cahuenga  Valley,  near  Los  Angeles.  The 
plant  comes  true  from  seed,  and  the  tree  bears  in  its  fourth  year, 
and  should  have  as  much  room  as  an  orange  tree.  Mr.  C.  P.  Taft, 
of  Orange,  points  out  the  fact  that  much  can  be  gained  by  selec- 
tion and  propagation  from  the  most  satisfactory  trees,  as  follows : 

Cherimoyers  found  in  the  gardens  of  Southern  California  are  almost 
always  seedlings,  and  generally  shy  bearers.  There  is  but  one  named 
variety,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  Golden  Russet.  This  is  very  prolific  and 
frequently  attains  large  size.  Specimens  above  one  pound  in  weight  are 
not  uncommon.  The  quality  is  as  good  as  any,  but  is  variable  owing  to  the 
season  and  time  of  ripening,  much  cold  having  a  marked  deteriorating 
effect.  The  normal  shape  is  like  that  of  the  strawberry,  and  the  variations 
from  the  normal  are  equally  abundant;  in  fact,  in  this  respect  the  cherimolia 
is  quite  extraordinary,  as  the  same  tree  will  have  on  it  fully  matured  fruit 
from  less  than  an  inch  in  diameter  up  to  six  or  eight  inches.  In  size  the 
tree  averages  about  the  same  as  the  peach.  The  market  is  a  good  one,  large 
fruit  commanding  $3  per  dozen  or  more,  while  the  smaller  ones  sell  by  the 
pound  at  a  relatively  lower  price. 

THE  CHOCHO   OR   CHAYOTA 

The  chocho  plant  (Sechium  edule)  is  perhaps  better  known  as 
"choco,"  "chocho,"  "chayota,"  and  "Portuguese  squash."  It  be- 
longs to  the  order  cucurbitacae,  and  is  a  vine,  with  perennial  root, 
resembling  in  growth  and  fruit  our  summer  squash  or  vegetable 
marrow.  It  is  a  very  prolific  bearer.  Both  the  fruit  and  the  great 
yam-like  tuber  are  used  as  food  by  man  and  beast  in  the  West 
Indies,  where  it  is  considered  a  wholesome  article  of  diet.  The  roots 
often  weigh  as  much  as  twenty  pounds.  They  have  a  flavor  similar 
to  the  yam,  and  are  considered  a  greater  delicacy  than  the  fruit, 
which  in  a  raw  state  resembles  the  chestnut  in  flavor,  and  under 
favorable  conditions  weighs  over  three  pounds.  The  proper  way 
to  grow  them  is  to  plant  the  whole  fruit,  as  they  have  but  one  seed, 
and  they  produce  fruit  in  three  months,  under  favorable  conditions. 
The  vine  is  exceedingly  rapid  in  growth,  and  may  cover  a  thousand 
square  feet  in  one  summer,  and  yield  shade  until  frost  kills  the  top 
growth. 

THE   GUAVA       , 

Two  species  of  guava  have  been  quite  widely  tried  in  this 
State— the  strawberry  guava  (Psidium  cattleyanum  )and  the  lemon 
guava  (Psidium  guayava).  The  former  is  the  hardier,  and,  in  fact, 
seems  to  be  about  as  hardy  as  the  orange,  and  it  has  fruited  in 


GUAVA  AND   FEIJOA  401 

widely  separated  parts  of  the  State ;  the  latter  is  quite  tender,  and 
is  at  present  only  grown  in  favorable  places  along  our  southern 
coast,  and  even  there  it  is  found  inferior  in  quality  and  usefulness 
to  the  strawberry  guava. 

Mr.  C.  P.  Taft,  of  Orange,  has  confidence  in  the  lemon  guava 
through  the  selection  of  better  varieties.  It  is  far  larger  than  the 
strawberry,  and  of  quite  attractive  appearance.  Sometimes  the 
color  is  almost  white,  sometimes  quite  green,  and  frequently  of  a 
bright  yellow,  often  with  a  red  cheek.  These  variations  are  only 
what  is  naturally  to  be  expected  from  seedlings,  and  almost  no 
others  have  yet  been  planted.  Mr.  Taft  has  fruited  quite  a  number, 
perhaps  a  hundred,  and  finds  it  to  possess  qualities  which  if  prop- 
erly selected  and  developed  will  cause  it  to  equal  the  strawberry 
guava  in  hardiness  and  flavor  and  early  ripening. 

Mr.  D.  W.  Coolidge,  of  Pasadena,  gives  his  judgment  of  the 
standing  of  the  guava  in  California  as  follows : 

The  guava  is  a  plant  of  great  value  as  an  ornamental.  Its  glossy  green 
foliage  is  scarcely  less  attractive  than  its  large  snowy  white,  jasmine-scented 
flowers.  While  many  varieties  of  the  guava  are  found  growing  in  our  section, 
few  of  them  to  my  mind  have  any  real  value.  The  strawberry  guava  type 
is  the  hardiest  and  best,  and  Guava  lucidum  is  the  best  of  the  type.  This  is 
a  yellow  strawberry  guava  of  a  distinctive  flavor,  and  were  it  not  for  the 
large  seeds  possessed  by  all  guavas  would  be  considered  an  ideal  dessert 
fruit.  This  particular  variety,  too,  is  most  prodigious  in  its  bearing  quali- 
ties. I  have  known  a  plant  three  years  from  seed  to  produce  more  than 
a  quart  of  fruit,  and  we  have  had  in  our  nursery  plants  eighteen  months 
from  the  time  the  seed  was  placed  in  the  ground  with  a  number  of  fruits 
on  them.  The  fruits  will  average  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  always 
round,  and  are  of  a  bright  lemon  color.  The  ordinary  strawberry  or  red 
guava  is  worth  while  growing  for  jellies.  Another  desirable  strawberry 
guava  is  the  Guava  araca.  This  in  appearance  is  similar  to  lucidum,  but 
is  much  later.  While  lucidum  ripens  from  September  to  November  I  have 
never  known  araca  to  ripen  before  the  middle  or  last  of  December.  This  one 
is  the  more  susceptible  to  frost. 

The  guava  grows  quite  readily  from  the  seed,  and  from  cuttings 
under  glass.  In  regions  of  generous  rainfall  and  on  retentive  soil  it 
does  not  require  irrigation,  but  it  must  have  sufficient  moisture  at 
command.  A  light  loam  seems  best  adapted  to  the  shrub. 


THE    FEIJOA 

Along  with  the  guava  should  be  mentioned  the  Feijoa  Sellow- 
iana,  a  member  also  of  the  myrtle  family,  and  sometimes  called 
''Paraguay  guava."  In  habits  of  growth  it  is  much  the  same  as 
the  guava,  and  while  the  foliage  is  not  so  handsome,  being  of  a 
generally  silver  gray  effect,  the  flower  is  very  showy.  In  May  it 
sends  forth  a  great  profusion  of  blossoms,  which  may  be  called 
red,  white  and  blue,  unless  one  desires  to  be  perfectly  accurate,  in 
which  case  the  blue  would  have  to  be  changed  to  purple.  The 
petals!  are  unusually  thick  and  fleshy  and  are  very  sweet  to  the 
taste.  The  highly  perfumed  fruit,  about  one  and  one-half  to  two 
inches  or  more  in  length,  comes  in  November.  The  flavor  is  de- 


402 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


licious,  like  the  strawberry,  but  lacking  the  acid.  The  seeds  are 
very  small,  almost  unnoticeable ;  quite  a  contrast  in  this  respect  to 
the  guava. 

Mr.  Coolidge  gives  this  appreciative  sketch  of  the  plant  and 
fruit  : 

Feijoa,  coming  from  Uruguay  and  Southern  Brazil,  is  a  fruit  of  extreme 
hardiness,  and  has  stood  a  temperature  of  four  degrees  abov,e  zero  without 
injury.  I  know  of  plants  growing  on  the  desert  that  have  endured  a  week's 
temperature  of  115  degrees  without  any  injury,  so  we  can  safely  class  it  as 
a  hardy  fruit.  So  far  nothing  but  seedlings  have  been  grown,  and  these 
vary  greatly  as  to  bearing  qualities  and  size  of  fruits,  but  there  are  individ- 
ual plants  growing  in  our  section  that  fruit  regularly  and  produce  fruits 
of  a  good  size.  Within  a  few  years  we  will  have  plants  of  the  feijoa  pro- 
ducing fruits  on  the  average  as  large  as  an  ordinary  hen's  egg.  The  fruit 
ripening  in  December  gives  it  a  status  that  no  other  fruit  of  its  character 
has.  I  have  kept  the  fruits  in  good  condition  for  four  weeks  after  picking. 
It  is  one  of  our  finest  ornaments  with  its  grayish  green  persistent  foilage 
and  charming  white  and  red  flowers. 

Feijoa  plants  can  be  grown  from  the  seeds,  but  seedlings  are 
seldom  worth  growing.  Good  varieties  can  be  layered  in  this  way : 
Bend  the  lower  limbs  down  and  fasten  them  into  scooped-out 
places  in  the  ground,  using  a  forked  stick  with  one  end  longer  than 
the  other,  driven  into  the  ground  to  hold  the  branch  down  firmly. 
Cover  with  three  or  four  inches  of  earth.  The  best  time  for  this 
work  is  in  the  fall,  but  it  can  be  successfully  done  at  almost  any 
time  of  the  year.  Two  or  three  months  will  be  required  for  the 
layered  branch  to  start  out  the  new  root  growth,  and  during  this 
time  the  ground  must  not  be  allowed  to  dry  out,  and  should  at  all 
times  be  moist,  but  not  too  wet. 

Feijoa  only  needs  pruning  enough  to  form  a  well-shaped  bush. 
It  takes  most  readily  to  a  roundish  form  and  should  be  checked 
from  too  much  rambling — though,  as  the  fruit  comes  on  the  hew 
wood,  enough  of  the  newer  growth  must  be  carefully  provided  for. 
In  a  garden  the  plant  can  be  trained  to  a  fence,  trellis,  etc.,  but 
usually  shapes  itself  pretty  well  with  the  slight  assistance  indicated. 

Seedling  feijoas  are  frequently  sterile  and  require  cross-fertiliza- 
tion. They  should  be  grafted  with  scions  from  plants  of  good 
behavior.  The  fruit  should  be  allowed  to  drop  from  the  tree  as 
evidence  of  full  maturity.  It  is  then  laid  away  until  it  begins  to 
soften.  At  that  time  it  exhales  its  maximum  of  perfume  and  is  held 
to  be  delicious — combining  the  flavors  of  pineapple,  strawberry, 
raspberry  and  banana.  It  is  conceded  that  some  people  have  to 
learn  to  like  it,  however.  It  is  eaten  out  of  hand  or  with  cream,  and 
is  usable  for  jams,  jellies,  etc. 

THE   GRANADILLA 

The  granadilla  is  the  term  applied  to  the  edible  fruit  of  a  species 

of  passion  vine  (Passiflora  edulis),  which  is  quite  hardy,  and  is 

growing  in  different  parts  of  the  State.    The  fruit  is  about  the  size 

ot  a  small  hens  egg,  purple  exterior  when  ripe,  the  thin  brittle 

I  inclosing  a  mass  of  small  seeds  covered  with  a  brilliant  yellow 


JUJUBE  AND   LOQUAT  403 

pulp,  mildly  acid  and  of  very  agreeable  flavor.  Very  good  jelly 
has  been  made  of  the  fruit.  Another  passion  vine  with  large  pink 
flowers  is  very  widely  distributed  in  California,  and  bears  a  large, 
yellowish-brown  fruit  with  edible  pulp. 

THE   JUJUBE 

The  jujube  (Zizyphus  jujube),  from  the  fruit  of  which  the  deli- 
cate paste  of  the  confectioner  is,  or  should  be,  made,  was  intro- 
duced by  Mr.  G.  P.  Rixford  in  1876,  and  is  fruiting  regularly  and 
freely  in  several  parts  of  the  State.  The  plant  is  easily  grown 
from  seed  or  cuttings.  The  orange-red  berries  are  produced  three 
years  from  planting,  and  ripen  in  November  and  December.  They 
are  edible,  fresh  or  dried.  As  yet  the  fruit  has  not  been  turned  to 
commercial  account. 

A  large-fruited  Chinese  species  was  introduced  more  recently, 
and  has  fruited  freely  at  several  points  in  California  interior  val- 
leys. It  can  be  grown  readily  from  seeds  or  cuttings,  and  the  fruit 
may  be  dried  like  a  date,  which  it  somewhat  resembles  in  flavor. 

THE   LOQUAT 

The  loquat  (Eriobotrya  Japonica)  is  widely  grown  in  California 
as  an  ornamental  plant,  and  a  small  amount  of  fruit  is  profitably 
marketed  each  year.  During  the  last  twenty-five  years  a  very, 
marked  improvement  in  loquats  has  been  achieved  by  painstaking 
effort  by  Mr.  C.  P.  Taft,  of  Orange,  who  began  growing  loquats  in 
1891.  Mr.  Taft's  work  has  demonstrated  that  this  fruit  is  suscep- 
tible of  improvement  in  size,  flavor,  appearance,  in  bearing  habit 
of  the  tree,  and  in  direction  of  early  and  late  varieties ;  and  in  all 
these  directions  not  only  in  the  line  of  better  fruit,  but  fruit  which 
commands  in  the  market  several  times  the  value  of  the  common 
types.  Upon  the  basis  of  the  new  varieties  the  season  for  the  loquat 
is  from  February  to  June,  the  bulk  of  the  crop  coming  in  April  and 
the  first  half  of  May.  The  Advance  Loquat  was  the  first  of  the  new 
varieties  to  attract  attention.  Mr.  Taft  has  named  the  following 
varieties : 

Advance. — Yellow,  pear-shaped,  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length, 
clusters  very  large,  very  sweet  when  fully  ripe  in  May. 

Premier. — Salmon-colored,  oval,  large,  but  not  as  large  as  the  Advance, 
sweet,  but  peculiar  flavor,  ripens  earlier  than  Advance. 

Victor. — Largest,  color  pink  to  red,  probably  the  best  for  canning. 

Champagne. — Very  large  and  fine,  clusters  loose;   ripens  with  Advance. 

Early  Red. — The  earliest  loquat,  ripens  in  February  and  March. 

Other  varieties  have  also  originated  in  California.  A  full  ac- 
count of  varieties  and  of  the  culture  and  commercial  standing  of 
loquats  is  now  available.* 

*"The  Loquat,"  by  Ira  J.  Condit:  University  of  California  Experiment  Station  Bulle- 
tin No.  250,  and  ''The  Kaki  or  Oriental  Persimmon,"  Bulletin  316,  by  the  same  author, 
can  be  had  from  the  station  at  Berkeley. 


404  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

THE  PERSIMMON 

The  Persimmon  of  the  Southern  States  (Diospyros  Virginiana) 
was  introduced  into  California  in  early  days,  as  there  are  trees 
thirty  to  forty  feet  high  growing  in  Rancho  Chico.  The  widely 
distributed  species,  however,  is  the  Japanese  (Diospyros  Kaki),  of 
which  many  varieties  are  now  fruiting  in  different  parts  of  the 
State.  The  tree  is  quite  hardy,  and  fruits  freely  both  along  the 
coast  region  and  in  the  interior.  It  easily  takes  the  form  of  a  low 
standard,  and  with  its  large,  glossy  leaves  during  the  summer,  and 
its  immense,  high-colored  fruit  clinging  to  the  twigs  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen,  it  is  a  striking  object  in  the  orchard  or  in  the 
house  garden. 

Persimmons  grow  readily  from  seed,  but  in  most  cases  the  im- 
proved varieties  must  be  reproduced  by  grafting  on  seedlings  of 
either  the  Japanese  or  American  species.  The  tree  seems  to  thrive 
in  any  fair  fruit  soil,  taking  very  kindly  to  close  soils  if  well  cul- 
tivated. The  amounts  of  fruit  now  reaching  our  market  are  in- 
creasing, and  a  demand  is  found  for  certain  amounts  at  fair  prices ; 
but  there  is  no  object  now  apparent  for  large  increase  in  produc- 
tion. This  fruit,  so  highly  esteemed  in  the  Orient,  and  so  highly 
praised  by  travelers,  has  not  become  as  popular  as  expected  on  this 
coast,  nor  have  the  great  markets  of  the  East  required  more  than 
a  carload  or  two  a  year  so  far.  SucrTlimited  shipments  have,  how- 
ever, sold  well  in  the  large  Atlantic  coast  cities,  where  a  consid- 
erable number  of  Orientals  have  congregated.  Americans  who 
wish  persimmons  at  all  seem  to  prefer  the  smaller  but  more  piquant 
Virginia  species. 

Recently,  however,  the  local  demand  has  increased  because  of 
the  large  numbers  of  Japanese  who  are  now  upon  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  a  shipping  demand  for  the  fruit  from  Seattle  to  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  and  other  Pacific  ports  has  arisen.  Local  sale  in  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Los  Angeles  is  profitable  in  a  small  way.  The  removal  of 
astringency  while  the  fruit  remains  firm  has  been  successfully  ac- 
complished by  Mr.  George  C.  Roeding,  of  Fresno,  following  a  Jap- 
anese method.  It  is  simply  to  place  the  fruit  in  tubs,  from  which 
saki,  or  Japanese  "rice  beer,"  has  been  lately  removed.  The  tubs 
are  hermetically  sealed,  and  the  fruit  left  in  them  from  eight  to  ten 
days.  When  it  is  then  removed,  it  is  found  to  have  altogether  lost 
the  puckering  power.  Mr.  Roeding  says  that  he  used  eight  large 
saki  tubs,  each  of  which  would  hold  twenty-five  gallons,  and  in 
those  treated  one  thousand  pounds  of  persimmons. 

Perhaps  the  largest  single  persimmon-producing  proposition  in 
California  is  that  of  Ira  Avery,  in  Placer  County,  which  is  thus 
described  by  Mr.  R.  E.  Hodges : 

A  mile  down  grade  into  the  American  River  canyon,  protected   on   all 

by  magnificent  hills,   Ira  Avery's  father-in-law  planted   Japenese   per- 

'mm°niol?es  m  1876'  and  three  of  them  are  stin   thrifty  and  bearing.     It 

in  1887  that  Mr.  Avery  bought  the  ranch  and  planted  50  more.     In  the 

years  since  then,  many  persimmons  have  been  planted   in  whatever  nooks 

t  the  ranch  were  available  until  now  he  has  1500  trees  ranging  from  one 

o  J8  years  old.     Four  hundred  were  planted  last  spring,  and  one  of  these 


PERSIMMON    AND    PINEAPPLE  4Q5 

bore  fruit  the  same  season.  The  first  four  or  five  years,  however,  all  fruit 
should  be  picked  off.  It  is  during  this  time,  too,  that  all  the  pruning  is 
done,  just  to  shape  the  tree.  Picking  begins  the  middle  of  September  and 
lasts  until  December.  The  fruit  is  then  unripe,  hard  as  a  green  tomato, 
colored,  but  not  the  same  as  they  became  later.  They  are  wrapped  in 
papers  like  peaches,  and  packed  in  peach  boxes,  holding  about  30  Ibs.;  the 
largest  size  being  the  highest  priced.  The  Tane  Nashi  variety  pays  best  on 
account  of  its  size  and  earliness.  Seven  main  varieties  are  grown  and 
shipped,  as  follows:  Tane  Nashi,  Hachiyu,  Hyakume  (the  most  important), 
Maru  Kaki,  Mikado  and  Edoishi. 

Some  trees  yield  over  30  boxes,  many  are  not  yet  in  bearing;  the  crop  in 
1912  was  2200  boxes,  in  1913  1500,  because  the  trees  bear  lighter  in  alter- 
nate years. 

New  York  is  the  best  market,  Pittsburg,  Philadelphia  and  Boston  being 
good,  while  the  demand  is  light  in  the  Middle  West.  Many  are  sold  in  San 
Francisco,  where  the  average  net  in  1913  was  $1.08^  per  box,  while  the 
net  on  eastern  shipments  was  $1.35.  The  fruit  is  too  hard  to  eat  even  after 
shipment  to  New  York,  where  it  must  be  stored  some  time  until  well 
ripened. 

More  recently  the  persimmon  has  commanded  higher  prices,  and 
the  fruit  shipped  in  December  1918  from  the  J.  B.  Hamaker  ranch 
in  Placer  County  brought  $5.25  a  box  packed  in  an  ordinary  peach 
container,  with  some  forty  to  forty-five  fruits  to  a  box.  Still  the 
persimmon  should  be  regarded  conservatively.  It  does  not  yet  ap- 
pear that  Americans  care  much  for  it. 

THE   PINEAPPLE 

Casual  experiments  with  the  pineapple  in  the  open  air  in  this 
State  have  been  made  for  a  number  of  years,  the  fruit  being  occa- 
sionally produced.  Most  was  accomplished  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Rapp,  of 
Hollywood,  Los  Angeles  County,  in  the  Cahuenga  Valley,  and  in 
that  part  of  the  valley  which  is  famed  as  frostless,  where  even  beans 
and  tomatoes  survive  winter  temperatures.  Mr.  Rapp  succeeded 
in  getting  fruits  which  weighed  from  two  to  four  pounds  each.  If 
the  strongest  offsets  or  suckers  are  planted  they  bear  inside  of  a 
year,  and  if  the  fruit  sets  from  May  to  November  it  gets  good  size, 
but  setting  at  other  times  in  the  year  is  usually  undersized  on  ac- 
count of  the  slow  growth  during  the  winter  and  early  spring.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  pineapple  resents  the  dry  air  of  our  sum- 
mer, as  well  as  the  lack  of  winter  heat,  and  a  lath  covering  and  a 
summer  spraying  may  be  desirable.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether 
the  fruit  can  be  profitably  grown  in  this  State  on  a  commercial 
scale. 

The  pineapple  thrives  best  on  a  fine  sandy  loam,  but  will  grow 
well  on  many  soils  if  well  drained  and  cultivated.  The  plants  can 
be  set  three  by  three  or  four  by  five  feet,  so  as  to  allow  cultivation 
both  ways  while  the  plants  are  young.  Plants  are  secured  from 
"suckers,"  which  come  from  the  root,  from  "slips,"  which  grow 
on  the  stem  just  below  the  "apple,"  and  from  "crowns,"  or  the  tufts 
of  leaves  at  the  top  of  the  fruit.  Suckers  are  said  to  bear  in  one 
year,  and  slips  and  crowns  in  two  years.  Strong  suckers  are  best 
for  planting,  and  they  should  be  set  out  early  in  the  spring,  as  soon 
as  the  danger  of  cold  weather  is  over. 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

THE  POMEGRANATE 

This  fruit  (Punica  granatum),  famed  in  literature  and  art,  is 
grown  in  various  parts  of  the  State,  and  certain  amounts  are  prof- 
itably sold.  The  shrub  or  low  tree,  in  good  soil,  will  reach  the 
height  of  twenty  feet.  It  is  a  hardy  plant,  easy  of  propagation 
from  seed  or  cutting.  The  beauty  of  the  tree,  not  taking  the  fruit 
into  account,  has  caused  it  to  be  planted  in  many  gardens.  Exposed 
to  the  raw  sea  winds,  it  does  not  bloom  well  nor  set  with  fruit,  and 
is  best  adapted  to  the  warmer  regions  of  the  interior,  where  it  is 
an  early  and  abundant  bearer.  The  variety  chiefly  cultivated  is 
a  bright  orange  color,  but  there  is  found  a  large  variety  of  them, 
varying  from  almost  pure  white  with  a  faint  blush,  to  dark  red. 
The  fruit  ripens  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State,  north  and  south, 
in  October. 

Pomegranates  for  eastern  shipment  are  proving  profitable  in 
the  citrus  district  of  eastern  Tulare  County,  and  packers  report  the 
supply  scant  of  the  demand.  More  recently  plantings  have  increased, 
partly  because  of  the  tolerance  of  the  plant  for  alkaline  soil  and 
because  of  profitable  sales.  Two  of  the  older  plantings  are  these : 

The  Merriman  ranch  in  the  citrus  district  of  Tulare  County  has  five 
acres  of  Ruby  pomegranate  trees,  about  thirteen  years  old  in  1919.  The 
trees  are  planted  22  feet  apart.  The  fruits  are  packed  in  half  orange 
boxes — each  box  holding  about  36  fruits.  At  first  they  were  marketed  by 
putting  a  few  boxes  of  fruit  in  each  car  of  oranges.  In  1915  they  sent  one 
car  to  the  Chicago  and  one  to  the  New  York  auction.  The  Ruby  is  the 
best  variety  for  the  market  because  of  its  rich  red  color.  The  Mission 
variety  is  the  best  to  eat,  but  is  not  marketable  because  of  its  poor  ap- 
pearance. 

In  1918  Harry  Hooper  in  Sutter  County  had  26  acres  of  pomegranates 
(interplanted  with  olives),  four  and  five  years  old,  and  shipped  700  boxes 
from  the  young  plantation.  They  are  of  the  "Wonderful"  variety  and  are 
shipped  in  four  grades,  the  largest  of  nearly  4-inch  caliper  and  of  gor- 
geous coloring,  and  the  New  York  market  absorbs  the  fruit  readily  at 
remunerative  prices. 

A  careful  study  of  the  pomegranate  in  California  has  recently 
been  made,  and  a  very  satisfactory  special  publication  is  now 
available.* 

THE  STRAWBERRY  TREE 

The  Spanish  madrono  (Arbutus  unedo)  is  now  quite  widely 
grown,  chiefly  as  an  ornamental  shrub  or  tree.  The  growth  is  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful  if  kept  free  from  scale  insects,  the  fruit  ranging 
as  it  ripens  through  shades  of  yellow,  orange,  and  deep  red,  and 
contrasting  beautifully  with  the  glossy  evergreen  foliage.  The 
fruit  is  of  pleasant  flavor. 

MELON   SHRUB 

This  plant  (Solanum  Guatemalense)  is  a  small,  half-herbaceous 
shrub  from  the  table-land  of  Guatemala.  The  fruit  is  yellow, 
splashed  with  violet,  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  the  eggplant,  but 

17thStPrmeg!i?nltCi'"  by  Ru  W'  Hodgson:  Bulletin  276,  University  of  California  Ex- 
periment Station.  Berkeley:  to  be  had  free  on  application. 


OTHER    SEMITROPICAL   FRUITS  407 

is  usually  seedless,  and  is  readily  propagated  from  cuttings.  There 
are  thriving  plants  in  many  protected  places  in  the  State,  and  some 
fruit  reaches  the  market,  but  few  seem  to  like  the  flavor,  which  is 
something  like  a  tomato  and  melon  mixed.  Its  greatest  use  will 
probably  be  for  salads. 

THE    MELON   TREE 

The  melon  pawpaw  (Carica  papaya)  has  been  widely  intro- 
duced experimentally  in  this  State,  and  many  situations  are  found 
unfitted  for  its  growth,  but  satisfactory  fruiting  has  been  secured 
at  several  places  in  Southern  California ;  especially  if  protected  the 
first  year  it  will  stand  light  frosts  afterwards.  It  ripens  fruit  the 
third  year  from  the  seed — the  fruit  being  pleasant  to  eat  as  one 
would  a  muskmelon.  The  large  fig-like  leaves  and  the  peculiar 
markings  of  the  trunk  make  the  tree  a  very  striking  object. 


THE  PRICKLY  PEAR 

The  tuna,  or  fruit  of  the  cactus  (Opuntia  vulgaris),  is  produced 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  State  except  on  the  mountains.  It  was 
one  of  the  old  mission  fruits,  and  was  enjoyed  by  the  early  mining 
population  until  better  fruits  were  available.  It  is  about  as  large 
as  a  medium-sized  pear,  and  has  a  pleasant  acid  flavor  if  one  suc- 
ceeds in  escaping  the  prickles  in  getting  at  the  interior  of  the  fruit. 
The  tuna  is  still  a  commercial  article  in  a  small  way.*  Plants  are 
grown  readily  from  cuttings  of  the  fleshy  leaves. 

Quite  a  distinction  must  now  be  made  between  the  foregoing 
and  the  smooth  or  spineless  fruits,  which  are  superior  in  quality  as 
well  as  unarmed  with  prickles,  and  therefore  readily  handled  and 
eaten.  Varieties  more  or  less  innocent  in  this  respect  were  intro- 
duced from  the  Mediterranean  region  many  years  ago,  and  propa- 
gated to  a  limited  extent.  Recently  Mr.  Luther  Burbank  of  Santa 
Rosa  has  undertaken  special  work  with  the  cactus,  both  for  fruit- 
age and  forage  purposes,  and  has  attained  remarkable  results. 


THE  WHITE  SAPOTA 

There  are  two  old  trees  in  Santa  Barbara,  one  believed  to  have 
survived  from  the  mission  planting  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century,  the  other  half  as  old,  of  the  white  sapota  (Casimiroa 
edulis).  Dr.  Franceschi  commends  the  tree  for  every  garden  in 
which  only  light  frosts  are  to  be  expected.  Mr.  Taft  reports  the 
sapota  as  bearing  well  with  him  in  Orange  County.  The  tree  is 
an  exceedingly  rapid  grower,  much  after  the  habit  of  the  walnut, 
but  evergreen.  In  August  and  September  the  peach-like  fruit, 
greenish  yellow,  with  large  seeds  shaped  like  those  of  an  orange, 
matures  well  and  is  excellent,  this  being  the  normal  season  for 
ripening.  At  other  times  fruit  is  often  found,  but  is  apt  to  be 

*"The  Tuna  as  food  for  man,"  by  David  Griffiths,  Bulletin  116,  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

worthless  and  even  dangerous.  As  it  will  not  ripen  well  off  the 
trees  and  must  be  quite  soft  when  eaten,  it  will  never  be  of  much 
market  value.  The  tree  seems  somewhat  hardier  than  the  orange. 

THE  TREE  TOMATO 

This  plant  (Cyphomandra  betacea)  is  a  native  of  ^Central  Amer- 
ica and  is  of  shrubbery  habit,  growing  five  or  six  feet  high,  with 
large,  shining  leaves,  often  a  foot  long.  The  flowers  are  fragrant, 
of  a  pale,  flesh  color,  with  yellow  stamens,  and  are  followed  by 
fruit  the  shape  and  size  of  a  duck's  egg,  at  first  of  a  purple  tint, 
but  gradually  assuming  a  warm,  reddish  color  as  it  ripens.  When 
ripe  the  fruit  may  be  used  raw  as  a  tomato  is.  If  the  skin  is  removed 
and  the  fruit  stewed  with  sugar,  it  has  a  slight  sub-acid  flavor  which 
is  very  refreshing.  It  makes  a  fine  jelly.  The  plants  bear  the  second 
year  from  the  seed  and  the  fruit  ripens  continuously  for  several 
months.  The  seeds  should  be  started  just  as  are  those  of  the 
common  tomato,  and  the  plants  set  out  eight  or  ten  feet  apart. 


THE  KAI  APPLE 

This  name  is  applied  to  the  fruit  of  Aberia  Caffra,  a  native  of 
Natal  and  Kaffaria,  a  tall  shrub,  yielding  an  edible  fruit  of  a  golden 
yellow  color,  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  commended  as  a 
hedge  plant,  as  it  is  densely  clothed  with  strong  dry  spines.  The 
leaves  are  small  and  of  a  rich  green  hue.  The  fruit,  which  is  pro- 
duced freely  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State,  is  chiefly  used  for 
making  preserves. 

OTHER  FRUITS  .; 

The  foregoing  enumeration  does  not  include  all  the  exotic  fruits 
which  have  found  a  place  in  California  soil.  There  are  many  more, 
some  of  which  are  demonstrating  their  fitness  to  add  to  the  graces 
or  the  gains  of  our  horticultural  life.  The  caricas,  carissas,  eugenias, 
hovenia,  etc.,  are  all  gaining  places  in  California  gardens.  Even  the 
more  strictly  tropical  mango,  the  monstera,  sapodilla  and  the  like 
are  claiming  the  attention  of  amateurs. 


PART  SIX:  SMALL  FRUITS 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

BERRIES  AND  CURRANTS  IN  CALIFORNIA 

In  suitable  soils  and  situations,  and  with  proper  care  and  cultiva- 
tion, the  small  fruits  sustain  the  general  reputation  of  California  by 
the  size  and  quality  of  the  product,  and  by  the  long-continued  and 
abundant  fruiting  of  the  plants.  Probably  nowhere  else  in  the  world 
do  small  fruits  better  repay  generous  treatment  than  in  this  State, 
and  probably  nowhere  do  they  suffer  more  from  neglect.  There  are 
parts  of  the  State,  of  course,  where  some  small  fruits,  left  to  their 
own  resources,  thrive  and  bear  abundantly,  but,  speaking  of  the 
State  as  a  whole,  the  price  of  success  is  intelligent  devotion  on  the 
part  of  the  grower. 

There  are  localities  in  California  which  favor  almost  continuous 
growth  and  fruiting  of  some  of  the  small  fruits,  and  it  is  no  fiction 
to  say  that  in  such  a  place  one  may  have  raspberries  and  straw- 
berries upon  his  table  every  month  of  the  year.  Such  situations 
are  the  thermal  belts,  which  are  practically  frostless,  and,  by  secur- 
ing favoring  moisture  conditions  in  the  soil  and  proper  varieties  of 
the  fruits,  the  existing  temperature  conditions  will  produce  the 
results  indicated.  Though  this  be  the  case,  the  profitable  growth 
of  small  fruits  is  not,  of  course,  restricted  to  such  situations,  but  the 
largest  commercial  enterprises  are  carried  on  in  places  where  the 
summer-crop  rule  prevails,  but  the  bearing  season  is  much  longer 
than  in  the  eastern  States. 

The  U.  S.  Census  of  1920  reports  the  small  fruit  interests  of 
California  for  the  year  1919  as  follows: 

Product 

Kind.  Acreage.       Quarts.       Farm  Value. 

Strawberries   4,074        10,808,948        $2,161,612 

Blackberries    1,742          2,549,082  549,816 

Loganberries    459  655,592  131,119 

Raspberries   417  882,432  185,310 

Currants    298  511,278  97,147 

Other  berries    46  52,294  7,848 


Totals  7,290        15,458,726        $3,092,852 

Small  fruits  for  family  use  may  be  grown  on  all  fertile  soils, 
and  therefore  they  should  be  produced  on  every  farm.  Growing 
for  market  on  a  large  scale  involves  considerations  of  suitability 
of  soil  and  climate,  ease  of  cultivation,  water  supply  and  facilities 
for  transportation,  and  local  organizations  for  marketing,  all  of 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

which  should  be  determined  by  personal  observation  of  existing 
small  fruit  farms  before  an  important  commercial  venture  is  entered 
upon.* 

It  is  often  claimed  that  soil  for  small  fruits  should  be  deep  and 
rich,  of  the  types  generally  called  garden  soils.  There  is  an  advan- 
tage in  this  because  of  amount  of  plant  food  and  retention  of 
moisture  when  well  cultivated,  but  at  the  same  time  shallow  soils 
even  when  overlying  hardpan,  which  may  not  suit  deep  rooting  trees 
or  garden  roots,  can  be  profitably  used  for  small  fruits  if  water  and 
fertilizers  are  intelligently  used.  This  will  be  stated  more  fully  in 
the  discussion  of  the  strawberry,  but  the  general  fact  is  pertinent  to 
the  growth  of  other  small  fruits  also. 

Preparation  of  soil  for  small  fruits  should  be  most  thorough  and 
careful.  Even  more  generous  work  than  that  commanded  in  Chap- 
ter X  for  trees  and  vines  should  be  done.  It  is  the  more  necessary 
to  work  deeply  for  planting  because  subsequent  culture  of  small 
fruits  must  be  shallow. 


THE  BLACKBERRY 

The  blackberry  is  a  great  favorite  in  California  markets.  It 
thrives  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  and  the  plant  is  best  suited  of  all 
small  fruits  to  yield  generously  without  irrigation,  though  it  relishes 
sufficient  moisture  and  repays  it  with  fruit.  There  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  practice  as  to  supplying  water  artifically.  The  growth  of 
cane,  and  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  fruit,  will  show  the  observ- 
ing grower  what  should  be  the  practice  in  his  situation,  and  the 
general  suggestions  as  to  irrigation  in  Chapter  XV  are  applicable. 
There  are  regions  in  which  blackberries  are  irrigated  weekly 
throughout  the  summer,  and  others  in  which  the  berries  are  gath- 
ered from  June  to  November  without  irrigation.  Of  course,  with 
such  wide  local  variations  there  can  be  no  general  rule  for  practice. 
Let  the  grower  simply  bear  in  mind  that  if  he  -does  not  get  good, 
plump,  and  glistening  fruit  and  good  strong  growth  of  new  canes  at 
the  same  time,  he  should  give  irrigation.  The  requirements  of  the 
plant  during  the  fruiting  season  are  great,  and  they  must  be  met. 
Many  failures  are  due  to  lack  of  irrigation  when  needed. 

Propagation.  —  Blackberry  plants  of  upright  varieties  are  secured 
bv  digging  up  the  shoots  which  come  late  in  the  summer  from  old 
stools  ;  securing  therewith  a  bunch  of  fibrous  roots  with  a  portion 
of  the  main  root  three  or  four  inches  long.  To  propagate  on  a  large 
scale  dig  up  the  roots  entirely,  and,  cutting  them  up  with  pruning 
shears  into  pieces  about  two  inches  long,  plant  them  in  a  well- 
prepared  bed  in  the  garden  or  nursery.  Place  the  root  cuttings 
about  two  inches  apart  and  cover  about  three  inches  deep  with 
well-pulverized  soil,  the  depth  being  regulated,  of  course,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  deeper  in  light  than  heavy  soils.  A  light 
mulch  wil1  assist  in  retaining  moisture.  The  time  for  this  work  is 


Fnrita'^r  I'?""*  MCult.ure,  in    California,"    and    "Irrigation    Practice     in     Growing     Small 
Frmu  m  California  '-circulars   154  and   164.   California  Experiment  Station.   Berkeley. 


GROWING  BLACKBERRIES  41 1 

at  the  dormant  period  of  the  plant.     One  summer's  growth  gives 
good  plants  for  setting  out. 

The  Mammoth  and  Crandall  are  propagated  by  rooting  tips  of 
canes  or  by  layering  canes. 

Planting  Out  Blackberries.— Blackberries  should  be  planted  in 
rows  far  enough  apart  to  admit  of  the  use  of  the  horse  and  culti- 
vator. As  the  constant  tendency  of  the  plant  is  to  extend  itself  in 
the  growth  of  new  canes,  the  rows  should  not  be  less  than  six  to 
eight  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  about  three  feet  apart  in  the  row. 
The  plants  soon  occupy  the  full  space  in  the  row,  and  cultivation  is 
only  possible  between  the  rows.  Some  growers  plant  blackberries 
as  they  do  grapevines,  seven  or  eight  feet  apart  both  ways,  and  then 
cultivate  with  the  horse  both  ways.  Planting  in  rows  is  usually 
thought  better.  The  number  of  plants  to  fill  an  acre  at  different 
distances  can  be  calculated  as  described  in  Chapter  XXVI  for 
grapevines. 

D.  Edson  Smith,  of  Orange  County,  who  had  much  experience 
with  small  fruits,  described  his  method  of  laying  out  and  planting 
on  a  large  scale,  with  a  view  to  irrigation,  as  follows : 

Plow  deeply  and  harrow  thoroughly  several  times  before  setting  out. 
Lastly,  open  a  trench  with  your  plow  where  the  row  is  to  be,  twenty  in- 
ches deep;  go  along  with  a  basket  of  plants,  a  four-foot  lath  and  a  shovel, 
and  set  a  plant  in  this  trench  every  four  feet  and  fill  the  dirt  around  it  with 
the  shovel.  If  this  trench  is  too  deep  in  places  for  the  length  of  the  plant 
root,  fill  in  with  a  little  dirt;  if  not  quite  deep  enough  in  places,  scoop 
out  a  shovelful.  Aim,  in  preparing  the  ground  with  plow  and  smoother, 
to  leave  it  dishing  each  way  toward  the  row  of  young  plants,  so  that  ir- 
rigating water  turned  in  at  the  upper  end  will  run  alono-  the  row  of  plants 
as  in  a  trough.  Aim  to  have  the  ground  around  the  set  plants  a  few 
inches  below  the  general  level  of  the  land.  After  the  plants  are  all  set 
in  a  row,  go  along  with  a  rake  if  there  are  but  a  few  plants,  or  with  a 
horse-hoe  if  there  are  many,  and  fill  in  the  trench  between  the  plants.  It 
is  a  pleasure  to  set  out  plants  in  this  way,  and  such  deep,  rich,  well- 
stirred  soil  delights  the  plant  roots,  so  that  they  grow  rapidly  in  every  di- 
rection, and  the  plants  throw  up  their  heads  in  a  manner  entirely  satis- 
factory to  all  concerned.  If  the  ground  is  dry,  or  there  is  no  rain  soon 
after  setting  out  the  plants,  irrigating  water  should  be  turned  down  the 
row  or  at  least  a  quart  or  two  of  water  poured  around  each  plant;  then 
before  the  soil  hardens,  stir  it  well  with  cultivator  and  hoe.  All  future 
care  resolves  itself  into  frequent  waterings  and  frequent  stirrings  of  the 
soil.  Allow  no  weeds  to  appear,  and  keep  three  inches  of  surface  soil 
well  loosened  with  the  horse  and  hoes.  These  small  fruits  require  frequent 
waterings,  especially  when  forming  fruit  and  during  the  fruiting  season. 

Cultivation.— Thorough  cultivation  of  the  surface  soil  is  essen- 
tial for  retention  of  moisture.  After  the  plants  attain  size,  cultiva- 
tion should  be  secured  with  as  shallow-cutting  tools  as  possible  so 
as  to  prevent  injury  to  the  roots,  which  not  only  weakens  the  plant, 
but  increases  the  growth  of  suckers  between  the  rows.  A  horse- 
hoe  with  a  long  knife  running  horizontally,  or  with  duck-foot  teeth, 
well  sharpened,  answers  well  in  keeping  the  ground  clear  of  weeds 
and  suckers,  and  the  surface  loose.  Due  regard  must,  however,  be 
paid  to  securing  sufficient  depth  in  this  surface  layer  to  prevent 
the  soil  beneath  baking  hard  and  drying  out,  as  discussed  in  the 
chapter  on  Cultivation. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Frequency  of  cultivation  depends  upon  irrigation,  for  the  culti- 
vator must  always  follow  the  application  of  water.  The  spaces  in 
the  row  which  can  not  be  reached  with  the  cultivator  must  be  kept 
clean  from  weeds,  and  free  from  baking,  by  the  use  of  the  hoe.  It 
is  advisable  that  the  cultivation  be  the  cleanest  possible,  for  moisture 
exhaustion  by  weeds  can  not  be  afforded. 

Pruning  and  Training. — There  is  a  little  difference  in  the  ways 
of  training  blackberries  practiced  in  this  State.  Of  course  this  does 
not  include  the  "let  alone"  system,  which  is  not  followed  by  any 
good  grower.  The  difference  lies  mainly  in  the  use  or  disuse  of 
artificial  supports  for  the  canes.  In  either  case. the  pruning  of  the 
canes  is  similar  in  kind  but  different  in  degree,  for  if  no  supports  are 
used,  the  canes  are  headed  lower. 

At  planting  out,  cut  back  the  cane  to  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  mark  the  plant  with  a  small  stake.  At  first  the  top 
growth  should  not  be  checked,  but  when  new  canes  grow  out 
strongly  they  should  be  pinched  at  the  tip  to  force  out  lateral 
branches  for  fruiting  the  next  year.  Those  who  intend  to  tie  canes 
to  a  stake  or  trellis  let  them  attain  a  height  of  five  or  six  feet  before 
pinching  off  the  terminal  bud ;  those  who  intend  to  teach  the  cane 
to  stand  alone  pinch  when  it  is  about  four  feet  high.  All  agree  to 
pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  lateral  branches  at  about  eight  to  twelve 
inches  from  the  main  stem.  This  pinching  of  blackberry  canes  may 
be  done  by  the  watchful  grower  of  a  few  plants,  with  the  thumb  and 
finger,  but  thrifty  blackberry  plants  are  such  rapid  cane  growers 
that  in  large  plantations  cutting  back  is  often  done  with  a  sickle  or 
corn  hook  or  sharp  butcher-knife,  several  times  in  the  course  of  the 
summer.  It  is  also  advisable  to  thin  out  the  suckers  with  the  hoe 
while  cutting  out  weeds,  leaving  only  about  as  many  as  it  is  desired 
to  have  for  fruit  the  next  season.  This  method  gives  stout  canes, 
with  plenty  of  short  side  branches,  well  supplied  with  buds,  which 
will  send  out  fruiting  shoots  the  following  spring.  If  supports  are 
used,  the  four  to  six  canes  which  are  left  to  each  stool  are  gathered 
within  a  loosely-drawn  bale  rope  and  tied  to  the  stake ;  or  if  a  trellis 
is  used,  the  branches  are  brought  up  to  the  wire  or  slat  so  that  the 
distance  is  about  evenly  divided  between  the  shoots. 

Mr.  Claud  D.  Tribble  of  Elk  Grove  gives  the  following  advice 
for  handling  the  Lawton,  which  is  the  chief  upright  variety  grown 
in  California: 

Give  the  plants  some  support  the  first  season  by  a  stake,  and  the  sec- 
ond season  the  permanent  stakes  are  put  in,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
plant.  In  driving  them,  allow  the  tops  to  be  wider  than  the  bottom  so  the 
berries  can  be  picked  easily.  Large  wires  or  wooden  cleats  are  used  to 
support  the  vines  or  canes.  The  posts  are  about  six  feet  long  and  driven 
in  the  ground  until  solid,  making  the  top  about  five  feet  high.  During 
the  first  season's  growth  there  is  very  little  pruning  except  thinning  to  the 
desired  number  of  canes.  The  second  year  the  canes  are  allowed  to  grow 
above  the  stakes  and  then  tipped  to  cause  laterals  to  form,  which  are  cut 
back  to  less  than  12  inches  to  produce  berries  the  following  season.  The 
old  wood  is  cut  out  each  season  and  the  new  shoots  trained  as  before. 

the  old  canes  are  cut  out  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  gathered,  it  is  done 
more  economically  and  the  young  plants  grow  better. 


PRUNING  AND  CARE  OF  BLACKBERRIES  413 

Though  these  systematic  methods  of  summer  pruning  are  prac- 
tised and  advocated  by  the  most  careful  growers,  it  should  be  stated 
that  there  are  large  plantations  which  are  conducted  upon  a  more 
simple  system.  The  pruning  consists  in  cutting  out  old  canes  in  the 
winter,  and  the  only  summer  pruning  is  slashing  off  these  canes 
which  interfere  with  cultivation.  The  canes  are  sometimes  held  up 
by  tying  bunches  of  them  together  with  ropes.  Of  course  this 
system  costs  less  than  the  more  careful  one  which  has  been 
described,  and  yields  profit  enough  to  induce  adherence  to  it.  No 
doubt  quite  as  great  weight  of  berries  could  be  had  from  a  smaller 
area  by  a  better  system  of  growing. 

After  the  leaves  fall,  the  canes  which  have  borne  fruit  during 
the  summer  are  all  cut  off  even  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  with 
long-handled  pruning  shears  or  with  a  short  hooked  knife  with  a 
long  handle,  and  all  debris  removed  from  the  rows. 

Application  of  Manure. — The  blackberry  loves  very  rich  ground, 
and  plenty  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  or  compost  should  be 
applied.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  apply  in  a  thick  covering  all  over  the 
ground  and  between  the  canes  as  soon  as  the  patch  is  cleaned  up 
in  the  fall.  The  early  rains  carry  down  the  soluble  parts  of  the 
manure,  and  later  in  the  season  the  whole  is  plowed  in  between  the 
rows,  leaving  a  foot  or  more  next  the  plants  to  be  carefully  forked 
in,  as  the  digging  fork  does  not  cut  the  roots  like  the  spade. 

Mulching. — The  mulch,  to  keep  the  ground  moist  and  to  obviate 
summer  cultivation,  is  very  satisfactory  where  it  is  thoroughly  done. 
Apply  coarse  manure  or  partially-rotted  straw  and  the  like,  after 
the  last  spring  cultivation,  and  use  the  hoe  to  keep  down  weeds  and 
suckers  which  come  up  between  the  rows.  Some  growers  use  mulch 
close  to  the  canes,  cultivating  the  remainder  of  the  ground  between 
the  rows. 

Bearing  Age  and  Longevity. — If  blackberry  plants  are  well 
treated  the  first  year  after  planting  out,  there  will  be  considerable 
fruit  the  following  summer.  How  long  the  plants  will  bear  satis- 
factorily depends,  also,  on  situation  and  treatment.  Sometimes  the 
plants  fail  early ;  even  with  good,  generous  treatment  in  good  soil, 
the  old  stool  becomes  weak,  the  shoots  are  thin,  and  the  fruit  small. 
Some  count  about  eight  years  as  the  profitable  age  of  the  plant,  and 
then  cut  out  plants  and  give  the  land  a  change.  Of  course  berry 
growers  prepare  for  this  by  frequently  making  new  plantations. 

Irrigating  Blackberries. — Though  a  good  part  of  the  blackberry 
crop  is  grown  in  regions  of  heavy  rainfall  without  irrigation,  the  use 
of  water  is  sometimes  very  profitable.  Mr.  T.  B.  Cannon,  near 
Los  Angeles,  works  in  this  way : 

Mr.  Cannon  aims  to  get  Crandall  blackberries  from  June  15  to  Novem- 
ber, which  is  possible  by  his  system  of  irrigation  and  pruning.  So  the 
water  is  applied  in  winter  and  about  every  ten  days  until  the  berries  are 
as  big  as  peas,  cultivating  between  times.  The  rows  are  eight  feet  apart 
and  the  plants  four,  so  that  one-horse  cultivation  is  possible  until  the 
fruit  gets  so  heavy  as  to  bend  over  into  the  open  space.  When  ripening 
time  begins  in  June,  a  ditch  is  dug  close  to  the  vines  on  each  side  of  the 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

row,  for  irrigation.  This  gets  water  pretty  well  where  it  is  needed,  the 
ditches  are  out  of  the  way  of  the  cultivator  after  the  first  crop  is  off, 
and  they  are  shaded  so  as  to  avoid  evaporation  in  the  hot  summer.  Water 
is  applied  every  four  or  five  days  during  the  heavy  picking,  then  every 
ten  days  till  the  main  summer  crop  comes  on,  when  it  is  applied  twice 
as  often  again.  Irrigation  when  the  berries  are  turning  black  makes  them 
larger  and  of  better  color.  While  the  juice  might  thus  be  considered  di- 
luted, this  is  the  sort  of  berry  people  buy,  and  the  proportion  of  juice  to 
seeds  is  what  makes  a  desirable  market  berry,  when  markets  are  near  by. 
Such  practice  might  make  undesirable  fruit  for  canning  or  shipping. 

Varieties  of  the  Blackberry. — Comparatively  few  kinds  are 
largely  grown.  The  Wilson  Junior,  Lawton,  and  Kittatinny  were 
formerly  the  prevailing  kinds,  ripening  in  the  order  named.  The 
Erie  is  favored  by  some  as  a  middle-season  variety.  The  Early 
Harvest  has  been  favorably  reported  by  a  number  of  growers.  Of 
these  the  Lawton  survives  as  the  leading  and  standard  variety ;  the 
others  have  been  largely  superseded  by  a  renamed  variety,  Cran- 
dall's  Early,  which  is  the  earliest  of  the  improved  varieties,  and  has 
a  very  long  fruiting  season.  The  fruit  was  named  after  Dr.  J.  R. 
Crandall,  of  Auburn,  who  first  fruited  the  variety  from  plants  given 
him  by  a  stranger  hailing  from  Texas,  and  the  proper  name  of  the 
variety  is  probably  Texas  Early.  It  is  a  strong,  vigorous,  hardy 
plant,  very  productive,  of  firm,  handsome  berries ;  resembles  Lawton 
in  canes,  leaves,  and  flavor  of  fruit;  not  given  to  sprouting  from 
running  roots. 

Another  variety  which  has  advanced  in  favor  is  the  Oregon 
Evergreen,  introduced  from  Oregon  but  not  native  nor  originated 
in  that  State.  The  late  John  Rock  described  it  as  follows :  "Origin 
unknown ;  beautiful ;  cut-leaved  foliage,  which  it  retains  during  the 
winter ;  berries  large,  black,  sweet,  rich,  and  delicious.  It  continues 
to  ripen  from  July  to  November,  which  makes  it  one  of  the.  best 
berries  for  family  use."  It  loses  size  and  quality  notably  on  scant 
moisture. 

Some  effort  has  been  made  to  secure  improved  varieties  of  our 
native  blackberry,  and  a  most  striking  result  has  been  secured  by 
Judge  J.  H.  Logan,  of  Santa  Cruz,  by  crossing  the  wild  berry  with 
Crandall's  Early,  producing  a  fruit  so  large  that  it  has  been  named 
"Mammoth"  by  its  originator.  The  canes  of  the  Mammoth  are  very 
peculiar,  being  very  large  and  thickly  covered  with  small,  short 
spines.  The  canes  start  early  in  March,  grow  thick  and  stout  until 
about  five  feet  high.  They  then  take  on  a  running  habit  and  grow 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  in  a  season.  Late  in  the  fall  the  tips 
or  stolons  seek  the  ground  and  take  root.  The  Mammoth  is  not  an 
evergreen  like  its  Texas  parent,  although  it  does  not  entirely  lose  its 
leaves  in  winter.  It  begins  to  grow  and  flower  very  early  in  spring 
and  ripens  its  fruit  the  last  of  May,  some  weeks  earlier  than  the 
Lawton.  The  fruit  is  more  acid  than  the  Lawton,  but,  when  per- 
fectly ripe,  is  sweet  and  of  superior  flavor.  When  cooked  or  canned 
the  flavor  is  identical  with  the  wild  berry  of  California.  This  variety 
is  often  wrongly  called  "Black  Loganberry." 

The  Himalaya  is  a  blackberry  of  wonderful  growth  and  prolific- 
ness,  highly  praised  by  amateurs,  but  not  important  from  a  commer- 


TRAILING  BLACKBERRIES  415 

cial  point  of  view — except,  perhaps,  for  local  markets.    It  is  magnifi- 
cent on  a  garden  fence  or  trellis. 

Several  varieties  of  "thornless  blackberries"  have  been  intro- 
duced by  Mr.  Burbank  and  others,  and,  after  fuller  trial,  some  of 
them  may  be  expected  to  become  popular. 

The  Dewberry. — The  improved  varieties  of  the  dewberry,  or 
trailing  blackberry,  are  now  quite  widely  known  and  highly  praised, 
but  are  chiefly  grown  for  home  use.  Some  growers  use  trellises ; 
others  train  the  vines  along  rows  on  the  ground  surface.  The 
following  is  the  method  of  Mr.  A.  M.  Munger,  of  Fresno,  and 
includes  irrigation  arrangements: 

For  planting  the  Lucretia  dewberry,  prepare  the  ground  by  plowing 
deep  and  cultivating  until  the  dirt  is  thoroughly  pulverized.  Set  the  plants 
about  three  inches  deep  and  four  feet  apart,  in  rows,  leaving  a  space  of  six 
feet  between  the  rows.  Plant  between  February  15th  and  March  15th.  Ir- 
rigate as  often  as  once  a  month,  always  thoroughly  cultivating  after  each 
irrigation.  By  so  doing  a  sufficient  growth  is  secured  to  produce  a  good 
crop  the  second  year.  Immediately  after  the  first  rainfall,  generally  in 
October,  the  vines  should  be  pruned  by  cutting  back  within  about  sixteen 
inches  of  the  base  of  the  vine. 

In  February  of  the  second  year,  plow  between  the  rows  with  a  small 
one-horse  plow,  turning  the  furrows  toward  the  vines,  but  using  a  shield  so 
as  not  to  cover  them.  Follow  immediately  with  a  hoe,  drawing  the  dirt 
up  under  the  vines  and  forming  a  ridge.  This  ridge  should  be  high  enough 
to  keep  the  vines  up  out  of  the  water  when  irrigating.  After  this  ridge 
is  formed,  water  should  be  run  quite  often,  as  the  dewberry  requires  a  great 
deal  of  water  to  mature  properly.  The  vines  should  be  irrigated  as  often 
as  three  times  at  least  during  the  spring.  The  fruit  begins  to  ripen  in 
Fresno  about  May  25th,  and  continues  about  one  month.  The  dewberry 
roots  readily  from  the  tips  without  covering  if  the  soil  is  loose  and  moist. 
If  many  plants  are  desired  it  is  advisable  to  cover  slightly,  and  the  tips 
will  root  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  moistened  by  the  fall  rains. 

A  trellising  method  for  dewberries  consists  in  driving  posts  to 
stand  about  three  feet  high,  for  the  dewberry  can  not  be  trained 
up  as  high  as  other  berries.  Make  a  half  hoop  of  coarse  wire  extend- 
ing from  the  root  of  the  plant  over  the  arms  at  top  of  the  post  and 
training  the  plants  on  this.  The  rows  are  usually  six  feet  apart  and 
the  plants  six  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The  vines  should  be  well 
thinned  to  produce  large  berries. 

What  may  be  called  a  clean  sweep  with  Lucretia  dewberries  is 
thus  described  by  Mr.  A.  H.  King,  a  very  successful  grower  of 
St.  Helena,  Napa  County: 

In  the  fall  I  planted  1500  dewberry  plants  six  feet  apart,  in  rows  with 
seven  feet  distances.  I  made  trellises  by  setting  posts  firmly  in  the  ground 
at  the  ends  of  each  row,  and  driving  four-foot  grape  stakes  every  twelve 
feet  along  the  rows.  Number  twelve  wire  was  stretched  between  the 
posts  and  stapled  on  top  of  the  stakes.  The  next  fall  there  was  plenty 
of  long  vines  which  I  gathered  up,  two  or  three  at  a  time,  and  wound  in 
long  turns  around  the  wire,  tucking  one  end  under  now  and  then  to  keep 
vines  from  unwinding.  The  canes  were  arranged  on  the  wire  so  as  to 
be  fan  shaped  from  the  stump  upward  to  the  wire.  The  following  year, 
a  very  heavy  crop  of  fruit  ripened  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the 
trellis  and  along  the  wire.  The  new  growth  started  early,  and  soon  cov- 
ered not  only  the  trellis  but  filled  up  all  the  space  between  the  rows, 
making  it  difficult  to  get  the  berries  and  preventing  irrigation.  When  it 


,.,  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

came  to  cutting  out  the  old  wood  and  placing  new  vines  on  the  trellis, 
I  found  it  a  long,  bad  job. 

When  the  new  growth  started  next  year,  I  cut  it  off  as  close  to  the 
fruiting  wood  as  possible,  but  I  cut  it  too  early  and  the  vines  started  to 
grow,  and,  by  the  time  the  fruit  was  ripe,  it  was  well  covered  with  the 
rank  'growth  and  it  was  nearly  as  hard  work  to  cut  out  the  old  vines  as 
the  year  before,  and  besides  there  were  few  long  canes  to  put  on  the 
trellis.  The  next  year  I  waited  till  the  fruit  was  nearly  ready  to  gather, 
then  cut  the  new  vines  off  as  before  and  irrigated  freely4,  and,  when  the 
berries  ripened,  they  were  easily  and  quickly  gathered.  About  the  10th  of 
July  the  year  after  the  crop  was  all  picked,  I  cut  off  all  the  vines,  new 
and  old,  then  burned  the  vines  between  the  rows,  and  for  once  I  had  a 
clean  field.  Plowing  a  furrow  on  each  side  of  all  the  rows,  I  irrigated 
freely  and  in  two  weeks  had  a  nice  new  growth  of  vines  started,  and,  at 
the  end  of  the  growing  season,  the  vines  were  eight  to  ten  feet  long  and  as 
straight  as  a  string  and  were  easily  put  on  the  trellis,  as  they  were  not 
tangled  as  before. 

I  wondered  if  canes  grown  so  late  in  the  season  would  bear  a  crop, 
but  the  next  season  the  fruit  hung  like  black  ropes  along  the  wire  and 
down  the  canes  to  the  ground.  Now  I  follow  this  method  each  year,  and 
have  never  failed  to  get  a  good  crop.  When  the  new  growth  is  left  to 
grow  all  the  season  it  sends  out  a  lot  of  laterals,  which  become  very 
much  tangled,  and,  in  cutting  them  out  to  place  on  the  wire,  they  are 
injured  so  they  often  die  the  next  season.  By  cutting  everything  clear, 
the  ground  can  be  plowed  and  the  next  growth  is  straight  with  the 
laterals. 

The  dewberry  which  has  recently  been  most  largely  planted  in 
Central  and  Southern  California  is  known  as  the  Gardena  because 
of  the  prolificness  and  profitability  of  a  patch  grown  by  W.  M. 
Gray,  of  Gardena,  Los  Angeles  County.  Its  qualities  are  vigorous 
growth,  hardiness,  regular  and  profuse  yield  of  large,  early  berries. 
The  Lucretia  is  still  popular. 

Pruning  and  Training  Trailing  Berries. — With  reference  to  the 
handling  of  trailing  blackberries  and  the  blackberry-raspberry 
hybrids  which  are  continually  becoming  more  popular,  it  may  be 
said  that  there  is  no  one  best  way.  There  are  several  good  ways, 
according  to  the  desires  and  convenience  of  the  growers,  and  this 
is  the  reason  why  there  is  an  apparent  conflict  in  which  all  con- 
testants may  be  right,  each  from  his  own  point  of  view.  The 
varieties  are  sufficiently  alike  to  be  discussed  together.  What  seem 
to  us  the  essentials  in  pruning  them  are  these : 

First,  they  all  (except  the  Himalaya,  as  will  be  noted  later)  bear 
on  canes  which  grow  the  previous  year,  and  the  fruit  comes  on 
laterals  which  break  from  them.  In  this  mild  climate  there  is  con- 
tinuous break  of  laterals  which  may  cover  quite  a  long  period  and 
the  same  wood  may  seem  to  be  bearing  twice.  This  second  bearing 
is  of  so  little  account  that  the  general  rule  to  remove  old  wood  after 
its  main  fruiting  is  a  good  one. 

Second,  the  wood  which  grows  this  year  will  therefore  bear  next 
year,  and  will  send  out  bearing  laterals  sufficiently  with  a  number 

treatments.  The  new  cane  may  be  pinched  at  any  time  during 
growth  and  it  will  then  send  wood  laterals  (not  fruit  laterals)  at 
once  and  each  of  these  laterals  will  have  the  same  character  that 
the  mam  shoot  would  have  had  if  it  had  not  been  pinched ;  that  is, 


Plate  XIV.— The  Loganberry. — (See  page  425.) 


PRUNING   BLACKBERRIES  417 

it  will  send  out  fruiting  laterals  at  the  same  date  the  following 
season. 

Third,  it  does  not  matter  whether  you  make  the  new  growth 
bunchy  by  laterals  following  pinching  or  whether  you  let  it  run  out 
and  cut  off  part  of  it  at  the  end  of  the  growing  season  or  whether 
you  shorten  it  in  and  at  the  same  time  cut  away  closely  all  the 
laterals  which  it  may  have  made  on  its  own  account  when  it  was 
running  out.  In  all  cases  there  will  be  dormant  buds  enough  to  give 
fruiting  shoots  on  whatever  part  of  the  cane  you  reserve. 

Fourth,  the  way  you  prune,  then,  depends  upon  serving  your 
own  convenience  in  the  training  of  these  shoots  up  to  a  post,  along 
on  a  wire  or  along  on  a  ridge  on  the  ground — whatever  suits  you 
best  to  keep  the  fruit  out  of  the  dirt,  and  to  promote  such  cultiva- 
tion as  is  desirable,  etc.,  will  be  accepted  by  the  plant  as  not  inter- 
fering with  its  starting  fruiting  shoots  from  whatever  dormant  buds 
you  have  allowed  it  to  retain  on  the  wood  which  it  matured  the 
previous  season. 

Fifth,  there  is  in  addition  the  application  of  the  principle  that 
good  large  fruit  is  the  product  of  a  plant  which  is  not  carrying  too 
much  bearing  wood ;  that  is,  is  not  endeavoring  to  perfect  too  much 
fruit  at  the  same  time.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  convenience, 
it  is  desirable  not  to  allow  a  plant  to  retain  all  the  cane  it  grows, 
but  to  shorten  it  or  to  remove  the  laterals  or  part  of  them  or  to 
shorten  the  laterals  or  in  any  other  way  to  require  the  plant  to  direct 
its  energy  to  the  better  development  of  fewer  fruits. 

Sixth,  growers  are,  of  course,  influenced  by  different  considera- 
tions. Amateur  growers  delighting  in  running  vines  on  fences  or 
trellises  would  not  prune  as  would  a  commercial  grower,  who  can 
not  have  canes  running  all  over  his  fields.  The  amateur  can  pinch  a 
main  shoot  and  send  the  laterals  up  the  arms  of  a  fan-shaped  trellis 
if  he  likes  and  make  an  object  of  rare  garden  beauty,  and  he  can 
reduce  the  excess  of  bearing^  wood  by  cutting  away  the  parts  of  the 
laterals  which  run  beyond  his  arms  or  extra  ones  beyond  those  he 
can  carry  on  his  trellis.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  plant,  he 
does  the  same  thing  that  the  commercial  grower  does  when  he 
conies  along  with  his  scythe  or  sickle  and  cuts  away  indiscrim- 
inately all  the  growth  which  goes  beyond  the  space  where  it  is  con- 
venient for  him  to  have  the  fruit. 

Seventh,  do  not  be  too  particular  about  exact  methods  to  imitate ; 
try  rather  to  discern  principles  which  may  be  served  by  many  dif- 
ferent methods. 

Six  Months  Fruiting  of  Crandalls. — One  way  in  which  the  prin- 
ciples just  outlined  may  be  applied  to  Crandairs  Early,  which  is  our 
leading  blackberry,  considering  the  State  as  a  whole,  is  described  by 
Mr.  R.  E.  Hodges  as  the  practice  of  Mr.  T.  B.  Cannon,  of  Los 
Angeles : 

Briars  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  tall,  having  good  root  systems, 
are  set  with  a  spade  in  finely  pulverized  soil  as  soon  after  they  are  dug 
as  possible  to  avoid  wilting,  to  the  same  depth  as  they  were  before,  four 
feet  apart  in  rows  eight  feet  apart.  The  first  year  they  require  no  pruning. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

The  space  between   rows   is   occupied   by   cabbage,   beans,    corn,    potatoes, 

In  the  second  year  three  or  four  new  canes  come  up.  When  these  are  four 
feet  high,  cut  off  six  inches,  and  laterals  start  from  the  leaf  axis.  When 
these  are  thirty  inches  long  their  end  buds  are  cut  off  and  they  send  out 
blossoms  which  bear  fruit  that  fall.  These  same  laterals  bear  the  main 
crop  in  their  second  year,  besides  sending  out  new  laterals  near  the  base 
of  the  old  ones  about  the  time  the  berries  are  well  set.  The  new  laterals 
bear  the  second  crop,  which  comes  on  about  the  time  Jhe  first  crop  is 
gone.  The  third  crop,  borne  on  the  new  canes,  which  have  been  cut  back 
meanwhile  to  three  and  one-half  feet,  blossom  from  August  till  freezing, 
and  the  berries  ripen  from  September  on. 

Mr.  Cannon  has  followed  this  plan  with  satisfaction  on  two  or  three 
patches,  the  largest  of  which  is  a  half-acre  set  seven  years  ago  in  the 
young  family  orchard.  The  first  crop  from  this  half-acre  in  1913  was  180 
crates  The  second  and  third  crops  usually  together  equal  two-fifths  of 
the  first.  The  second  is  about  half  of  the  third.  Two  years  ago  the  third 
alone  almost  equalled  the  first.  And  the  berries  sometimes  sell  at  $2.80 
per  crate  after  October. 

Growing  Crandalls  in  Hedge  Rows. — A  method  which  aims  at 
economy  in  getting  a  main  crop,  without  providing  for  succession, 
is  that  of  Mr.  J.  B.  Wagner,  of  Pasadena.  He  uses  no  trellises,  but 
leaves  the  old  canes  in  the  hedge-row  to  support  the  new  growth,  in 
this  way : 

On  the  day  before  berry  picking,  all  protruding  new  growth  is  cut  back 
as  close  as  possible  to  the  blanket  of  bearing  canes  which  covers  the  mat 
of  dead  ones.  This  removes  all  hindrance  to  picking.  Do  not  leave  stubs 
of  new  wood  above  the  bearing  vines,  because  it  raises  the  general  level  of 
bearing  wood  in  a  year  or  two,  so  high  that  the  pickers  can  scarcely  reach 
over  and  up  to  the  center  of  the  row.  When  picking  is  over,  both  sides 
of  the  hedge-row  are  trimmed  off  clean  till  it  is  left  only  two  feet  wide. 
New  growth  soon  leans  out  over  this  and  covers  it,  ready  for  a  crop  next 
year  with  the  berries  well  outside  and  handy  for  the  pickers.  Every  six 
years  he  trims  the  whole  hedge  back  to  a  height  of  two  feet  and  clears 
out  all  the  cane  over  a  year  old,  and  this  renews  the  plantation. 

Training  the  Mammoth. — A  good  way  with  the  Mammoth, 
grown  in  a  commercial  way,  is  described  by  Mr.  Tribble  as  follows : 

The  Mammoth  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  blackberries,  very  productive 
and  is  one  of  the  -most  delicious.  The  plants  are  propagated  from  rooted 
tips  which  appear  on  the  ends  of  the  vines  during  the  winter  months. 
Mammoths  are  usually  trained  on  a  wire  trellis  made  by  driving  posts  at 
each  hill  and  nailing  on  cross-arms  to  support  the  wire,  which  is  stapled 
to  each  end  of  the  cross-arms.  The  laterals  are  trained  along  the  wire 
about  half  way  between  the  hills,  and  then  cut  off  to  cause  them  to  throw 
out  fruit  spurs.  As  soon  as  the  crop  is  taken  from  the  old  canes  they 
should  be  taken  out  and  the  new  canes  trained  on  the  trellis  as  before. 

Training  the  Himalaya.— Success  with  the  Himalaya  blackberry 
is  wholly  dependent  upon  proper  pruning,  and  whether  it  be  grown 
upon  an  arbor  or  a  fence  or  upon  a  low  trellis,  the  same  principles 
must  be  applied.  This  variety  bears  on  the  same  laterals  year  after 
year.  It  is  late  to  ripen,  coming  after  the  Mammoths  are  all  gone. 

The  main  purposes  in  training  Himalayas  are  to  keep  the  canes 
free  from  intertwining  and  the  fruit  accessible  for  picking.  The 
following  is  a  good  way  to  attain  both  these  ends : 

Use  two  horizontal  wires  about  two  and  four  feet  above  the  ground, 
fastened  securely  to  plenty  of  stakes,  for  the  load  will  be  heavy.  During 


CRANBERRY  AND  CURRANT  419 

the  winter  hang  the  vines  to  the  wires  by  means  of  short  pieces  of  wire, 
which  will  last  three  or  four  years,  after  which  they  may  be  cut  with 
pliers  and  the  old  vines  taken  out.  Hang  them  instead  of  twisting  around 
the  wire,  for  they  are  vicious  vines  to  handle,  and  a  mess  of  twisted  vines 
harbors  insects  and  disease  and  rotting  c  me  growth.  The  past  season's 
new  canes,  thus  hung  up,  will  continue  to  grow  in  length  until  you  pinch 
off  the  tips.  The  roots  should  not  be  closer  than  12  to  16  feet  apart  each 
way,  and  not  over  half  a  dozen  canes  should  be  left  on  each. 

The  following  summer  these  canes  will  throw  out  fruit  spurs  which  will 
bear  30  to  75  berries  each,  the  tip  berries  ripening  first  along  in  July. 
These  spurs  will  be  less  than  a  foot  apart  and  project  outward  from  the 
trellis  so  that  picking  is  easy.  But  the  vines  will  also  throw  out  laterals 
among  the  fruit  spurs,  and  these  laterals  will  grow  several  feet  in  the  sea- 
son. Those  nearest  the  base  will  be  longest,  but  all  would  be  serious 
hindrances  for  pickers;  so  just  before  the  first  picking,  cut  off  all  the 
laterals  close  to  the  main  vines.  This  will  not  interfere  with  fruiting 
next  season,  and  it  will  leave  the  berries  where  the  pickers  need  scarcely 
touch  a  vine.  If  the  laterals  were  fastened  to  the  wires  or  wound  around 
them,  they  would  take  strength  needed  by  the  ripening  berries  and  choke 
off  the  fruit  spurs,  besides  being  in  the  way. 

In  the  summer  there  will  be  new  runners  from  the  roots,  and  two  of 
these  should  be  saved  and  directed  one  each  way  along  the  ground  under 
the  wires  by  means  of  little  stakes,  for  the  first  season.  Keep  the  rest 
cut  off  at  the  root.  Repeating  this  year  after  year  will  renew  the  wood 
continuously  as  it  gets  too  old  to  bear  well,  which  is  after  the  fourth  or 
fifth  year. 

The  roots  will  send  up  new  plants  between  the  rows  and  these  will  be 
good  for  transplanting.  Whether  used  or  not,  they  should  be  rigidly 
grubbed  out  every  winter. 

THE  CRANBERRY 

Though  attention  has  been  given  to  experiments  with  the  growth 
of  the  cranberry  in  California  for  many  years,  it  has  not  been 
demonstrated  that  the  culture  is  successful  or  profitable.  Cran- 
berries have  been  produced,  and  the  fruit  shown  at  fairs,  but  beyond 
this  nothing  has  been  accomplished.  It  would  seem  to  be  a  fair 
conclusion  that  even  in  the  most  moist  regions  our  summer  air  is 
too  dry  to  suit  the  plant.  There  seems,  however,  no  incentive  to 
grow  cranberries  in  California.  The  Oregon  product  from  a  few 
plantations  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river  seems  to  be  all 
that  we  need  to  put  up  a  fight  with  the  fruit  from  Wisconsin  and 
Cape  Cod. 

THE  CURRANT 

The  currant  reaches  perfection  in  size  and  quality  in  parts  of 
California  adapted  to  its  growth,  but  its  area  is  comparatively  small. 
The  plant  does  not  thrive  in  the  dry,  heated  air  of  the  interior  either 
at  the  north  or  south.  It  does  well  near  the  coast,  especially  in  the 
upper  half  of  the  State,  and  is  grown  for  market  chiefly,  on  lands 
adjacent  to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  The  comparatively  cool  and 
moist  air  of  the  ocean  favors  it,  but  even  here  the  sunburn,  which 
is  the  bane  of  its  existence  in  the  interior  valleys,  occasionally  in- 
jures the  fruit.  Away  from  the  coast,  currants  are  grown  to  a 
limited  extent  along  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers,  near 
their  confluence,  but  not  in  the  hot  valleys  whence  they  flow.  On 


420  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

the  foothills,  too,  where  the  plant  has  a  northerly  slope,  or  other 
cooling  influence,  and  sufficiently  moist  soil,  it  will  do  moderately 
well  At  elevations  in  Southern  California,  where  the  late  apple 
reaches  good  quality,  currants  are  also  grown  to  some  extent.  It 
is  quite  possible  that  the  currant  may  be  satisfactorily  grown  for 
home  use,  or  for  local  market  in  parts  of  the  State  where  at  present 
one  does  not  find  it,  providing  the  moderating  effect  of  elevation 
and  northerly  exposure,  coupled  with  the  shade  of  trees,  be  secured, 
but  even  then  the  hot  north  wind  of  the  early  summer  may  often 
injure  the  fruit.  So  far  as  the  metropolitan  market  is  concerned, 
it  does  not  matter  that  the  currant  area  is  limited,  for  existing 
plantations  produce  all,  and  sometimes  more,  than  can  be  profitably 
disposed  of  at  present.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  future  may 
show  a  larger  demand,  for  the  pure  food  laws  prevent  the  further 
selling  of  apple  jelly  with  a  currant  color  and  flavor  under  the  name 
of  currant  jelly. 

Propagation. — The  currant  is  readily  grown  from  cuttings.  As 
soon  as  the  bush  drops  its  leaves,  and  the  ground  is  in  condition  as 
to  moisture,  secure  the  cuttings  about  a  foot  in  length  from  straight 
wood  of  the  last  growth,  and  place  them  in  nursery  or  in  permanent 
place,  in  good  sandy  or  garden  loam,  deeply  spaded  and  well  broken 
up.  Set  the  cutting  firmly  in  the  earth,  six  or  seven  inches  deep. 
If  they  are  to  be  trained  as  small  trees,  every  bud  below  where  the 
lowest  limb  is  to  start  should  be  cut  out — even  to  the  end  of  the 
cutting  underground — otherwise  they  will  be  continually  throwing 
up  suckers.  If  they  are  to  grow  as  bushes,  the  natural  and  more 
productive  form  of  the  currant,  set  them  as  they  are  taken  from 
the  parent  bush. 

Pruning. — If  the  currant  is  to  be  grown  in  tree  form,  the 
four  to  six  feet  apart,  the  plants  standing  two  and  a  half  or  three 
feet  apart  in  the  rows.  Most  of  the  currant  plantations  are  between 
orchard  rows,  the  partial  shade  of  the  trees  being  considered  desir- 
able. It  is  claimed  that  currants  do  best  when  interplanted  with 
cherry,  apricot,  apple,  and  pear,  not  so  well  when  associated  with 
plum  and  peach,  and  the  almond  is  least  desirable — possibly  because 
the  almond  is  often  given  less  cultivation  than  the  pulpy  fruit  or  is 
grown  on  lighter,  drier  soils.  The  cultivation  is  such  as  is  usually 
given  to  the  orchard,  except  that  in  heavy  soil  the  plow  is  not 
allowed  to  come  near  the  cuttings  the  first  season  for  fear  of  tearing 
them  from  their  rooting.  After  the  first  year  the  plow  is  used  in 
the  winter  and  the  cultivator  in  summer. 

Currants  will  repay  generous  applications  of  well-rotted  manure, 
and  relish  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil.  Where  this  can  not  be  had 
from  rainfall,  and  retained  by  cultivation  and  mulching,  irrigation 
must  be  resorted  to. 

Pruning.  —  If  the   currant  is  to  be   grown   in   tree  form   the 
branches  from  the  upper  buds  of  the  cutting  should  be  shortened    ; 
in  at  the  end  of  the  first  summer,  and  branches  growing  horizontally   j 
should  be  removed.     The  weaker   shoots   in  the  head   are  thinned 


THE    GOOSEBERRY  421 

out,  but  not  so  much  as  to  leave  the  top  too  open.  If  the  plant  is 
to  grow  as  a  bush,  the  only  winter  pruning  will  consist  in  removing 
dead  wood,  or  wood  attacked  by  borers,  and  thinning  the  new  shoots 
as  may  seem  desirable,  and  cutting  bark  half  or  more  of  the  new 
growth.  Summer  pinching  of  the  new  growth  is  desirable,  as  it 
causes  the  fruit  to  set  closely  and  tends  to  a  thick  growth  of  foliage 
also,  and  this  is  necessary,  for  the  bark  is  liable  to  sunburn,  and 
the  best  fruit  is  that  which  is  well  sheltered  by  the  leaves.  Another 
advantage  of  the  bush  form  is  the  less  likelihood  of  killing  by  borers, 
which  is  imminent  when  the  growth  depends  upon  a  single  stem. 
Well  cared  for  bushes  will  bear  profitably  until  about  ten  years  old. 
Replanting  should  be  made  on  new  ground. 

Bearing. — The  currant  bears  a  quantity  of  excellent  fruit  the 
second  year  from  the  cutting,  and  reaches  its  fullest  product  about 
the  fifth  to  the  eighth  year,  when  the  yield  in  the  Hayward  region 
is  said  to  range  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  tons  to  the  acre. 

Varieties. — The  Cherry  currant  is  the  prevailing  variety,  and 
Fay's  Prolific  stands  next,  although  the  old  sorts,  the  Red  and  White 
Dutch,  the  Red  and  White  Grape,  etc.,  are  grown  in  some  localities. 
Pomona  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  newer  red  varieties  and  the  old 
Fertile  de  Palluau  is  reported  as  doing  better  than  others  in  hot,  in- 
terior situations.  Black  currants  are  but  little  grown,  the  market 
demand  for  them  being  very  light.  Black  Naples  is  best  of  its  kind 
in  California. 

THE  GOOSEBERRY 

The  gooseberry  is  another  fruit  with  very  circumscribed  area  in 
this  State.  In  localities  which  favor  it,  the  fruit  is  often  found  very 
profitable,  but  the  demand  does  not  warrant  any  great  increase  of 
product.  Though  the  gooseberry  thrives  in  some  situations  which 
do  not  suit  the  currant,  they  may  both  be  described  as  averse  to  the 
hot  and  dry  parts  of  the  State.  Still,  for  home  use  or  local  sale  one 
can  grow  certain  varieties  of  gooseberries  successfully,  by  protect- 
ing them  from  too  great  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  by  keeping  the 
soil  sufficiently  rich  and  moist.  The  choice  of  varieties  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  as  will  be  mentioned  presently.  At  present  the 
chief  supplies  of  the  gooseberry,  as  of  the  currant,  are  produced 
in  the  country  adjacent  to  San  Francisco  Bay,  though  thriving  and 
profitable  plantations  are  found  elsewhere  near  the  coast,  as  at  Green- 
field, Monterey  County;  here  and  there  in  the  interior,  and  at  con- 
siderable elevations  on  the  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

'Propagation,  Pruning,  etc. — The  gooseberry  is  grown  from  cut- 
tings, very  much  as  already  described  for  the  currant.  The  common 
and  the  best  method  is  to  start  the  cuttings  early  in  the  winter, 
though  some  have  succeeded  with  cuttings  taken  in  the  spring  just 
as  the  new  growth  is  starting  out.  Disbudding  the  lower  part  of 
the  cutting  if  it  is  desired  to  train  in  tree  form  is  also  practised 
with  the  gooseberry,  but  a  smaller  percentage  of  cuttings  is  found 
to  grow  after  disbudding. 


422  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

Gooseberries  are  planted  out  and  cultivated  as  already  described 
for  currants,  and  the  requirements  of  the  plant  in  soil,  moisture,  and 
manuring,  are  much  the  same. 

If  the  gooseberry  is  to  be  grown  in  tree  form,  constant  attention 
to  removal  of  suckers  is  necessary;  if  in  bush  form,  it  will  only  be 
necessary  to  remove  too  old  wood  and  thin  out  the  new  shoots. 
Suckers  should  be  removed  clean  from  the  stem,  so  as  to  eradicate 
the  latent  buds,  and  pulling  off  with  a  gloved  hand,  when  the  suckers 
become  woody  enough  to  withstand  breaking,  is  advised.  As  with  the 
currant,  the  borer  is  a  constant  menace  to  the  life  of  a  gooseberry 
plant  confined  to  a  single  stem. 

Diseases  and  Pests. — The  gooseberry  is  subject  to  insect  depre- 
dation both  in  wood  and  fruit  and  leaf.  The  prevailing  trouble, 
however,  and  that  which  causes  the  failure  of  so  many  foreign 
kinds,  is  the  mildew.  To  escape  this  nothing  is  usually  done  except 
to  select  varieties  not  subject  to  the  disease,  but  .susceptible  varieties 
can  be  protected  by  sulphuring  at  first  appearance  of  the  trouble  or 
by  spraying  just  as  the  leaves  are  opening  and  once  a  month  after- 
wards with  ammonium  sulphide,  half  an  ounce  to  the  gallon  of  water. 
This  does  not  stain  nor  poison  the  fruit. 

There  is  great  difference  in  the  occurrence  of  mildew  in  different 
localities.  Great  danger  seems  to  inhere  in  the  association  of  heat 
and  moisture  in  the  air — neither  heat  nor  moisture  being  favorable 
to  it  separately.  Mr.  E.  C.  Hall  of  Greenfield,  in  the  Salinas  Valley, 
Monterey  County,  gives  this  as  the  result  of  his  observation : 

Better  than  a  mildew  resistant  gooseberry  bush  in  a  way  is  a  mildew 
resistant  locality  and  climate  as  well.  In  some  places,  gooseberries  mil- 
dew; other  places  they  do  not.  There  is  one  condition  of  climate  very 
essential  to  success  commercially,  and  that  is  a  cool,  dry  atmosphere 
through  the  growing  season.  If  you  have  it  hot  through  the  day  with 
foggy,  wet  mornings,  success  is  doubtful.  I  have  tested  out  some  twelve 
or  fifteen  kinds,  both  American  and  English,  and  I  have  yet  to  find  one 
kind  subject  to  mildew. 

Still  to  the  general  planter  resistance  to  mildew  is  very  im- 
portant. 

Varieties  of  the  Gooseberry. — The  American  varieties,  Downing 
and  Houghton's  Seedling,  chiefly  the  latter,  constitute  the  main 
varieties  marketed  in  San  Francisco.  Early  experiments  with  col- 
lections of  English  varieties  showed  that  most  of  them  failed  because 
of  mildew;  still  a  few  of  the  green  and  white  sorts,  notably  the 
Whitesmith,  have  succeeded.  The  proportion  of  large  berries  now 
being  marketed  is  much  greater  than  formerly,  and  the  superior  price 
warrants  especial  effort  to  produce  them. 

A  large  English  variety,  which  was  brought  to  California  many 
years  ago,  is  a  widely  distributed  large  kind  for  which  the  name 
Berkeley  now  prevails.  It  is  large  and  handsome,  very  prolific,  rip- 
ens early,  and  is  usually  free  from  mildew. 

The  Champion,  an  Oregon  seedling  grown  by  Seth  Lewelling,  is 
medium  sized,  very  smooth,  and  thick  fleshed,  the  seeds  being  few 
and  small.  They  are  free  from  mildew,  and  are  clean,  bright  and 


GROWING   RASPBERRIES  423 

beautiful.    The  Columbus,  another  large  variety,  is  of  good  quality 
and  resists  mildew  well. 

A  remarkable  gooseberry  is  the  Trebla,  originated  by  Mr.  Albert 
F.  Etter,  of  Ettersburg,  Humboldt  County,  as  a  natural  hybrid  be- 
tween the  wild  species  (  divaricatum;  and  the  Champion  growing 
nearby.  The  fruit,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a  red  currant  and  dark 
purple  when  ripe,  has  a  flavor  between  the  gooseberry  and  currant, 
but  much  stronger,  and  for  culinary  purposes  may  replace  the  red 
currant  in  places  where  the  latter  does  not  thrive. 


THE  MULBERRY 

Nearly  all  varieties  of  the  mulberry  have  been  introduced  in 
California  and  grown  rapidly  and  thriftily.  Most  attention  has 
been  paid  to  those  varieties  most  suitable  for  feeding  silkworms, 
but  the  fruiting  varieties  are  also  grown  here,  though  the  fruit  has 
assumed  no  commercial  importance.  The  mulberry  is  grown  readily 
from  cuttings.  The  fruiting  varieties  thus  far  chiefly  distributed 
are  Lick's  American,  Chinese,  the  Persian,  the  New  American,  the 
Russian,  and  the  Black  Mulberry  of  Spain.  All  these  bear  large 
and  desirable  fruit.  The  mulberry  has  a  long  season;  the  Persian 
ripening  from  the  last  of  May  and  continuously  thereafter  until 
October. 

THE  RASPBERRY 

The  raspberry  is  another  of  the  great  small  fruits  of  California. 
It  thrives  over  a  great  area  of  the  State;  in  fact,  there  are  few 
situations  in  which  it  can  not  be  grown  with  at  least  a  measure  of 
success  if  proper  attention  is  given  to  retention  of  moisture  in  the 
surface  soil,  and  to  giving  the  plants  partial  shade  in  the  heated 
valleys,  and  choosing  the  cooler  exposures  in  the  foothills.  The  rasp- 
berry, skillfully  pruned  and  generously  fed  and  cared  for,  is  almost 
a  constant  bearer,  as  has  already  been  intimated.  It  is  a  continual 
delight  in  the  home  garden,  and  always  brings  a  high  average  rate 
in  local  and  metropolitan  markets.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  raspberry  is  insistent  upon  adequate  moisture  in  the  soil  and  re- 
quires good  cultivation  and  irrigation — even  in  localities  where  the 
rainfall  is  considerable  and  the  soil  retentive.  Neglected  raspberry 
plants  are  likely  to  die  outright  in  summer  or  early  autumn  even 
where  blackberries  may  pull  through. 

The  culture  of  the  raspberry  is  in  the  main  like  that  of  the  black- 
berry, as  already  described.  The  red  varieties,  which  are  the  kinds 
almost  exclusively  grown  in  this  State,  are  propagated  by  suckers 
and  root  cuttings  like  the  blackberry,  but  the  "black  caps"  are 
propagated  by  layering  the  cane  tips  during  the  growing  season,  and 
this  method  is  also  necessary  in  the  loganberry  and  other  blackberry- 
raspberry  hybrids.  Bending  down  a  cane  with  its  branches  and  cov- 
ering lightly  with  soil  and  with  a  light  mulch  to  retain  moisture, 
will  result  in  free  rooting  of  the  buried  parts,  and  one  can  sometimes 
secure  a  dozen  plants  by  the  layering  of  a  single  cane  with  its 


424  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

laterals.  If  this  is  done  early  in  the  fall  rootings  for  winter  planting 
can  be  had. 

The  pruning  of  the  raspberry  is  also  by  the  renewal  system,  as 
advised  for  the  blackberry.  The  topping  off  of  new  canes,  when 
they  reach  about  three  feet  in  height,  the  subsequent  pinching  of 
the  laterals  which  are  thus  forced  out,  the  resolute  thinning  out  of 
sprouts  so  that  but  three  or  four  strong  canes  are  allowed  from  one 
root,  the  faithful  repression  of  all  weeds,  the  maintenance  of  a  loose 
surface  layer  of  the  soil  by  very  shallow  cultivation,  the  free 
application  of  manure  and  of  water  unless  a  continually  moist  con- 
dition near  the  surface  can  be  secured  by  cultivation  and  mulching — 
all  these  are  among  the  essentials  of  cultivation  which  will  secure 
abundant  fruit  and  a  long  bearing  season.  However,  as  has  already 
been  stated  with  regard  to  blackberries,  there  are  large  plantations 
which  pursue  a  less  careful  system  of  cultivation,  especially  in  the 
moderate  heat  and  drouth  of  the  coast  district. 

Continuous  bearing  of  the  raspberry  may  be  secured  in  those 
varieties  which  endure  the  treatment,  by  cutting  out  a  cane  as  soon 
as  its  fruit  is  gathered,  the  force  of  the  plant  being  then  devoted 
to  the  fruiting  of  a  second  cane,  which  has  previously  been  pinched, 
and  a  third  shoot  is  pinched  and  allowed  to  mature  its  wood  to 
carry  over  and  bear  the  first  crop  of  the  following  year.  A  suc- 
cession of  sprouts  is  gained  by  pinching  off  the  tips  of  some  as  soon 
as  they  have  grown  up  a  few  inches,  which  results  in  the  growth  of 
later  shoots  lower  on  the  stems.  In  this  way  a  succession  of  fruit 
is  obtained. 

The  Cuthbert  and  other  strong-growing  varieties,  after  the  pinch- 
ing at  about  three  feet  from  the  ground,  will  send  out  laterals  which 
will  bear  late  in  the  fall,  and  the  same  cane  will  bear  a  crop  early 
in  the  following  spring,  when  its  career  is  ended  and  it  should  be 
removed. 

Raspberries  are  planted  about  three  feet  apart  in  rows,  and  the 
rows  about  six  feet  apart.  They  can  be  well  grown  nearer  together 
than  is  required  for  blackberries. 

Growth  in  Matted  Rows. — Many  raspberries  are  grown  in  matted 
rows  2  to  4  feet  wide  and  5  to  7  feet  between  the  rows.    The  greater 
distance  is  preferred  because  it  cheapens  the  picking  and  admits 
more  light.    The  new  growth  sometimes  runs  up  eight  or  ten  feet,  but 
in  December  all  canes  are  cut  back  about  two  feet  above  ground. 
Then  all  those  that  have  borne  fruit  are  cut  off  at  the  ground  with 
hooked  knife  on  the  end  of  a  round  handle  a  foot  long.     All  ex- 
cept five  or  six  of  the  strongest  canes  per  running  foot  are   also 
cut  off  entirely.     If  any  are  to  be  planted  elsewhere  or   sold   for 
plants^  their  roots  are  loosened  with  a  spade;  the  canes  of  the  past 
sons  growth  are  pulled  out  and  cut  back  about  a  foot  for  this 
The  vigorous  canes  that  remain  for  the  next  crop  send 
to  five  vigorous  laterals  in  the  spring.     About  the  time 
are  nearly  shoulder-high  to  a  short  man  the   freest  growing 
s  are  pinched  back  to  force  the  growth  into  fruit  spurs  which 


LOGAN  AND  PHENOMENAL  BERRIES  425 

develop  from  the  leaf  axils  on  as  many  as  a  dozen  of  these  laterals 
per  cane. 

A  Raspberry  Trellis. — Mr.  Louis  F.  Scribner,  a  well-known 
berry  grower  of  Pasadena,  commends  a  double-wire  trellis  made  in 
this  way: 

At  each  end  of  a  row  a  post  should  be  deeply  set  and  firmly  anchored 
by  brace  or  anchor  wire,  and  a  2x3  redwood  or  cedar  post  should  be  set 
about  every  20  feet  in  the  row  and  a  wire  stretched  on  each  side  about 
three  feet  from  the  ground.  These  wires  when  stretched  will  be  the 
width  of  the  post  in  distance  apart,  and  serve  to  keep  the  canes  erect  and 
in  the  row  where  they  belong,  so  that  cultivation  and  picking  will  not 
destroy  the  tender  growth.  The  field  should  be  gone  over  at  intervals  and 
canes  drawn  up  between  the  wires  when  long  enough. 

Behavior  of  varieties  under  pruning  varies  greatly.  Surprise  can  be 
pruned  to  advantage  when  dormant,  but  if  cut  back  when  sap  is  flowing 
and  weather  is  hot  they  often  die.  This  variety  will  bear  two  crops  if 
handled  right  and  none  at  all  if  abused.  A  variety  like  the  Idaho  needs 
very  little  if  any  cutting  back,  and  the  Superlative  likes  to  swing  grace- 
fully over  the  trellis.  The  good  old  Cuthbert  should  be  cut  back  with 
care,  leaving  as  much  cane  as  can  be  supported  by  the  wires.  The  Red 
Antwerp  is  much  like  the  Cuthbert.  The  Ruby,  Miller,  London,  Herbert 
and  St.  Regis  are  all  good  varieties  and  require  about  the  same  care.  The 
latter  variety  gives  out  an  abundant  sucker  growth,  which  is  not  desirable 
when  not  confined. 

Varieties  of  the  Raspberry. — The  Cuthbert,  the  universally 
popular  and  most  largely  planted  sort,  is  a  profuse  grower,  with 
healthy  and  rich  foilage,  which  protects  fruit  from  sunburn;  an  ex- 
cellent bearer,  with  the  fruit  well  distributed  through  the  bush;  the 
fruit  comes  off  easily,  and  does  not  crumble,  is  of  fine  flavor,  and 
ships  well.  The  Hansel  and  Red  Antwerp  and  several  newer  varieties 
mentioned  above  by  Mr.  Scribner  are  grown  to  a  limited  extent — the 
St.  Regis  leading  because  of  quickly  coming  into  bearing  and  long 
seasonal  production. 

The  Black  Cap  varieties  thrive  fairly  in  most  parts  of  the  State, 
but  only  limited  quantities  sell  well  in  the  markets.  The  golden  or 
yellow  raspberries  are  also  out  of  favor,  because  they  are  shy  bearers 
and  cut  no  figure  in  the  California  product,  but  are  esteemed  by 
amateurs. 

LOGANBERRY  AND  PHENOMENAL 

These  two  trailing  berries,  which  originated  in  California,  have 
been  for  many  years  held  to  be  products  of  hybridization,  as  will 
be  stated  below.*  Recently  they  have  been  pronounced  not  hy- 
brids, but  variants  of  the  native  trailing  blackberry  of  this  State. 
In  this  connection  the  question  is  unimportant  and  may  be  deposited 
with  the  botanists  who  have  raised  it. 

The  Loganberry  was  originated  by  Judge  J.  H.  Logan  of  Santa 
Cruz,  and  is  a  cross  between  the  California  wild  blackberry  and  a 
red  raspberry,  thought  to  be  the  Red  Antwerp.  It  was  a  chance 
hybrid  developed  by  growing  plants  from  the  seed  of  the  wild  black- 
berry in  1881.  The  plant  was  multiplied  by  its  originator  and  fruited 

*"The  Logan  Blackberry  and  Related  Varieties,"  by  George  M.  Darrow.  Farmers'  Bul- 
letin No.  998.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1918. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

for  more  than  ten  years,  plants  being  meantime  given  to  Mr.  James 
Waters,  of  Watsonville,  who  grew  it  on  a  commercial  scale  and  was 
gratified  at  the  results  of  his  marketing  of  the  fruit.  The  variety  was 
first  given  to  the  public  through  the  University  of  California  in  1893 
and  has  proved  a  most  valuable  fruit  in  all  parts  of  California  not 
only  as  fresh  fruit  but  as  a  source  of  juice  and  jam  products  which 
have  unique  characters.  The  Loganberry  is  an  exceedingly  robust 
grower,  and  has  unique  foliage  and  cane  growth  as  well  as  fruit. 
The  fruit  is  strikingly  large  and  handsome ;  sometimes  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  long,  with  the  shape  of  a  blackberry,  and  sometimes  the  hue 
of  a  dark  red  raspberry.  The  flavor  is  unique  and  peculiar,  and  gives 
to  many  tastes  suggestions  of  the  combination  of  blackberry  and  rasp- 
berry flavors.  The  culture  of  the  Loganberry  is  like  that  of  the  dew- 
berry— DOth  in  growth  and  propagation,  rooting  readily  from  cane 
tips  without  covering,  unless  many  plants  are  desired,  and  then  a 
covered  cane  will  root  at  each  joint. 

The  Phenomenal  is  a  hybrid  which  is  grown  for  a  trade  which 
prefers  a  less  sharp  acid  than  that  of  the  Loganberry.  It  originated 
with  Mr.  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa  Rosa,  and  is  a  cross  between 
the  California  dewberry  and  a  red  raspberry.  It  is  exceedingly 
large,  bright  crimson,  very  productive  and  of  delicious  flavor.  The 
fruit  comes  in  large  clusters  and  single  berries  have  weighed  four 
to  the  ounce.  In  shipping  it  holds  shape  and  color  well.  The 
Phenomenal  is  counted  about  one  week  later  than  the  Loganberry. 

Tnellising  for  Hybrid  Berries. — The  discussion  and  methods  for 
training  the  trailing  blackberries,  already  given  at  much  length  in 
this  chapter,  apply  also  to  the  Loganberry  and  Phenomenal.  A 
special  arrangement  commended  for  the  Loganberry  is  the  following: 

Plant  the  rows  eight  feet  apart  and  vines  four  feet  apart  in  the  row. 
Use  common  fence  posts  for  trellising,  setting  them  sixteen  or  twenty 
feet  apart,  four  feet  high  after  they  are  set;  then  measure  from  top  of  post 
one  foot  down  and  nail  a  two-foot  crosspiece;  use  three  wires,  stapling 
one  to  the  top  of  the  posts  and  one  on  each  side  to  the  ends  of  the  cross- 
pieces.  This  gives  a  nice  oval  surface  with  three  times  the  room  as  having 
the  wires  one  above  the  other  on  the  post.  The  new  growth  is  allowed  to 
run  on  the  ground  all  summer  while  last  year's  wood  on  the  trellis  is 
bearing  a  crop.  The  new  growth  is  not  much  in  the  way,  for  its  laterals 
do  not  develop  till  picking  is  over.  Immediately  after  this  or  any  time  up 
to  the  next  spring,  the  canes  which  bore  this  year  are  cut  en  masse  from 
their  low  trellis  and  the  new  growth  is  lifted  from  the  ground,  spread  on 
the  trellis  and  tied  securely  to  the  wires. 

THE  STRAWBERRY 

"Strawberries    all    the    year   round"    is    the    trite    expression    by 

which  the  charms   of  the   California  climate   are   characterized.      It 

is   no  fiction,   for   in   the   wonderfully   even   climate   of   the   regions 

ijacent  to  the  coast  and  in  thermal  belts  in  the  interior,  the  straw- 

erry  plant  blooms  and  bears  almost  continuously,  providing  proper 

oisture  conditions  are  maintained  in  the  soil.     There  are,  however, 

two  or  three  more  or  less  well-defined  crops.     The  occurrence  of 


SOILS    FOR    STRAWBERRIES  427 

these  crops  during  the  season  and  the  relation  of  irrigation  to  them 
in  the  Sevastopol  district  of  Sonoma  county  is  thus  described: 

We  commence  cultivating  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  possibly  be 
worked  in  the  spring  and  continue  with  a  very  thorough  cultivation  until 
the  first  crop  nearly  reaches  maturity.  From  this  time  until  the  first  crop 
is  nearly  over,  the  weeds  are  pulled  by  hand,  being  careful  not  to  disturb 
the  surface  of  the  ground  too  much  close  to  the  plants. 

As  soon  as  the  first  crop  is  about  gone,  the  first  irrigation  is  given. 
This  is  continued  until  the  second  crop  is  well  on  its  way,  at  the  same 
time  cultivating  thoroughly,  but  not  too  deep  or  too  close  to  the  plant. 

During  the  harvesting  of  the  second  crop  in  June  and  the  first  part  of 
July,  the  irrigating  is  lessened  to  quite  an  extent.  As  soon  as  the  second 
crop  is  off,  the  water  is  kept  off  entirely  for  about  three  weeks. 

Irrigation  is  then  commenced  again  and  kept  up  continuously  until 
fall.  In  about  three  weeks  after  this  fall  irrigation  is  commenced,  the 
new  leaves  and  buds  commence  to  appear,  and  in  a  short  time  the  field 
looks  as  fresh  and  fine  as  it  did  in  the  spring.  By  October  1  the  fall  or 
third  crop  is  being  harvested.  The  berries  are  of  an  exceedingly  fine 
flavor,  color  and  size,  and  sell  at  fancy  prices. 

"Strawberries  all  the  year"  does  not  mean  a  uniform  supply; 
nor  does  it  mean  that  everywhere  in  California  can  one  expect  such 
constant  fruiting.  In  the  very  hot  interior  situations  the  plant  rebels 
against  the  atmospheric  conditions  of  midsummer,  even  though  the 
ground  be  moist;  and  in  frosty  places  the  plants  become  dormant 
during  the  wintry  portion  of  the  year.  The  conditions  of  constant 
growth  and  bearing  are  moderation  of  temperature  and  of  atmospheric 
and  soil  moisture  throughout  the  year. 

Situations  and  Soils  for  the  Strawberry. — Bearing  in  mind  the 
conditions  described,  the  strawberry  can  be  grown  anywhere  in 
California.  The  native  species,  as  mentioned  in  Chapter  V,  flourish 
from  the  sand  of  the  ocean  beach  to  the  rich  valleys  of  the  Sierra, 
just  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  deduction  is  that 
wherever  fertile  soil  and  sweet  water  can  be  brought  together  in 
California,  the  strawberry  will  reward  the  grower. 

Strawberries  do  well  on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  as  a  rule  a  deep, 
moist,  loamy  soil  will  yield  best  results.  Boggy  or  swampy  spots 
should  be  avoided  unless  drainage  is  provided,  and  in  this  way  most 
excellent  strawberry  ground  may  sometimes  be  secured.  Land  which 
will  produce  good  potatoes  or  corn  will  generally  yield  good  results 
with  strawberries,  provided  irrigation  is  furnished.  In  many  regions 
the  plants  will  hardly  survive  the  summer  without  irrigation  and 
everywhere  a  succession  of  crops  during  the  season  depends  upon 
irrigation.  It  is  the  common  experience  that  light,  warm  soils  yield 
the  earliest  and  highest-flavored  berries,  and  heavy  soils  the  later  and 
larger  ones;  but  the  size  of  the  berry  depends  more  upon  the  supply 
of  available  moisture,  and  immense  fruit  can  be  produced  on  loose, 
open  soils  by  free  irrigation.  And  yet  the  heavier  soil,  both  because 
of  its  usually  superior  fertility  and  retention  of  moisture,  is  preferred 
for  the  strawberry.  The  largest  producing  regions  for  the  San  Fran- 
cisco market  in  the  Santa  Clara  and  Pajaro  Valleys  are  comprised 
mainly  of  low-lying,  heavy  valley  soils  naturally  moist  and  rich,  and 
furnished  with  abundant  water  supply  for  irrigation.  And  yet  in 
southern  California  the  chief  market  crops  are  produced  upon  light 


42g  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

sandy  loams  with  water  equal  to  the  needs  of  the  plants  upon  such  a 
footing.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  strawberry  is  a  shallow- 
rooting  plant  and  must  have  moisture  retained  near  the  surface. 
Some  loose  soils,  especially  on  uplands,  are  almost  out  of  the  question 
for  strawberry  growing.  They  are  so  leachy  that  they  will  not  hold 
moisture  near  the  surface  though  one  should  stand  with  a  hose  and 
almost  continually  pour  it  on.  The  plants  would  also  dry  up  though 
the  water  were  running  near  by  in  a  ditch.  To  grow  strawberries 
it  is  often  an  advantage  to  have  a  shallow  loam  over  clay  or  hard- 
pan,  for  then  the  tight  layer  below  will  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
water  below  the  reach  of  the  roots.  If  this  can  not  be  had,  the  best 
way  to  grow  strawberries  on  leachy  soils  for  home  use  is  to  mulch 
and  sprinkle. 

Propagation  of  the  Strawberry. — Seedlings  undertaken  in  the 
hope  of  originating  valuable  new  varieties  are  easily  grown  by 
taking  off  the  outside  layer  of  the  choicest  berries,  which  carries 
with  it  the  small,  yellow  seeds.  Wash  these  from  the  skin  and 
cover  them  slightly  in  a  sandy  soil  partially  shaded  and  kept  moist 
by  sprinkling,  or  a  light  mulch,  and  the  plants  are  readily  grown. 
As  with  seedlings  of  other  fruits,  few  if  any,  will  be  found  superior 
to  the  parent  variety. 

Plants  for  setting  out  are  secured  by  tafling  off  the  small  growths 
rooted  from  runners.  The  strongest  plants  are  those  nearest  to  the 
parent  plant.  When  these  are  allowed  to  root  in  small  pots  plunged 
into  the  soil,  they  are  called  "pot-grown,"  and  are  superior  for  plant- 
ing out,  but  they  are  not  largely  used  in  this  State.  When  plants  of 
any  variety  are  desired  for  new  beds  or  fields,  a  row  or  more  are 
allowed  to  send  out  runners  during  the  summer,  and  these  are  fit 
for  taking  up  and  replanting  the  following  winter  or  spring. 

Laying  Off  Ground  for  Strawberries. — The  essentials  are  deep 
and  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil  and  grading  of  the  surface 
so  that  water  will  flow  slowly  in  the  ditches.  The  inclination  which 
answers  for  water  distribution  may  be  very  slight;  about  two  inches 
to  the  hundred  feet  answers  on  the  level  lands  of  the  Pajaro  Valley, 
while  in  the  foothills  much  greater  fall  is  made  use  of,  and  on  hill- 
sides, rows  are  located  on  contour  lines  and  not  in  straight  lines. 
A  grade  of  three  and  three-quarters  inches  to  the  hundred  feet  is 
sometimes  used.  The  triangle  described  in  Chapter  XV  can  be  used 
to  fix  the  grades. 

Of  course,  in  grading  the  field  it  is  often  necessary  to  give  ad- 
jacent blocks  opposite  inclinations  to  provide  for  the  return  of  the 
water.  On  hillsides,  where  the  water  is  carried  down  a  ridge  to  a 
flume,  it  is  usual  to  keep  the  water  always  running  away  from  the 
flume,  and  only  enough  is  taken  out  to  reach  the  ends  of  the  small 
ditches.  A  grade  of  six  inches  to  the  rod  is  practicable  for  hillside 
irrigation,  but  of  course  only  a  small  flow  of  water  is  employed. 

There  are  various  ways  of  laying  out  strawberry  beds  and 
plantations.  Some  give  flat  cultivation  and  lay  out  in  single  rows 
two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  in  some  districts 


PLANTING   STRAWBERRIES  429 

flat  culture  is  unquestionably  the  best.  Others  lay  out  in  double  rows 
a  foot  and  one-half  to  two  feet  apart,  and  between  each  pair  of 
rows  the  soil  from  the  center  is  drawn  up  to  each  side,  making  a  low 
ridge  or  level  a  little  higher  than  the  surface  on  which  the  plants 
are  set.  This  level  serves  as  a  walk  between  the  beds  and  holds 
back  the  water  upon  the  bed  when  irrigated  by  flooding.  Another, 
and  generally  adopted  plan,  is  to  have  the  plants  in  double  rows  on 
a  slight  ridge,  while  between  the  beds  is  a  furrow  which  serves  as 
a  walk  and  for  irrigation.  This  is  accomplished  by  throwing  up  the 
soil  with  the  plow  into  ridges  about  two  feet  wide,  with  a  double 
furrow  between.  On  the  sides  of  these  ridges  the  plants  are  set, 
and  often  on  the  top  of  the  ridge  between  the  rows  of  strawberries 
a  single  row  of  onions  or  lettuce,  or  some  other  vegetable,  is  grown 
the  first  year.  In  irrigation  the  water  is  drawn  up  from  the  trenches 
by  the  roots  and  by  capillary  attraction,  and  the  upper  surface  does 
not  bake,  as  it  would  by  flooding  if  the  soil  be  heavy.  In  hoeing  out 
weeds  and  in  fruit  gathering,  the  workman  walks  in  the  ditch  and 
does  not  pack  the  soil  around  the  plant  by  tramping.  This  is  the 
best  method  for  laying  out  for  large  plantations.  The  rows  are  a 
uniform  distance  apart  across  the  field,  whether  the  space  between 
be  a  ridge  or  a  ditch.  The  method  of  making  the  beds  a  little  lower 
than  the  general  surface  of  the  ground  answers  best  on  free,  open 
soils  with  perfect  drainage.  Cultivation  can  be  reduced  by  cover- 
ing the  depressed  surface  of  the  bed  with  mulch  of  fine,  clean  litter, 
such  as  chaff,  cut  straw,  etc.  This  retains  moisture  and  gives  the 
berry  a  clean  surface  to  rest  on.  Such  a  bed  is  an  excellent  ar- 
rangement for  the  home  garden. 

In  all  arrangements  the  plants  are  set  at  less  distances  in  the 
rows  than  the  rows  are  from  each  other.  Probably  the  prevailing 
distance  is  one  foot  between  the  plants ;  the  range  is  from  eight  to 
eighteen  inches  in  the  practice  of  different  growers,  and  determined, 
of  course,  largely  by  the  habit  of  the  variety.  A  vine  with  a  spread- 
ing growth  and  long  fruit  stem  needs,  perhaps,  sixteen  inches  which 
some  growers  give  it,  while  the  smaller,  more  compact  growers  may 
do  well  with  half  that  distance. 

Planting  Strawberries. — Strawberry  plants  are  set  out  either  in 
spring  or  fall,  or  at  any  time  in  the  winter  when  the  ground  is( 
warm  or  in  good  condition.  Fall  planting  usually  gives  a  fuller 
spring  crop,  though  planting  as  late  as  February  has  brought  two 
crops  the  following  spring  and  summer,  and  planting  in  April  has 
secured  fruit  the  same  year,  but  it  is  better  to  prevent  it  and  induce 
more  growth.  Spring  planting  is  in  April  and  May.  In  the  drier 
parts  of  the  State,  early  fall  or  winter  planting  is  more  essential  than 
elsewhere.  If  the  ground  is  dry,  water  should  always  be  used  in 
planting.  This  may  be  given  by  thorough  irrigation  of  the  ground 
before  planting,  or  a  little  water  may  be  used  in  setting  each  plant. 
At  planting  it  is  usually  best  to  remove  all  leaves  from  the  plant, 
shorten  the  roots  to  three  inches  or  less,  and  be  sure  the  plants  do 
not  dry  while  planting  progresses.  As  with  handling  rooted  grape- 
vines, it  is  advisable  to  carry  around  the  plants  in  a  vessel  which 


430  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

has  water  in  it.     If  the  plants  have  been  received  by  mail  they  are 
invigorated  by  soaking  in  water  a  few  hours  before  planting. 

In  setting  the  plants,  scoop  out  a  little  excavation  with  the  hand 
or  a  trowel,  spread  the  roots  well,  cover  with  a  fine  soil,  being 
sure  that  the  crown  of  the  plant  shall  not  be  below  the  surface 
when  the  soil  is  leveled.  Too  many  strawberry  plants  are  buried, 
not  planted.  Some  plant  very  rapidly  by  using  a  dibble  to  make  a 
hole,  into  which  the  roots  are  dropped  and  soil  pressed  around  them 
by  using  the  dibble  alongside;  others  set  the  plants  on  the  side  of 
the  furrow,  trusting  to  the  next  furrow  to  complete  the  covering. 
Nearly  all  ways  succeed  if  the  plant  is  not  set  too  deeply  and  the 
ground  is  moist  at  planting  and  not  allowed  to  dry  out  afterwards 
— providing  good,  strong  plants  are  used.  In  buying  plants  it  is 
often  poor  economy  to  buy  the  cheapest. 

Staminate  and  Pistillate. — In  associating  varieties  be  sure  the 
pistillate  varieties  are  not  set  by  themselves.  Some  sorts  have  per- 
fect flowers  and  are  self- fertilizing ;  others  have  only  the  pistillate 
element  in  the  bloom  and  must  have  the  staminate  adjacent  in  an- 
other variety.  Several  varieties  largely  grown  in  California  have 
perfect  flowers,  though  some  pistillate  sorts  have  been  locally  ap- 
proved. This  matter  should  be  looked  into  before  planting  a  variety. 
Pistillate  varieties  should  have  staminate  kinds  in  every  fourth  row. 

Cane  of  the  Strawberry  Plantation. — Herein  lies  the  secret  of 
success  with  the  strawberry.  Neglect  has  led  to  disappointment 
and  condemnation  of  the  strawberry,  where  intelligent  care  would 
have  rendered  it  a  constant  delight.  The  chief  elements  of  proper 
care  may  be  thus  enumerated: 

Retention  of  moisture  very  near  the  surface  by  careful,  shallow 
cultivation  or  by  mulching,  persistent  destruction  of  weeds,  and 
compensation  for  summer  evaporation  by  frequent  irrigation.  The 
plants  during  the  bearing  season  should  never  be  allowed  to  show 
any  leaf-shriveling  from  drouth.  Frequency  of  irrigation  depends 
upon  local  conditions.  Irrigation  at  intervals  of  four  to  ten  days, 
according  to  the  soil,  are  the  outlines  of  prevailing  practice. 

Constantly  remove  runners  from  all  plants  except  those  it  is 
desired  to  multiply  to  furnish  new  plants  or  to  fill  the  rows.  Pinch- 
ing of  runners  should  always  accompany  picking  or  hoeing  of  weeds, 
and  on  the  garden  bed  there  can  be  no  excuse  for  neglect  in  this 
respect.  The  young  plants  should  be  faithfully  freed  from  runners 
to  strengthen  them  up  for  bearing. 

Though,  as  already  stated,  strawberries  may  in  some  locations 
be  had  all  winter,  it  is  better  practice,  as  a  general  rule,  to  lay  the 
plants  away  for  a  rest.  The  market  season  in  the  regions  sup- 
plying the  San  Francisco  market  extends  from  April  to  December, 
and  fruit  is  continuously  shipped  during  that  period.  At  the  ap- 
proach of  winter  in  the  last-named  month,  it  is  usual  to  go  over 
the  beds  with  a  sickle,  cutting  off  the  old  crops  of  leaves  close  to 
the  root  crown,  carefully  cleaning  up  the  plantation  for  the  heavy 
rams.  In  most  cases  it  will  be  a  great  advantage  then  to  cover 


STRAWBERRY  VARIETIES  431 

over  all  with  a  light  coat  of  good  manure,  which  the  winter  rains 
will  leach  down  into  the  soils.  The  result  of  the  fall  clipping  and 
enriching  will  be  an  early  and  strong  start  of  the  plant  in  the  spring, 
and  a  most  abundant  fruitage. 

Duration  of  the  Plantation. — Strawberry  plants  well  cared  for 
and  not  visited  by  insect  pests,  have  a  long,  productive,  and  prof- 
itable life  in  California.  Twelve-year-old  plants  are  sometimes 
reported  as  still  producing  abundantly.  It  is  customary  to  count 
from  five  to  eight  years  as  the  profitable  life  of  a  plant,  though 
some  growers  replant  after  two  or  three  bearing  years.  The  ef- 
fective duration  depends  directly  upon  preventing  growth  of  new 
plants  and  too  close  matting  of  the  rows. 

Varieties  of  the  Strawberry. — Though  all  new  varieties  are 
tried  by  California  growers,  and  quite  a  number  may  be  consid- 
ered successful  either  for  market  or  for  home  use,  only  a  very  few 
may  be  said  to  be  widely  grown.  In  the  Watsonville  district, 
which  largely  supplies  San  Francisco,  the  Melinda,  which  some 
growers  hold  to  be  indistinguishable  from  the  Dollar,  was  chiefly 
grown,  but  Banner  is  displacing  it  and  Nick  Ohmer  and  Klondyke 
gaining  ground.  In  the  southern  Alameda  and  Santa  Clara  district 
the  Banner  was  at  first  grown  exclusively  by  some  large  growers, 
but  is  gaining  ground  in  other  districts.  In  the  Florin  district, 
near  Sacramento,  growing  berries  to  ship  all  through  the  northern 
States  of  the  coast  and  eastward  to  Colorado,  the  Dollar  is  grown 
almost  exclusively,  with  a  few  Jerseys  for  extra  early.  Other  vari- 
eties which  do  well  in  the  interior  valley  are:  Longworth,  Lady 
Thompson,  and  Tennessee  Prolific.  In  the  Fresno  district,  Mar- 
shall and  Jessie  are  chiefly  grown. 

In  the  districts  near  Los  Angeles,  the  Brandywine  prevails. 
It  is  best  for  shipping  and  is  held  to  be  sweeter  than  at  the  east; 
and  next  to  it,  in  the  commercial  fields  at  the  south,  are  Excelsior 
and  Klondyke.  The  Arizona  Everbearing  is  declining  in  popu- 
larity, although  still  favored  by  some  growers  in  Southern  California. 

Three  old  kinds  which  still  hold  favor  for  home  use  and  local 
sale  are  the  Longworth  Prolific,  the  Sharpless,  and  the  Monarch 
of  the  West.  The  Sharpless  is  the  most  widely  grown ;  the  Mon- 
arch shows  better  size  and  color  in  Southern  California  and  on  the 
Sierra  foothills  than  in  the  regions  adjacent  to  San  Francisco, 
although  it  is  still  grown  therein  to  some  extent.  The  Longworth 
is  an  old  favorite,  early,  productive  and  hardy,  and  its  style  has 
become  very  popular  in  the  markets.  Wilson's  Albany  also  holds 
favor. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  varieties  show  marked  difference 
in  behavior  in  different  soils  and  situations.  In  planting  for  market 
or  home  use  the  planter  will  be  safer  in  making  his  largest  planta- 
tions of  the  varieties  commended  by  leading  growers  and  well 
informed  nurserymen,  and  at  the  same  time  he  should  put  out 
experimental  plants  of  other  varieties.  Mr.  H.  A.  Hyde  of  Wat- 
sonville is  getting  some  surprising  results  by  selecting  distinctly 
prolific  strains  of  Nick  Ohmer,  Klondyke,  Magoon  and  Melinda. 


432 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 


The  most  notable  work  for  new  varieties  in  California  is  being 
pursued  by  Mr.  Albert  F.  Etter,  of  Ettersburg,  Humboldt  County. 
He  is  crossing  cultivated  varieties  with  local  wild  species  and  is  thus 
introducing  factors  not  employed  hitherto  with  results  which  are 
notable  in  size,  thrift  and  disease-resistance  of  the  plants  and  in 
prolific  bearing  of  fruit  of  unique  characters  for  long  shipment 
and  for  canning  as  well  as  for  possession  of  the  traditional  delicious- 
ness  and  desirability  of  the  strawberry.  Mr.  Etter  has  described 
his  material,  methods  and  results  in  detail  in  the  Pacific  Rural  Press 
of  January  23,  1915;  March  4,  1916;  January  26,  1918;  March  1, 
1919,  and  January  8,  1921.  The  relation  of  Mr.  Etter's  work  to  the 
commercial  production  of  strawberries  will  be  disclosed  by  the 
wide  trial  being  made  of  his  varieties. 

The  Banner  which  has  been  mentioned  as  advancing  in  favor 
is  said  to  have  been  discovered  on  the  Sweet  Briar  Ranch  near  Cas- 
tella,  California,  in  1899.  Mr.  Loftus,  the  owner  of  the  ranch,  had 
a  bed  of  strawberries  of  a  standard  Eastern  variety.  The  old  plants 
had  been  dug  out  and  thrown  aside.  The  following  spring  a  plant 
was  discovered  which  showed  distinct  characteristics  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  the  others,  and  from  this  plant  was  developed  the 
Banner  berry  as  it  is  now  known. 


PART  SEVEN :    NUTS 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

THE  ALMOND 

Two  nuts  have  arisen  to  large  commercial  importance  in  Cali- 
fornia :  the  English  walnut  and  the  almond.  Other  nuts  than  these, 
except  peanuts,  have  never  attained  great  acreage,  although  sev- 
eral have  succeeded  and  promise  to  become  popular. 

The  production  of  almonds  during  the  last  decade  has  been  as 
follows,  in  tons  of  2,000  Ibs. : 

1910 3300  1916  .  .  3400 

1911 1700  1917 4000 

1912 3000  1918 5168 

1913 1000  1919 7000 

1914 2250  1920 5500 

1915 3500 

Almonds  are  chiefly  grown  in  a  commercial  way  in  the  interior 
valleys  of  central  California,  although  there  are  extensions  into  the 
more  northerly  counties  of  the  Sacramento  Valley.  On  the  coast 
there  is  large  acreage  in  the  Paso  Robles  region  of  San  Luis  Obispo 
County,  and  in  southern  California  the  largest  production  is  in  the 
Banning  district  of  Riverside  County.  The  production  rapidly 
increased  because  of  successful  marketing  through  the  California 
Almond  Growers  Exchange  during  the  practical  exclusion  of  Euro- 
pean almonds  by  the  war,  but  in  1920  California  almonds  were 
made  almost  unsalable  at  profitable  prices  by  importations  which 
will  be  reduced  by  restoration  of  a  protective  duty,  and  because  of 
a  better  understanding  of  the  natural  conditions  required  for  suc- 
cessful operations  with  the  almond  tree.*  The  numbers  of  trees 
now  growing  in  California  and  a  valuation  of  the  product  are  given 
in  Chapter  VI. 

Vicissitudes  of  the  Almond. — The  almond  has  an  interesting 
history  in  California,  but  it  can  be  outlined  in  a  few  sentences.  The 
importation  of  the  best  European  varieties  began  very  early,  and 
a  number  of  them  had  been  planted  in  1853.  They  proved  irregular 
bearers,  though  the  trees  grew  thriftily  and  in  some  cases  showed 
fruit  very  soon  after  planting.  The  barren  almond  trees  were 
largely  grafted  into  prunes  or  made  into  firewood  and  the  con- 
clusion was  reached  that  to  secure  regularity  and  abundance  in 
fruiting,  locations  for  almond  orchards  must  be  sought  with  the 
utmost  care,  and  that  the  secret  of  success  lay  in  the  location.  After 
that  local  seedlings  seemed  to  demonstrate  their  value  in  regular 
crops,  and  in  characteristics  and  qualities  superior  to  foreign  kinds. 

*A  v«ry  satisfactory  publication  is  "The  Almond  in  California,"  by  R.  H.  Taylor:  Bul- 
letin 297  of  the  University  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Large  planting  was  then  undertaken  on  the  ground  that  the  choice 
of  soil  and  situation,  and  the  selection  of  trustworthy  varieties,  are 
both  factors  of  success,  but  that  possibly  more  lay  in  the  choice  of 
variety  than  of  location.  This  belief  led  to  the  wide  planting  in 
locations  now  seen  to  be  unfitted  by  reason  of  frosts  and  losses 
were  again  encountered.  Now  it  seems  to  be  fully  demonstrated 
that  no  matter  what  variety  is  planted  locations  for  the  almond 
must  be  selected  with  great  care.  It  has  also  been  demonstrated 
that  association  of  varieties  promotes  pollination  and  satisfactory 
bearing,  as  will  be  stated  later.  Notwithstanding  such  cultural 
wisdom  and  the  progress  made  by  growers  in  co-operative  market- 
ing, the  need  of  shelling  inferior  varieties,  which  can  not  be  done 
profitably  with  high-cost  labor,  and  other  commercial  difficulties, 
the  planting  interest  in  1921  is  at  low  ebb. 

Situations  and  Soils  for  the  Almond. — Almonds  are  now  doing 
best  on  the  higher  lands  in  coast  valleys,  free  from  fogs  and  pro- 
tected from  direct  winds,  but  subject  to  tempered  breezes ;  also  at 
various  points  in  the  interior  valleys  and  foothills.  The  general 
proposition  that  low  lands  in  small  valleys  should  be  avoided,  and 
bench  or  hillside  situations  preferred,  seems  to  be  a  safe  one.  Lands 
directly  upon  the  coast  have  not  proved  satisfactory.  In  the  large 
interior  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  almonds  are 
successfully  grown  on  flat  valley  lands  but  little  lifted  above  sea 
level  and  from  such  plains  the  chief  product  comes.  Why  almonds 
are  safer  on  the  low  lands  of  a  great  valley  than  of  a  small  valley  is 
explained  by  the  discussion  in  Chapter  I. 

The  almond  prefers  a  loose,  light,  warm  soil,  and  heavy,  poorly- 
drained  soils  should  be  avoided.  Though  they  need  moisture  enough 
to  make  good,  thrifty  growth  they  will  produce  good  crops  on  soils 
that  are  too  light  or  dry  to  grow  satisfactory  peaches,  apricots, 
nectarines,  cherries,  or  similar  pulpy  fruits.  The  almond  is,  how- 
ever, a  very  deep-rooting  tree,  and  may  succeed  by  reaching  deeply 
for  moisture  rather  than  by  denying  itself,  as  some  think.  The 
tree  certainly  suffers  and  is  barren  from  drouth  in  some  cases,  and 
a  certain  amount  of  irrigation  in  midsummer  is  very  desirable  in 
many  places.  Almonds  are  doing  well  in  alfalfa  with  irrigation — 
the  alfalfa  making  a  good  growth  and  still  leaving  soil-moisture 
enough  to  cause  the  nuts  to  open  their  hulls  better  than  on  drier 
ground  with  clean  cultivation — but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  get 
too  much  water  in  the  soil  for  the  health  of  the  roots. 

Propagating,  Planting,  and  Pruning.— The  almond  is  propagated 
from  seedlings  grown  as  described  in  Chapter  VIII,  and  budded  as 
described  in  Chapter  IX.  The  almond  root  is  chiefly  used,  though 
the  peach  answers  well  upon  soils  adapted  to  it.  The  apricot  root 
should  be  avoided,  and  plum  roots  have  proved  disappointing. 

For  planting  out,  trees  in  dormant  bud  are  very  successful  if 
given  proper  care.  Yearling  trees  are,  on  the  whole,  best  and 
usually  those  which  have  made  a  moderate  instead  of  a  very  large 
growth  are  to  be  preferred.  The  almond  makes  a  comparatively 
large  tree  and  should  have  plenty  of  room— not  less  than  twenty- 


PRUNING   THE   ALMOND  435 

four  feet  apart  (though  some  plantations  are  made  at  twenty  feet), 
and  thirty  feet  is  better. 

Old  almond  trees  are  readily  worked  over  to  other  varieties  by 
grafting  and  by  budding  into  new  shoots  forced  out  by  cutting  off 
large  branches.  Methods  with  the  peach  described  in  Chapter  XX 
are  applicable  to  the  almond. 

The  pruning  of  the  almond  is  more  important  than  formerly 
thought.  The  tree  should  be  headed  low  and  pruned  during  the 
first  three  years,  as  described  in  Chapter  XII,  to  secure  a  shapely, 
strong  tree.  After  the  third  year  little  pruning  is  usually  done 
except  to  thin  out  objectionable  branches.  Suckers,  or  rank  new 
growth,  in  the  center  of  the  tree  should  be  removed,  unless  more 
branches  are  needed;  such  growth  bears  little  and  takes  away 
strength  from  bearing  wood.  There  is  danger  of  allowing  the  trees 
to  become  too  dense  and  to  have  too  little  new  wood  for  fruit  bear- 
ing until  the  tree  is  cut  back  all  around  and  a  new  top  is  secured 
upon  the  old  forkings  of  main  branches.  This  has  been  successfully 
done  with  many  old  orchards.  A  wide  impression  has  recently 
prevailed  that  the  almond  has  been  pruned  too  little  and  there 
seems  little  doubt  that  pruning  for  continuous  renewal  of  bearing 
wood  must  be  provided.  There  are  widely  variant  views  on  the 
extent  to  which  the  policy  should  be  carried.  Mr.  Leonard  Coates 
of  Morgan  Hill  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  almond  should 
be  pruned  like  the  peach — not  only  started  like  the  peach,  but 
annually  pruned  after  it  comes  into  bearing  for  the  production  of 
new  wood,  shortening  the  shoots  of  new  wood  and  thinning  out 
excess  of  such  shoots  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  too  brushy. 
When  this  is  done,  he  has  found  for  a  number  of  years  that  trees 
thus  pruned  bring  regular  and  heavy  crops,  while  adjacent  un- 
pruned  trees  have  a  scanty  set  of  nuts.  But  growers  shrink  from 
such  practice  because  of  the  considerable  cost  of  it. 

More  moderate  but  still  continual  pruning  is  practiced  by  Mr. 
J.  T.  Caldwell  of  San  Joaquin  County,  who  states  his  method  in 
this  way : 

I  do  not  like  to  wait  several  years  and  then  butcher  my  trees.  I  prune 
a  little  every  year,  watching  all  the  time  for  limbs  that  are  in  the  way  or 
getting  too  thick — taking  them  out  entirely,  whatever  size  they  may  be; 
but  there  are  seldom  any  big  ones  in  the  way,  nor  that  have  to  be  cut  out 
for  any  other  reason.  I  figure  just  on  thinning  out  the  brush,  taking  out 
the  suckers,  but  never  topping  back,  because  that  would  induce  a  whippy 
growth,  from  which  the  nuts  would  be  knocked  off  in  windy  weather,  and 
the  same  is  true  if  too  many  top  branches  are  allowed  close  together,  so 
that  the  full  force  of  the  wind  catches  them. 

The  cultivation  of  the  almond  orchard  is  the  same  as  commended 
for  other  fruit  trees,  and  as  the  trees  are  often  planted  in  naturally 
dry  soils,  the  greater  care  in  cultivation  is  needed  to  retain  sufficient 
moisture  to  give  good  size  to  the  nuts.  In  certain  locations,  of 
course,  irrigation  will  be  necessary,  but  usually  a  light  rainfall  will 
answer  if  good  cultivation  is  given.  The  chief  part  of  the  almond 
crop  is  grown  without  irrigation. 

Harvesting  Almonds. — There  is  some  variation  in  the  methods 
of  handling  almonds,  and  much  to  be  learned  by  visiting  commercial 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

orchards  at  harvesting  time,  but  the  following  explicit  account  of 
procedure  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Dargitz  conveys  general  outlines  of  methods 
and  materials: 

"When  the  hulls  on  the  nuts  are  loose  from  the  shells,  as  will  be 
indicated  by  their  bursting  open,  it  is  time  to  begin  gathering  if  you 
wish  to  hull  them.  If  they  get  too  dry  you  will  have  to  wet  them 
before  hulling  or  you  will  break  the  shells.  If  you^wish  to  shell 
them  then,  the  drier  they  get  the  better.  It  will  not  pay  to  begin 
until  the  nuts  about  the  crotches  of  the  trees  are  ready  and  they  will 
be  the  last  to  ripen.  When  they  are  all  ready  you  can  get  all  at  one 
gathering.  Have  some  sheets  made  of  heavy  unbleached  sheeting 
or  light  duck  or  sail  cloth.  Mine  for  large  trees  are  15x30  feet, 
handled  by  two  men  to  a  sheet  and  two  sheets  to  a  tree.  Spread 
the  sheets  under  the  tree,  one  on  each  side,  lapping  the  edges  where 
they  join.  Then  the  men  take  soft  wood  or  bamboo  poles  and  by 
jarring  the  limbs  cause  the  nuts  to  fall  on  the  sheets.  Always  strike 
the  limbs  sideways,  for  if  you  strike  a  glancing  blow  down  the  limb, 
you  will  reduce  next  year's  crop.  The  object  is  to  get  the  nuts  and 
disturb  the  foliage  as  little  as  possible.  When  the  nuts  are  all  off 
the  tree,  the  men  toss  their  poles  to  the  next  tree  and  then  gather 
up  the  sheets,  one  man  at  each  end  of  each  sheet,  and,  lifting  them, 
carry  them  to  the  next  tree,  where  the  process  is  repeated.  When 
enough  nuts  are  in  the  sheets  to  fill  several  lug  boxes,  the  boxes  are 
placed  on  the  ground  side  by  side,  and  the  sheets  are  emptied  into 
them.  These  boxes  are  then  stacked  up  so  as  to  be  easily  seen,  and 
the  teamster  hauls  them  to  the  sheds  where  machines  for  hulling 
are  located.  In  the  very  small  orchards  the  hulling  is  usually  done 
by  hand.  For  orchards  slightly  larger  there  are  small  hullers  which 
can  be  operated  by  hand  or  by  a  small  gasoline  engine  or  electric 
motor.  For  larger  orchards,  machines  which  can  hull  up  to ,  two 
or  three  tons  per  day  are  in  the  market." 

After  the  hulling  more  or  less  hand  sorting  is  required,  as  the 
small  machines  do  no  sorting,  while  the  larger  machines  do  more 
or  less  perfect  sorting  of  the  hulls  from  the  nuts. 

Bleaching. — After  this  hand  sorting,  the  nuts  are  spread  out  in 
the  sun  to  be  thoroughly  cured  before  bleaching.  After  they  are 
cured  so  that  the  kernel  will  break  without  bending,  they  are  ready 
for  bleaching.  The  bleaching  requires  the  dampening  of  the  shells. 
This  is  accomplished  by  immersing  quickly  in  water  or  by  a  fine 
spray  from  a  hose  nozzle,  or  by  putting  on  trays  and  running  in  the 
sulphur  house  and  then  introducing  low  pressure  steam — not  more 
than  30  pounds—into  the  sulphur  house  for  15  to  30  minutes.  The 
moisture  from  this  low-pressure  steam  heats  or  dampens  the  outer 
portion  of  the  shell,  and  then  while  they  are  both  hot  and  damp — 
the  steam  being  shut  off— the  sulphur  fumes  from  burning  sulphur 
are  introduced  in  the  sulphur  house  for  perhaps  15  to  30  minutes  and 
give  the  required  brightening  to  the  shell.  If  the  almonds  have 
been  immersed  before  bleaching  it  will  be  necessary  after  bleach- 
ing to  spread  them  out  in  the  sun  for  several  hours  and  stir  them 
occasionally  to  get  rid  of  the  excess  moisture.  If  they  have  been 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  ALMOND  437 

dampened  by  a  fine  spray  hose  they  may  or  may  not  need  this  dry- 
ing, but  they  must  be  perfectly  dry  before  being  sacked.  If  the 
steam  process  is  used,  the  nuts  can  be  taken  immediately  from  the 
sulphur  house  and  sacked,  and  the  heat  that  is  in  the  shell  will 
evaporate  the  small  amount  of  moisture  in  the  process  of  sacking. 
It  is  claimed  that,  after  the  outfit  is  provided,  the  steam  process 
costs  only  about  one-half  as  much  as  the  other  process  of  bleach- 
ing. If  the  shell  is  wet  through,  or  if  the  kernels  are  not  well  cured, 
or  if  the  shells  are  open  and  the  nuts  immersed  and  there  is  more 
or  less  water  inside  the  shells,  the  sulphur  will  materially  injure  the 
kernels  and  they  will  not  keep  well,  but  will  soon  become  rancid. 

Almonds  that  are  to  be  shelled  for  commercial  purposes  should 
not  be  bleached  under  any  circumstances,  as  the  only  object  to  be 
accomplished  in  bleaching  is  the  brightening  of  the  shell,  and  for 
shelling  purposes  the  shells  are  not  marketed. 

Pollination  of  the  Almond. — Careful  studies*  have  shown  that 
arrangements  for  pollination  are  essential  to  the  satisfactory  bear- 
ing of  nearly  all  the  varieties  now  being  grown  in  California.  The 
following  conclusions  are  most  widely  useful: 

California  may  be  pollinated  by  Nonpareil  and  Peerless. 

Drake  may  be  pollinated  by  California,  Languedoc,  Nonpareil  and  Texas; 
however,  Languedoc  is  a  poor  pollen  producer. 

Harriott  may  be  pollinated  by  Ne  Plus  Ultra. 

I.  X.  L.  may  be  pollinated  by  Drake. 

Ne  Plus  Ultra  may  be  pollinate  by  California,  I.  X.  L.,  Jordan,  and 
Nonpareil. 

Nonpareil  may  be  pollinated  by  California,  Drake,  Jordan,  Ne  Plus  Ultra, 
Peerless  and  Texas. 

Texas  may  be  pollinated  by  Drake  and  Nonpareil. 

One  colony  of  honey  bees  should  be  provided  for  each  acre  of  orchard. 

A  few  years  ago  there  was  a  general  disposition  to  plant  Drakes 
and  Texas  because  of  their  regular  bearing  and  their  pollinating 
effect  upon  the  Hatch  varieties.  The  Texas  has  proven  inferior  as 
table  almonds  and  sells  best  after  shelling,  which  is  too  expensive 
to  be  profitable.  It  seems  better  policy  to  plant  the  better  varieties 
and  rely  upon  their  cross-pollination  with  the  aid  of  the  bees.  The 
need  of  shelling  also  limits  the  desirability  of  hard  shell  almonds 
of  the  Jordan  type. 

Varieties  of  the  Almond. — Almonds  should  bear  well  every  year, 
hull  easily,  have  clean,  thin,  soft  shells,  and  a  smooth,  bright,  and 
plump  kernel.  Almonds  with  long,  single  kernels  are  preferred  to 
those  which  have  double  ones.  These  are  the  characters  which 
ruled  in  the  selection  of  new  varieties  by  the  pioneer  propagator 
of  new  almonds,  A.  T.  Hatch,  of  Suisun.  In  1878  Mr.  Hatch  planted 
out  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  seedling  almond  trees  grown 
from  the  bitter  almond  seed.  He  afterward  budded  all  the  seed- 
lings but  about  three  hundred  which  were  left  to  bearing  age  un- 
budded.  The  fruit  of  these  seedlings  was  of  all  degrees  of  excel- 
lence. A  few  of  the  best  of  them  were  selected  for  propagation  and 

*" Almond  Pollination,"  by  Warren  P.  Tufts:  California  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
No.  306,  Berkeley,  March,  1919. 


438  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

naming,  and  they  constitute  the  chief  part  of  the  acreage  which  is 
now  bearing  almonds  in  California. 

Excellent  seedling  almonds  have  also  been  produced  by  other 
growers.  The  following  list  includes  the  sorts  most  widely  grown : 
Nonpareil,  Drake,  IXL,  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  Peerless,  Texas  Prolific, 
Languedoc. 

IXL.— Tree  a  sturdy,  rather  upright  grower,  with  large  leaves;  nuts 
large  with,  as  a  rule,  single  kernels;  hulls  easily,  no  machine  being  needed, 
nor  is  any  bleaching  necessary;  shell  soft,  but  perfect;  largely  discarded 
for  shy  bearing,  but  desirable  in  some  places. 

Ne  Plus  Ultra.— Large  and  very  long  in  shape;  heavy  and  regular  bear- 
er; soft  shell;  hull  free. 

Nonpareil. — First  called  Extra.  Of  a  weeping  style  of  growth;  smaller 
foliage  than  the  IXL,  but  still  forms  a  beautiful  tree.  An  extraordinarily 
heavy  and  regular  bearer,  with  very  thin  shell,  of  the  Paper  Shell  type. 
Ripens  early  and  can  be  gathered  before  other  varieties  are  ready. 

Lewelling's  Prolific. — Originated  with  the  late  Mr.  John  Lewelling;  ''tree 
a  great  bearer;  of  drooping  habit;  nut  large  and  good;  soft  shell;  hull 
free." — Leonard  Coates. 

Harriott's  Seedling  (or  Commercial). — From  Visalia,  where  it  is  a  surer 
cropper  than  elsewhere;  shell  softer  than  the  Languedoc;  nut  long,  of 
peculiar  shape,  quite  large;  kernel  sweet. 

King's  Soft  Shell.— Originated  in  San  Jose;  shell  very  thin  and  soft; 
regular  and  abundant  bearer. 

Princess. — The  finest  of  the  Paper  Shell  class;  long,  oval,  kernel  large, 
white  and  sweet. 

Languedoc. — Nut  large;  shell  thin;  kernel  sweet;  condemned  for  irreg- 
ular bearing. 

California  Paper  Shell. — Medium  size;  shell  very  tender,  easily  broken 
between  the  finger  and  thumb;  kernel  large,  white  and  sweet.  Efficient 
pollinizer  for  other  varieties. 

Drake's  Seedling. — Originated  with  Mr.  Drake  of  Suisun,  of  the  Langue- 
doc class;  very  prolific,  and  a  regular,  abundant  bearer.  A  late  blooming 
variety. 

Golden  State. — Originated  by  Webster  Treat.  A  large  soft  shell,  some- 
what longer  than  the  Languedoc,  with  a  full,  smooth-skinned  meat;  parts 
from  the  hull  readily.  An  early  variety,  but  in  less  favor  than  formerly. 

Peerless. — Resembling  IXL.  Popular  in  Yolo  County  for  regular  and 
heavy  bearing. 

Texas  Prolific.— Brought  from  Texas  by  Robert  Williamson  of  Sacra- 
mento, about  1891,  as  a  seedling  originated  at  Dallas,  and  the  only  almond 
which  would  bear  there.  Largely  planted  as  a  pollinizer  for  Nonpareil; 
productive,  but  is  condemned  for  unsalability. 

Jordan.— This  long,  hard-shelled  almond,  notable  because  of  its  long, 
shm  kernel  for  "salted  almonds"  and  imported  at  high  cost  for  that  pur- 
pose, has  been  introduced  both  through  government  distribution  and  pri- 
vate enterprise,  notably  that  of  the  late  John  Rock,  of  the  California 
JNursery  Co.,  of  Niles.  Too  little  has  yet  been  seen  to  determine  the  value 
Valle  Vanety  m  local  Production-  It  is  especially  favored  to  the  Coachella 

Eureka.— Originated  with  Mr.   A.   M.   Newland,   of   Colusa.      Has    long, 
kernel,  resembling  Jordan,  but  smaller  and  enclosed  in  a  thin   shell. 
Regularly  productive  for  twenty  years  with  originator. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 

THE  ENGLISH  WALNUT 

Although  we  have  in  California  a  grand  native  walnut  tree,  as 
noted  in  Chapter  IV,  the  nut  to  which  reference  is  made  when  the 
term  "walnut"  is  used  is  the  English  walnut  or  Madeira  nut — both 
of  which  are  old  trade  names  for  the  Persian  walnut  (Juglans 
regia).  Our  native  walnut  in  its  species  and  as  influenced  by  en- 
vironment,* ranges  from  a  tree  of  great  size  and  beauty  to  a  shrub. 
The  species  found  in  the  valleys  of  Central  and  Northern  California 
is  a  majestic  tree  widely  grown  from  the  nuts  for  shade  and  orna- 
ment, from  early  pioneer  days  to  the  present  and  therefore  now 
widely  distributed  and  admired.  Its  greatest  economic  service  is, 
however,  the  contribution  of  its  nuts  for  seedlings  which  are  largely 
depended  upon  as  stocks  for  grafted  trees,  as  will  be  stated  later. 

The  Walnut  Product. — The  English  walnut  was  introduced  to 
California  during  the  Mission  period,  the  first  being  probably  grown 
by  the  Mission  Fathers  from  nuts  brought  from  Spain.  Away  from 
the  Missions  there  were  also  old  trees  in  Southern  California  at  the 
time  of  the  American  occupation.  English  walnuts  were  also  planted 
both  in  Southern  and  Central  California  by  the  American  pioneers, 
but  for  decades  there  was  no  notable  commercial  production.  Very 
large  trees  planted  in  the  pioneer  period  are  still  to  be  seen  here  and 
there  in  both  coast  and  interior  situations.f 

The  California  product  of  walnuts  during  the  last  decade  has 
been  as  follows,  in  tons  of  2,000  Ibs. : 

1910  .  9,600    1916  .  14,600 

1911  12,500    1917 16,500 

1912 11,250    1918 19,962 

1913 11,750    1919 28,100 

1914 8,000    1920 21,500 

1915 14,895 

The  walnut  product  is  almost  exclusively  grown  in  Orange,  Los 
Angeles,  Ventura  and  Santa  Barbara — contiguous  counties  along  the 
southern  coast  of  the  State,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  California 
Walnut  Growers  Association,  a  very  efficient  co-operative  organiza- 
tion, is  in  Los  Angeles.  The  product  grown  outside  of  the  area 
indicated  is  relatively  small  but  increasing,  as  local  adaptations  to 
the  tree  have  been  demonstrated,  wherever  suitable  soils  have  been 
found  and  varieties  meeting  local  requirements  have  been  planted, 
in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

*A  very  interesting  study  of  the  native  walnut  in  its  various  forms  is  given  by  Prof. 
R.  E.  Smith  in  Bulletin  231  of  the  University  of  California  Experiment  Station,  1912 — re- 
printed in  modified  form  in  1921. 

tMany  records  of  early  plantings  are  to  be  found  in  the  Report  of  the  California  State 
Board  of  Horticulture,  1895-6. 


44Q  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

Soils  for  the  Walnut.— The  walnut  makes  most  rapid  growth 
upon  a  deep  rich,  moist,  loamy  soil,  and  shows  its  appreciation  of 
good  things  of  the  earth  as  do  other  fruit  trees,  and  yet  it  attains 
satisfactory  size  and  bearing  in  less  favorable  situations.  Thriving 
trees  can  be  found  in  the  clays  and  decomposed  granite  soils  of  the 
foothills,  as  well  as  in  the  valley  silts  and  loams.  Adequate  moisture 
must,  however,  be  had  either  by  rainfall  or  irrigation,  and  the 
walnut  cannot  be  commended  for  dry,  neglected  places  nor  for  soils 
which  overlie  leachy  subsoils. 

Irrigation  of  Walnuts.— Over-irrigated  walnut  trees  on  heavy 
soil  are  subject  to  die-back;  on  well-drained  soil'they  are  liable  to 
be  pushed  into  too  late  growth,  which  goes  into  the  frost  period 
too  immature,  and  is  easily  killed  back  by  a  temperature  which 
would  not  injure  well-matured  wood.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  calendar 
date  so  much  as  of  condition,  but  usually  irrigation  after  August  is 
undesirable — except  on  loose  soils  prone  to  dry  out  in  the  late  fall. 
In  the  latter  case,  if  rain  does  not  fall,  light  irrigation  should  be 
given  at  any  time  when  the  soil  seems  to  be  getting  too  dry  to  keep 
the  root-hairs  alive.  Too  late  growth  on  young  trees  can  be  pro- 
tected by  bundling  with  straw  or  stalks,  or  by  wrapping  with  bur- 
laps, but  it  is  better  to  use  less  water,  get  less  growth  and  let  it 
ripen  and  harden  earlier — but  the  soil  must  not  be  allowed  to  get 
too  dry. 

Propagation. — The  walnut  tree  grows  readily  from  nuts  treated 
as  described  in  Chapter  VIII.  For  many  years  the  use  of  seedlings 
prevailed,  and  the  nut  was  looked  upon  as  coming  sufficiently  true 
from  seed.  Recently,  however,  this  has  changed  rapidly,  and  bud- 
ding or  grafting  to  secure  a  high,  uniform  grade  and  to  secure 
fruitfulness  in  spite  of  the  blight  is  commanding  wide  attention. 
In  growing  young  trees  it  is  being  considered  desirable  to  bud  or 
graft  rather  high  so  as  to  get  a  trunk  of  the  hardier  variety  which 
is  used  as  a  stock. 

The  California  black  is  now  chiefly  used  as  a  stock  for  the 
English  walnut,  and  either  budding  or  grafting  resorted  to.  The 
success  of  the  English  walnut  on  our  native  stock  has  long  been 
known.  Mr.  John  R.  Wolfskill,  on  Putah  Creek^  in  Solano  County, 
put  in  a  bud  in  1875  and  the  tree  reached  immense  size  and  large 
product.  Since  then  many  large  native  black  walnuts  have  been 
top-grafted  with  the  English  walnut  with  notable  success,  not  only 
in  orchards,  but  along  highways  where  the  native  black  walnut  has 
been  planted  for  shade  and  ornament. 

Mr.  F.  S.  Leib,  of  San  Jose,  who  has  given  much  attention  to 
stocks  for  the  English  walnut,  believes  that  the  cross  of  the  Cali- 
fornia black  and  the  Eastern  black  walnuts,  and  the  California 
black  walnut  straight,  gives  the  best  seedlings  for  roots  for  the 
English  walnut,  but  advises  close  selection  of  the  nuts  in  the  sprout- 
ing bed  (see  Chapter  VIII),  as  the  nuts  with  the  longest  sprouts 
make  the  strongest  growth  in  the  nursery  or  in  open  ground. 

The  best  nuts  for  seedlings  are  the  native  black  walnut  straight 
and  the  Royal  hybrid  (every  cross  between  the  native  Eastern  black 


BUDDING   THE   WALNUT  441 

walnut  and  the  native  California  black  walnut  is  called  a  Royal 
hybrid),  while  the  Paradox  hybrids  (English  walnuts  crossed  with 
California  black)  make  a  large  root  and  but  a  moderate  top  the 
first  year,  and  few  make  good  the  second  year.  The  Paradox  hybrid 
roots  are  also  subject  to  killing  by  the  oak-root  fungus,  which  the 
straight  native  seedlings  and  the  Royal  hybrids  both  resist. 

Budding  the  Walnut. — Twig  buds  as  used  with  the  olive  are  also 
successful  with  the  walnut  and  ring  budding  works  well  on  shoots 
of  a  year's  growth,  which  have  at  least  attained  the  thickness  of  the 
middle  ringer,  if  the  buds  are  set  at  the  base  of  these  shoots  where 
the  wood  is  perfectly  round.  The  bandage  should  pass  above  and 
below  the  bud  so  that  the  bark  under  it  may  be  pressed  down  close 
upon  the  stock. 

Mr.  A.  W.  Keith,  of  Selma,  in  taking  a  fresh  bud  from  the  new 
growth,  found  the  large  leaf  stem  a  serious  impediment  in  firmly 
placing  a  shield  bud  upon  the  cambium  of  the  stock  and  binding  it 
there.  Shaving  it  away  with  a  knife  left  too  much  exposed  tissue. 
If  the  leaf  stem  would  drop  off  as  it  does  when  mature  and  leave  a 
healed-over  scar,  the  result  would  be  a  flat  surface  with  only  the 
bud  protruding,  and  this  could  be  easily  bound  in  place  so  as  to 
exclude  the  air.  By  cutting  off  the  compound  leaf,  leaving  a  stub 
of  an  inch  or  so,  the  stub  thus  left  dries  and  parts  from  the  stem 
just  as  a  mature  leaf  does  in  the  autumn,  leaving  clean,  flat  buds. 

Budding  to  Hold  Over  Winter. — Mr.  Pennington  of  Vacaville 
has  been  very  successful  in  budding  by  cutting  buds  in  the  regular 
shield  form,  about  1J4  inches  long,  cut  from  branches  J^  to  y^  inch 
in  diameter,  so  as  to  get  wide  buds  with  but  little  wood  left  in  them. 
He  also  prefers  to  have  stocks  large,  and  considers  a  stock  iy2  inches 
in  diameter  not  too  large.  He  uses  ordinary  budding  twine  for 
tying,  but  does  not  use  wax  to  cover  the  incisions.  He  buds  as  late 
as  it  is  possible  to  get  a  good  flow  of  sap,  as  then  the  weather  is 
likely  to  be  cooler,  which  is  an  important  factor,  and  the  growing 
season  is  about  finished,  which  will  allow  the  twine  to  be  left  in 
place  all  winter,  which  he  considers  advisable.  Buds  are  more  apt 
to  succeed  when  pushed  upward  from  the  cross-cut  than  downward 
from  it. 

Budding  to  Force  Growth. — Budding  during  the  growing  season 
to  force  immediate  growth  on  the  buds  is  successfully  practiced, 
both  in  nursery  stock  and  in  working  over  orchard  trees,  by  Mr. 
Antone  Mardesich,  propagator  for  Mr.  Leonard  Coates  of  Morgan 
Hill,  in  this  way: 

Buds  have  been  successfully  put  in  from  April  to  October,  but  spring 
budding  is  recommended.  The  early  budding  is  done  from  budwood  about 
half  an  inch  in  diameter  cut  in  January,  while  entirely  dormant.  About  six 
buds  at  the  base  of  last  season's  growth  are  suitable.  They  must  be  on 
round  wood,  as  buds  taken  from  angular  wood  do  not  flatten  tightly  enough 
against  the  stock.  The  dormant  budwood  is  packed  in  damp  shavings  in  a 
box  in  a  shed  until  budding  time  comes.  The  shavings  are  too  damp  if  any 
moisture  can  be  squeezed  out  of  them.  Sand  is  likely  to  dull  the  budding 
knife.  If  the  budwood  is  to  be  used  late  in  the  spring,  it  must  be  kept 
cold.  If  it  is  to  be  used  early  in  spring,  it  may  be  kept  the  last  week  or 


442  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

two  in  a  place  where  it  will  warm  up  gradually  This  starts  a  sappy 
loosing  of  bark  so  it  can  be  peeled  clean  from  the  stick.  Buds  may  be 
used  even  if  swelled  somewhat,  but  those  showing  color  will  die.  Little 
spherical,  hard  and  sound  buds,  are  most  successful. 

The  stocks  must  always  be  full  of  sap  so  the  bark  will  lift  easily  enough 
to  force  the  bud  under  it. 

Seedlings  and  branches  on  older  trees  to  be  budded  are  cut  off  three 
weeks  before  budding  about  a  foot  above  the  point  of  insertion.  This 
seems  to  thicken  the  sap  so  that  when  the  buds  are  inserted  they  stick 
before  they  dry  out  and  the  sap  does  not  "drown"  the  buds.  If  sap  flow  in 
the  stock  is  weak,  the  cutting  back  seems  to  loosen  the  bark  from  the 

WThe  shield  of  bark  containing  a  bud  is  cut  about  an  inch  above  and  below 
it  and  a  quarter  inch  on  each  side,  tapering  to  blunt  ends.  It  is  cut  nar- 
rower if  the  stock  is  of  smaller  diameter  than  the  budstick.  The  upper 
end  of  the  bark  shield  is  grasped  and  peeled  clean  from  the  wood.  The 
ordinary  T  cut  is  made  in  the  stock  and  the  shield  with  its  bud  is  cut  and 
slipped  in  immediately  and  tied  with  a  cotton  string  around  the  stock  from 
the  top  of  the  slit  downward  to  prevent  the  bud  slipping  upward  as  it 
might  if  tied  from  the  bottom  up.  It  is  wrapped  quite  tight,  so  that 
the  sap  oozes  from  the  bottom  of  the  slit  while  tying — showing  that  no 
air  is  left  under  the  bud.  No  wax  or  other  dressing  is  used.  About  two 
weeks  later  the  string  is  cut  on  the  back  side  of  the  stock.  When  the 
shoot  has  started  vigorously,  cut  the  stock  above  the  bud  back  to  a  three- 
inch  stub.  Tie  the  shoot  to  this  stub  to  protect  it  against  wind.  Cut  the 
stub  off  smooth  a  year  later  so  it  will  heal  over  quickly  and  paint  the 
wound  with  asphalt. 

For  summer  budding,  buds  of  the  current  season's  growth  are  put  into 
shoots  of  the  current  season's  growth.  Such  budding,  done  even  as  late 
as  October,  has  made  enough  growth  to  ripen  before  winter,  but  ordinarily 
it  is  well  to  get  it  all  done  by  the  last  of  August. 

Grafting  the  Walnut. — Grafting  into  black  walnut  seedling  root 
can  also  be  well  done  by  a  triangular  cut  into  the  edge  of  the  root 
stump,  as  described  for  grafting  into  grape-vine  stumps  in  Chapter 
XXVI.  In  the  case  of  the  walnut,  close  binding  with  a  wax  band 
is  desirable. 

Large  walnut  trees  can  be  worked  over  either  by  budding  or 
grafting.  If  by  budding,  the  large  limbs  are  cut  back  in  the  winter, 
and  in  autumn  following,  buds  are  put  in  as  many  of  the  new 
shoots  as  may  be  desired,  or,  in  the  case  of  younger  trees,  the  buds 
are  put  under  the  bark  of  the  branches  without  forcing  out  new 
growth. 

Grafting  over  is  desirable  either  for  substituting  a  better  variety 
of  English  walnut,  or  for  working  over  a  California  black  walnut 
into  an  English  variety.  Mr.  J.  B.  Neff,  of  Anaheim,  who  has 
worked  over  many  old  trees,  gives  the  following  practical  sug- 
gestions : 

If  the  trees  are  from  three  to  five  inches  in  diameter  they  may  be  cut 

it  at  about  four  feet  above  the  ground  and  below  the  branches,  then  four 

nve  scions  may  be  placed  on  one  stock,  or  three  or  four  of  the  branches 

may  be  cut  back  to  within  10  to  24  inches  of  the  trunk  and  two  or  three 

scions  placed  on  each.    All  the  other  branches  should  be  removed  from  the 

trunk. 

Old  trees  of  from  12  to  20  years  should  have  the  branches  cut  at  places 
where  they  are  from  three  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  five  to  eight 
stubs  left,  which  will  be  from  three  to  six  feet  in  length  and  should  have 
is  many  as  six  scions  in  the  large  stubs,  the  other  branches  being  removed 
before  the  scions  are  put  in  place 


GRAFTING  THE  WALNUT  443 

In  sawing  large  branches,  it  is  necessary  to  make  two  cuts,  the  first 
being  some  distance  above  or  outside  the  final  cut,  to  prevent  splitting  the 
stub,  or  the  trunk,  when  the  severed  part  falls. 

The  scion  should  always  be  of  solid,  mature  wood,  that  is,  with  as 
small  pith  as  can  be  had  readily,  and  must  have  good  living  buds.  Each 
scion  should  be  about  one-quarter  inch  in  diameter  and  have  at  least  two 
buds.  The  growth  having  buds  close  together  is  best,  as  shorter  scions 
can  be  used. 

To  receive  the  scions  use  a  heavy  butcher  knife  and  mallet  to  split  the 
stubs,  placing  the  knife  across  the  stub  to  one  side  of  the  pith,  as  if  a  chip 
one-half  to  five-eighths  inch  thick  was  to  be  taken  off.  Then  depress  the 
handle  of  the  knife  to  an  angle  of  30  to  45  degrees  and  split  the  edge  down 
to  2^  to  3  inches,  allowing  the  knife  to  reach  the  farther  side  of  the  stub, 
but  not  making  the  split  entirely  across  the  stub.  Open  the  cleft  with  an 
iron  wedge  ^  to  ^-inch  wide  and  thickest  on  one  edge,  placing  the  thickest 
edge  toward  the  outside. 

Trim  the  cleft  in  the  stub  with  a  sharp  knife  so  it  will  be  smooth.  Then 
cut  the  scion  so  as  to  fit  perfectly  and  place  it  so  the  inner  bark  (the  cam- 
bium layer)  of  both  will  be  on  the  same  line,  or  at  least  will  cross  twice, 
then  remove  the  wedge  and  put  hot  wax  over  all  the  cuts  on  both  stock 
and  scion  at  once. 

The  scions  should  be  examined  frequently  and  any  excessive  flow  of 
sap  wiped  off,  and  the  stub  recovered  with  wax  as  soon  as  dry.  Excessive 
flow  of  sap  for  several  weeks  will  cause  the  loss  of  the  scions,  as  the  callus 
can  not  form  in  water.  This  may  be  controlled  by  boring  one-fourth  inch 
holes  in  the  body  of  the  tree  near  the  ground.  Three  or  four  holes  four 
inches  deep  will  be  sufficient  to  control  the  flow  of  the  largest  trees.  No 
damage  is  done  to  the  body  of  the  tree,  as  the  holes  soon  grow  over. 

For  grafting  in  the  stems  of  seedlings  or  in  the  smaller  branches 
of  young  trees  a  side  graft  as  described  in  Chapter  IX  is  success- 
fully used,  as  are  also  several  styles  of  cleft  grafting.  One  which 
is  used  by  Mr.  R.  Wiltz  and  others  at  San  Jose  consists  in  splitting 
a  short  stub  of  a  small  branch  which  has  been  cut  about  four  inches 
from  its  attachment  to  a  larger  branch  of  stem.  In  this  case  the 
split  can  only  extend  to  the  closely  knit  wood  in  the  crotch  and  the 
scion  is  pushed  down  strongly  to  the  bottom  of  such  a  split  and  it 
is  held  tightly.  The  two  pieces  of  the  deep  split  are  not  cut  away 
but  are  allowed  to  protect  the  short  scion  which  is  between  them, 
and  if  buds  start  on  these  pieces  they  are  allowed  to  grow  a  little 
to  keep  the  stock  from  dying  back.  When  the  scion  starts  well 
they  are  removed. 

A  method  of  side  grafting  (so  called  because  the  stock  is  not  cut 
across  but  a  cleft  made  in  the  side  of  it)  has  been  very  successfully 
practiced  by  Mr.  Weinshank,  of  Whittier,  both  with  nursery  seed- 
lings and  on  branches  of  large  trees.  His  work  has  shown  eighty 
to  ninety  per  cent  successful  in  the  nursery  and  even  more  on 
branches  of  large  trees.  The  following  is  a  condensed  description 
of  the  method : 

The  scion  is  prepared  as  for  a  whip  graft  (Chapter  IX),  cutting 
across  obliquely  and  making  another  cut  right  straight  down  with 
the  grain  in  the  scion.  Then,  instead  of  cutting  the  stock  completely 
across  like  the  scion,  just  simply  make  a  little  cut  on  the  side.  Do 
not  cut  into  the  pith  of  the  wood  at  all.  Then,  place  the  two  to- 
gether by  pushing  the  tongue  of  the  scion  (made  by  the  cut  on 
its  shorter  side)  into  the  lip  cut  in  the  stock;  tie  with  a  string  and 


444  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

wax  over.  The  same  method  on  larger  trees  is  performed  exactly 
in  the  same  way,  except  that  the  lip  of  course  on  the  larger  limbs, 
which  are  three  or  four  inches  through,  would  be  considerably 
larger,  and  the  scion  instead  of  being  placed  directly  in  the  middle 
of  the  Hp,  or  in  the  center,  would  be  placed  on  the  side  so  as  to  have 
the  cambium  of  the  scion  connecting  with  the  cambium  on  the  stock 
at  least  on  one  side.  Three  or  four,  or  sometimes  five  scions  are  put 
on  a  large  limb,  and  in  most  cases  three  or  four  scions  would  grow. 
After  the  scion  has  reached  a  certain  stage  of  growth,  this  string 
will  commence  to  bind,  and  must  be  cut  down  right  over  where  the 
scion  is.  The  wax  on  either  side  will  tend  to  hold  the  string,  but  as 
the  wood  naturally  grows,  the  strings  will  draw  apart,  and  it  will 
not  bind  as  it  would  if  the  string  was  not  cut. 

Side  grafting  with  a  saw-cut,  as  described  for  the  peach  in 
Chapter  XX,  also  works  well  with  the  walnut. 

Treatment  After  Grafting. — A  fuller  account  of  the  protection 
of  scions  after  setting  and  during  their  early  growth  is  given  by 
Mr.  Edwin  Gower  of  Fowler,  Fresno  County,  thus  explicitly : 

Take  two  folds  of  burlap,  punch  holes  for  the  scions  to  pass  through, 
making  a  hood  inclosing  and  covering  the  entire  stump,  letting  it  extend 
down  the  sides  a  short  distance;  tie  a  string  around  the  stump  to  hold  it 
in  place;  by  using  this  method  the  wax  will  remain  in  perfect  condition. 

After  the  scion  is  growing  rapidly,  cut  the  string;  do  not  remove  it. 
This  allows  the  scion  to  grow  without  the  string  cutting  it.  If  small  trees, 
drive  a  stake  down  to  tie  the  new  growth.  On  old  trees  nail  four  sticks 
equal  distances  apart  around  the  stump,  letting  the  sticks  extend  four  or 
five  feet  beyond  the  stump,  wrap  some  string  around  these  sticks;  this 
acts  as  a  net  enclosing  the  growth  of  the  scion,  which  grows  phenomenally 
on  black  walnut.  I  have  seen  instances  where  they  grew  fifteen  feet  in  one 
year.  This  net  acts  as  a  support  and  keeps  the  scion  from  either  breaking 
or  splitting  off  by  the  winds.  It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  nib  off  the  end 
of  the  branches  to  check  the  growth.  Cut  them  back  vigorously  for  two 
or  three  years,  until  such  time  as  they  are  well  attached  to  the  stump. 

I  have  used  the  bark  graft,  also  the  cleft  graft,  but  I  prefer  the  former, 
as  the  scion  seems  to  grow  more  rapidly  and  reach  maturity  sooner. 


PLANTING  WALNUT  ORCHARDS 

There  is  much  difference  in  practice  in  planting  out  walnut  trees 
in  permanent  place.  Some  advocate  the  use  of  trees  two  or  three 
years  from  the  seed,  getting  as  much  of  the  tap-root  as  possible; 
others  allow  the  tree  to  remain  in  nursery  until  it  throws  out  lat- 
erals, which  is  usually  done  the  fourth  or  fifth  year.  Two-year- 
old  trees  are  generally  preferred,  but  walnut  trees  of  many  times 
that  age  can  be  successfully  transplanted  if  the  work  is  carefully 
done.  Walnut  trees  are  usually  set  forty  feet  in  squares,  though 
some  give  the  large-growing  varieties  fifty  feet.  Planting  in  hex- 
agonals  at  forty-five  feet  distance  gives  very  satisfactory  results. 
Some  growers  plant  in  squares  at  thirty  feet  distance,  intending 
to  remove  alternate  trees  as  they  crowd  each  other,  first  cutting 
back,  for  a  time,  the  trees  which  are  finally  to  be  removed.  Sixty 
feet  is  close  enough  for  mature  trees. 


PRUNING  THE   WALNUT  445 

Planting  Nuts  in  Place. — Some  walnut  orchards  are  being  grown 
for  sprouted  nuts  planted  where  the  tree  is  to  grow.  At  first  it  was 
the  custom  to  put  three  nuts  near  together — reducing  the  seedlings 
to  one  subsequently.  Recently  the  preference  is  given  to  planting 
one  good  strongly  sprouted  nut  in  a  place  because  removing  surplus 
seedlings  is  difficult  and  likely  to  disturb  the  one  which  is  retained. 
Any  gaps  in  the  planting  are  filled  by  planting  seedlings  from  a 
side-bed  in  which  a  number  are  grown  for  this  purpose.  There  are 
strong  advocates  of  this  method,  which  requires  orchard  budding 
or  grafting,  when  the  trees  are  well  established,  in  one  of  the  ways 
which  have  been  described. 

Intercultures  with  the  Walnuts. — In  the  southern  walnut  regions 
it  is  common  to  grow  beans,  squashes,  etc.,  between  the  rows  of 
trees  until  the  latter  reach  bearing  age;  root  crops  which  attract 
gophers  should  be  avoided.  Interplanting  of  smaller,  early-fruit- 
ing trees  is  also  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  alfalfa 
growing  in  the  young  walnut  orchard  is  also  practiced  to  some 
extent,  but  must  be  carefully  done — if  at  all. 

PRUNING  THE  WALNUT 

The  walnut  is  usually  headed  higher  than  ordinary  orchard 
trees  and  the  pruning  needed  is  in  shaping  the  tree.  Upward  trend 
of  the  branches  should  be  secured,  sometimes  by  cutting  out  the 
shoots  which  grow  downward,  sometimes  by  tying  them  up  for  a 
time  to  the  central  stem  until  they  are  stiff  enough  to  retain  this 
position.  The  stem  should  be  protected  from  sunburn  until  the 
foliage  accomplishes  this.  Whenever  shoots  are  killed  back  by 
sunburn  or  frost,  they  should  be  cut  off  cleanly  below  the  black 
mark  which  shows  how  far  the  injury  has  extended.  If  this  is 
done,  the  die-back  down  the  branch  is  usually  prevented.  As  the 
trees  become  older,  removal  of  some  of  the  interior  limbs  may  be 
desirable  to  admit  more  light  to  encourage  inside  bearing. 

Systematic  Building  of  the  Walnut  Tree. — It  is  becoming  clear 
that  the  old  practice  of  allowing  walnut  trees  to  grow  very  much 
as  they  liked  is  not  a  good  way.  The  following  outline  of  the  way 
to  secure  good  form  and  serviceability,  and  applying  to  the  walnut 
the  principles  indicated  in  Chapter  XII,  is  drawn  from  the  experi- 
ence of  Mr.  Eugene  S.  Kellogg,  of  Santa  Barbara  County: 

When  planted  from  the  nursery  walnut  trees  are  generally  over  six 
feet  high  and  they  should  be  headed  back,  the  amount  depending  on  their 
subsequent  care.  If  no  irrigation  water  is  available,  they  are  usually  cut  to 
a  foot  above  the  bud  union  and  a  new  trunk  is  started.  This  new  shoot 
should  be  carefully  staked  so  as  not  to  become  injured  by  cultivating  or 
strong  winds.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season's  growth,  this  shoot  should 
be  headed  to  about  five  feet.  You  will  then  have  a  vigorous,  healthy  young 
trunk,  which  will  make  a  more  rapid  growth  during  the  next  season  than 
the  tree  would  have  made  in  two  seasons  had  it  been  headed  to  five  feet 
originally. 

Generally  when  the  young  tree  is  to  have  water  it  is  headed  about  five 
feet  above  the  ground.  After  the  first  season's  growth,  three  main  branches 


446  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

are  selected  and  all  others  removed.  Do  not  remove  small  branches  and 
small  spurs.  These  shade  the  tree.  The  three  chosen  branches  should  be 
about  a  foot  apart  and  well  distributed  around  the  tree.  Tf  more  than 
three  branches  are  chosen,  the  tree  becomes  too  spreading  and  the  branches 
will  later  come  down  and  become  a  nuisance.  The  three  chosen  branches 
should  be  headed  to  about  three  or  four  feet  in  length. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  year's  growth  each  of  these  three  main 
branches  will  have  thrown  out  from  four  to  eight  branches.  All  but  two 
on  each  of  these  should  be  removed.  These  two  should  be  headed  to  three 
or  four  feet  from  their  origin  and  they  should  be  in  such  a  position  so  that 
their  tips  are  equally  distant  from  the  center  of  the  tree  to  secure  an  open 
center.  After  the  third  season's  growth,  each  of  the  six  branches  is  al- 
lowed to  give  rise  to  two  branches  and  these  two  are  headed  back.  Many 
small  branches  and  fruiting  spurs  will  have  appeared  all  over  the  trees. 
These  should  be  left.  Heading  back  is  very  necessary  at  this  time.  The 
tree  will  have  thrown  out  an  immense  amount  of  growth,  and  unless  this  is 
previously  thinned  and  headed,  the  wind  will  either  cause  the  tree  to  lean 
or  else  blow  out  large  limbs  completely.  In  pruning  old  trees  the  chief 
aim  is  to  admit  the  sunlight;  remove  interfering  limbs  and  limbs  that  in- 
terfere with  cultivation.  Generally  every  tree  will  fall  into  one  of  three 
types.  These  are  the  central  shaft,  vertical  gore  and  goblet  types. 

If  a  tree  has  a  strong  central  leader,  the  chief  aim  is  to  emphasize  this 
tendency.  Thin  out  the  branches  which  arise  from  the  central  leader.  If 
a  tree  has  a  central  leader  and  the  main  limbs  originate  one  above  the 
other,  the  best  way  to  admit  the  light  is  by  removing  the  smaller  limbs  in 
several  wedge-shaped  areas  from  the  lower  branches  up.  If  four  gores  are 
cut,  the  tree  would  have  the  appearance  of  a  four-leafed  clover  when  viewed 
from  a  position  above  the  tree.  It  will  be  necessary  to  thin  out  all  weak 
wood  in  the  areas  between  the  gores.  If  there  is  no  central  leader  and 
the  tree  has  naturally  an  open  center,  this  should  be  kept  open. 

In  shaping  the  walnut  tree,  such  opening  of  the  tree  as  is  de- 
sirable near  the  coast  may  be  undesirable  or  even  dangerous  in  a 
hot  interior  situation.  The  bark  is  sensitive  to  sunburn  and  in  ex- 
treme heat  both  leaves  and  nuts  suffer  and  a  more  dense  and  self- 
shading  tree  should  be  developed.  This  will  be  secured  in  part  by 
the  style  of  pruning  and  in  part  by  selection  of  a  tree  which  nat- 
urally grows  good  foliage. 

Bloom  and  Bearing  of  the  Walnut. — The  walnut  has  its  stam- 
inate  and  pistillate  blooms  separate,  but  both  occur  on  the  same 
tree.  Successful  fruiting  depends  upon  the  appearance  of  these  two 
forms  of  bloom,  without  too  great  interval  of  time,  and  although 
there  seems  to  be  quite  a  retention  of  vitality,  the  lack  of  bearing 
of  some  varieties  has  been  found  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cat- 
kins disappear  too  long  before  the  pistillate  bloom  was  sufficiently 
developed  to  receive  the  pollen. 

The  bearing  age  of  the  walnut  depends  upon  the  variety.  Some 
of  the  French  varieties  are  very  precocious  and  have  borne  fruit 
in  nursery  row  at  two  and  three  years  old,  but  the  pistillate  blooms 
were  then  fertilized  from  catkins  growing  on  older  trees.  The 
practical  bearing  age  of  the  seedling  English  walnut  in  this  State 
may  be  rated  at  six  to  eight  years,  according  to  the  variety.  Trees 
grafted  with  scions  from  bearing  trees  fruit  much  sooner. 

Harvesting  Walnuts.— Gathering  walnuts  is  done  in  different 

ys     borne  gather  them  from  the  ground  at  intervals  during  the 

months  of  September  and  October;  others  use  poles  and  clean  the 


HARVESTING   WALNUTS 

trees  at  one  operation ;  some  go  over  the  ground  three  times,  first 
picking  up  what  have  fallen;  second,  picking  up  what  have  fallen 
and  striking  the  limbs  lightly  to  dislodge  others  which  are  ripest; 
third,  picking  up  again  and  then  knocking  off  all  that  remain  on  the 
trees.  In  this  way  gathering  lasts  a  month  or  six  weeks.  As  fast  as 
gathered  the  nuts  are  placed  in  slat-bottomed  trays,  6x3  feet,  by  six 
inches  deep,  about  fifty  pounds  in  a  tray,  being  thoroughly  shaken 
up  once  or  twice  a  day.  If  the  weather  is  very  hot  they  should  be 
dried  in  the  shade.  When  the  nuts  are  dry  they  are  ready  for 
grading,  washing  and  bleaching.  All  of  these  operations  are  per- 
formed in  the  Walnut  Growers'  Association's  warehouses,  which  are 
established  in  all  the  leading  producing  districts.  Even  small  lots 
are  handled,  which  is  of  advantage  to  the  grower,  as  considerable 
outlay  for  apparatus  is  required  and  some  experience  is  necessary 
to  get  the  best  results. 

Appliances  and  materials  are  being  improved  and  changed  from 
time  to  time  as  walnut  handling  is  a  progressive  business.  For 
bleaching,  direct  use  of  commercial  chlorine  has  been  introduced 
in  some  of  the  packing  houses,  but  prevailing  practice  still  employs 
proper  machinery  and  dipping  tanks  in  which  the  bleaching  fluid 
consists  of  25  Ibs.  of  chloride  of  lime  and  18  Ibs.  of  sal  soda,  dis- 
solved in  50  gallons  of  water.  After  this  solution  is  made  and  drawn 
off  clear  from  the  settlings,  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  it  at  the  rate 
of  1*4  Ibs.  of  acid  to  425  Ibs.  of  the  solution.  In  this  dip  the  nuts  are 
quickly  dipped  (five  to  ten  seconds)  and  then  thoroughly  dried  at 
once.  This  process  is  hardly  available  for  use  on  a  small  scale.  In 
such  case  the  walnuts  can  be  improved  by  washing,  brushing,  or 
rolling  in  a  perforated  barrel  to  remove  dirt,  and  then  treated  to 
sulphur  fumes  as  has  been  described  for  almonds  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  In  using  sulphur  it  must  be  made  sure  that  the  walnut  is 
well  dried  and  then  very  lightly  sprayed,  so  that  only  a  film  of  mois- 
ture is  present  on  the  outside  of  the  shell  or  the  flavor  of  the  kernel 
may  be  impaired.  The  walnut  should  be  more  lightly  sulphured 
than  the  almond,  as  the  same  color  is  not  desirable. 

Grading  Walnuts. — Walnuts  are  commercially  graded  through 
a  screen  with  square  holes,  measuring  one  and  one-thirty-second 
inches  square.  The  so-called  No.  1,  sold  by  the  California  Walnut 
Growers'  Association,  are  the  nuts  which  do  not  pass  through  this 
screen,  and  the  No.  2's  are  those  which  pass  through.  Budded 
varieties  are  graded  through  a  similar  screen  with  holes  measuring 
one  and  three-sixteenths  inches  square.  The  Diamond  Brand  Buds 
do  not  pass  through,  and  the  Golden  State  Buds  are  those  which 
fall  through. 

CALIFORNIA    WALNUT   VARIETIES 

Which  is  the  best  walnut  variety  to  plant  in  California  or  in 
any  particular  region  of  the  State  is  an  open  question  and  decision 
apparently  still  rests  upon  many  coming  years  of  experience  in 
which  all  observant  growers  may  participate. 


440  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

The  variety  which  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  the  "Santa 
Barbara  soft  shell,"  so  called  because  the  late  Joseph  Sexton  of 
Santa  Barbara  County  bought  in  San  Francisco  in  1867  a  sack  of 
imported  walnuts,  grew  seedlings  and  planted  out  in  orchard  form 
two  hundred  of  them  in  1868.  When  they  fruited  he  noticed  that 
sixty  of  them  were  of  fairly  uniform  type,  superior  to  the  others 
and  to  the  other  walnuts  commonly  grown  at  that  time,  and  he 
used  them,  and  sold  them  to  others,  to  grow  seedlings  for  orchard 
planting.  Thus  the  Santa  Barbara  soft  shell  is  not  strictly  speaking 
a  "variety"  but  a  type  shown  by  many  seedlings,  and  it  showed 
variability  enough  to  suggest  selection  for  "improvement,"  which 
was  followed  to  the  extent  of  securing  nuts  from  particular  trees 
for  planting,  but  still  practically  all  the  trees  were  seedlings  until 
grafting  to  secure  better  quality  and  form,  heavier  bearing,  resist- 
ance to  blight,  etc.,  began  about  1905  to  multiply  particular  seed- 
lings because  of  their  distinctive  desirability.  Although  grafting 
seedlings  for  planting  and  grafting-over  bearing  trees  also,  have 
rapidly  increased  in  the  chief  walnut  districts,  the  commercial  prod- 
uct is  still  largely  from  seedling  trees  descending  naturally  from 
Mr.  Sexton's  selected  type,  which  demonstrated  remarkable  suit- 
ability to  Southern  California  coast  conditions  and  satisfied  trade 
requirements  for  large  production. 

Although  seedlings  from  Southern  California,  both  the  original 
type,  which  Mr.  Sexton's  work  displaced,  and  the  Sexton  type  itself, 
were  planted  at  many  points  in  Northern  and  Central  California 
and  made  large  and  thrifty  trees,  they  bloomed  too  early  to  escape 
frost  and  they  were  too  susceptible  to  injury  by  summer  heat  in 
the  interior,  which  rarely  invaded  the  coast  region  even  at  the 
south.  In  1871  Mr.  Felix  Gillet  began  to  introduce  to  his  place  near 
Nevada  City  the  best  French  walnut  varieties  as  grafted  trees, 
contrasted  their  bearing  with  adjacent  non-productive  "Los  An- 
geles walnuts"  and  demonstrated  such  superior  performance  that 
he  continued  importation  and  propagation  until  he  had  introduced 
all  the  French  varieties  which  we  now  have  and  stimulated  other 
nurserymen  to  their  introduction  and  propagation  to  the  end  that 
these  varieties  were  planted  here  and  there  throughout  California 
and  to  the  States  northward. 

The  work  of  these  two  pioneers  has  thus  far  reached  this  con- 
clusion: The  Sexton  selections  and  their  descendants  rule  at  the 
south  and  fail  elsewhere  in  the  State ;  the  Gillet  imported  French 
varieties  lead  elsewhere  in  the  State  and  are  less  desirable  at  the 
south. 

The  varieties  most  largely  propagated  in  1921  are  Placentia  Per- 
fection, Santa  Barbara  Soft  Shell,  Eureka,  Franquette,  Mayette, 
Concord,  Payne's  Seedling. 

Varieties  which  have  enjoyed  some  prominence  may  be  briefly 
characterized  as  follows : 

Santa  Barbara  Soft  Shell  (origin  already  noted).— Nuts  usually  of  good 
ze,  easily  cracked  in  the  fingers,  and  of  excellent  flavor  and  quality;  se- 
lections named  as  follows:  Placentia  Perfection,  Discher's  Prolific,  Neff,  El 
Monte,  Pride  of  Ventura  and  others. 


CALIFORNIA  WALNUT  VARIETIES  449 

Placentia  Perfection. — Medium  size,  smooth,  fairly  uniform;  shell  thin 
but  strong,  and  fairly  well  sealed;  kernel  light  tan  in  color,  fairly  smooth, 
mild  flavor,  fills  shell  well;  early;  generally  looked  upon  as  the  best,  thor- 
oughly tried  variety  for  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  Sells  as  "budded" 
at  advanced  price. 

Eureka. — Nuts  large,  fairly  uniform,  elongated;  medium  smoothness; 
shell  medium  to  thick  and  well  sealed;  kernel  light  cream  color,  of  medium 
plumpness  and  is  easily  cracked  out  whole;  foliage  dense  and  leaves  large; 
blooms  late;  doing  well  in  interior  valleys. 

Franquette. — This  French  variety  rose  to  great  favor  and  has  been 
largely  planted  upon  the  successful  experience  of  Mrs.  Emily  M.  Vrooman, 
of  Santa  Rosa,  and  the  extensive  effort  at  its  distribution  by  the  Oregon 
Nursery  Co.,  of  Salem,  Ore.  It  is  a  large,  elongate-oval  nut  with  shell 
rather  thick  and  kernel  of  high  quality.  It  is  a  late  bloomer  and  escapes 
blight  to  a  certain  extent. 

Mayette. — This  variety  chiefly  constitutes  the  imported  Grenoble  wal- 
nuts. It  is  large,  roundish,  with  a  broad  base,  on  which  nut  will  sit  up; 
shell  thin  and  white;  kernel  full  and  rich;  a  good  bearer  and  late  bloomer; 
local  Mayette  seedlings  are  being  named;  one  is  the  "San  Jose,"  by  R. 
Wiltz,  of  San  Jose — in  disfavor  because  of  shy  bearing. 

Concord. — Seedling  of  Cluster;  of  the  Mayette  type,  grown  by  Messrs. 
Westgate  and  Hutchinson  of  Concord  from  seedling  tree  by  Felix  Gillet. 
Introduced  by  Mr.  Leonard  Coates  in  1908.  Claimed  to  be  blight  resistant. 

Payne's  Seedling. — Nut  is  of  good  average  quality,  of  good  size  and 
moderately  smooth;  has  attracted  attention  by  its  precocity  and  quite  heavy 
production  of  nuts;  somewhat  susceptible  to  blight,  and  by  early  blooming 
gets  caught  by  frost;  most  largely  planted  about  Linden,  San  Joaquin 
County. 

Bijou  Seedlings. — Several  of  these  are  being  grown.  Willson's  Wonder, 
introduced  by  F.  C.  Willson,  of  Santa  Clara,  is  a  large,  smooth,  desirable 
nut,  and  the  tree  is  reported  an  early  and  prolific  bearer. 

Other  French  Varieties. — Other  French  varieties  introduced  by  Mr. 
Gillet  and  others  include  the  following:  The  Cluster,  which  fruits,  as  its 
name  indicates,  in  long  bunches,  sometimes  as  many  as  fifteen  in  a  bunch. 
The  Parisienne  is  a  beautiful  variety,  the  nut  large,  broad  and  shapely;  the 
tree  blooms  very  late.  All  the  foregoing  varieties  and  the  Franquette,  Ser- 
otina,  Barthere,  Mesange,  Gant,  Meylan  and  Chaberte,  were  introduced  by 
Mr.  Gillet  in  1871. 

Kaghazi. — A  variety  called  Kaghazi  was  grown  and  propagated  for  sev- 
eral years  by  the  late  James  Shinn,  of  Niles;  large  and  thin-shelled;  late  in 
putting  out  leaves  and  blossoms;  source  of  some  promising  seedlings. 

Japanese  Walnut;  Juglans  Sieboldiana. — This  species,  native  to  the  north 
of  Japan,  was  introduced  to  California  about  1860,  and  a  tree  grown  from 
seed  planted  about  that  time  is  growing  at  the  Tower  House,  in  Shasta 
County.  Hard  shell  and  only  interesting  in  walnut  breeding. 


CHAPTER  XL 

NUTS  OF  MINOR  IMPORTANCE 

Nut-bearing  plants  from  all  parts  of  the  world  have  been  intro- 
duced to  California  and  probably  all  of  them,  except  those  of  strictly 
tropical  requirements,  may  be  found  growing  successfully  here  and 
there  throughout  the  State.  Only  the  almond  and  the  walnut  have 
risen  to  great  commercial  importance  and  only  a  few  others  have 
passed  beyond  amateurs'  interests. 

THE  CHESTNUT 

The  chestnut  is  not  yet  produced  in  large  amount  in  California, 
and  certain  quantities  of  the  nuts  are  annually  imported,  the  Amer- 
ican, Italian,  or  Spanish  and  Japanese  all  being  found  in  the  San 
Francisco  markets.  Of  chestnuts  grown  in  California,  the  Italian 
predominates,  and  judging  by  its  success  it  may  be  said  that  a  large 
area  of  California  is  well  suited  for  the  growth  of  the  chestnut,  as 
there  are  bearing  trees  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  State.  The  chestnut 
succeeds  on  heavy,  clayey  soil,  even  if  it  be  rocky. 

Chestnut  trees  are  readily  grown  from  the  seed,  and  come  into 
bearing  from  six  to  eight  years,  though  the  Japanese  sometimes 
bear  sooner.  The  growth  of  chestnuts  from  the  seed  is  described 
in  Chapter  VIII.  In  growing  from  seed  of  the  improved  varieties, 
there  is  a  tendency  toward  reversion,  and  budding  and  grafting 
may  be  done  by  the  methods  described  in  the  chapter  on  the  fig. 
The  chestnut  can  also  be  grafted  with  the  ordinary  cleft  graft. 
Buds  or  scions  should  be  taken  from  trees  which  are  fruiting  satis- 
factorily, and  in  this  way  seedlings  which  have  a  tendency  to  bear 
empty  burs  can  be  turned  to  good  account.  Chestnuts  can  be  grown 
in  the  nursery  until  several  years  old,  providing  they  are  lifted  at 
the  end  of  the  first  year,  the  tap-root  cut  off,  and  the  trees  reset, 
giving  them  rather  more  room  than  during  their  first  year's  growth. 
In  permanent  plantings  the  trees  should  have  plenty  of  room,  as 
they  ultimately  attain  great  size.  Trees  at  Grass  Valley,  Nevada 
County,  when  about  twenty  years  old,  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  of 
tlrunk,  and  forty  feet  high,  are  reported  to  bear  a  barrel  of  nuts 
to  the  tree  regularly.  Felix  Gillet  of  Nevada  City  for  many  years 
made  a  specialty  of  propagating  a  large  collection  of  the  improved 
French  varieties  known  as  "Marrons,"  which  were  distributed  to 
some  extent.  The  chestnut,  aside  from  its  desirability  as  an  orchard 
tree,  can  be  commended  as  a  tree  for  hillsides  or  a  shade  tree  for 
waysides  of  pastures,  and  should  be  more  widely  planted  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  chief  product  is  in  the  foothill  district  east  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley. 

Quite  a  number  of  improved  chestnuts  of  the  American  species 
have  been  planted  in  California.    Mr.  A.  L.  Wisker  of  Grass  Valley 


FILBERT    AND   PEANUT  451 

has  several  such  varieties,  of  which  the  "Rochester  No.  20"  has 
seemed  most  promising.  The  California  Mountain  Fruit  Co.  of 
Grass  Valley  has  a  ten-acre  orchard  of  chestnuts  planted  to  test 
bearing  and  profitability.  The  fruit  ripens  in  October  and  the  tree 
has  also  late  blooms  and  burs  setting  at  the  same  time — which 
creates  a  doubt  as  to  whether  the  American  species  knows  how  to 
behave  in  our  salubrious  foothill  climate  as  well  as  the  South 
European  species  do.  It  is  stated  that  American  varieties  do  not 
graft  on  Japanese  or  European  seedlings  as  well  as  they  do  upon 
seedlings  of  the  American,  wild  nuts. 


THE  FILBERT 

The  best  English  cob-nuts  have  been  quite  widely  tried  in  Cali- 
fornia without  successful  results.  Improved  Spanish  and  French 
varieties  of  the  filbert  were  early  introduced  by  Felix  Gillet,  of 
Nevada  City,  and  have  been  favorably  reported  by  him  as  to  growth 
and  bearing.  A  few  other  growers  in  foothill  situations  have  re- 
ported success,  but  as  a  rule  disappointment  has  attended  ventures 
with  the  filbert.  The  most  favorable  regions  for  farther  experiment 
are  apparently  the  north  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range,  from  Santa 
Cruz  northward,  and  other  cooler  and  moister  situations,  as  well  as 
at  an  elevation  on  the  Sierra  foothills.  Mr.  Leonard  Coates  of 
Morgan  Hill  has  recently  given  much  attention  to  the  filbert  and 
has  introduced  the  most  prolific  European  varieties.  He  has  assur- 
ance of  the  fruitfulness  of  the  plant  when  pruned  to  encourage 
growth  of  fruiting  wood  and  necessary  pollination  is  provided  for. 


THE   PEANUT 

A  few  peanuts  have  been  grown  in  California  in  a  great  many 
localities  for  perhaps  fifty  years,  and  most  of  the  attempts  to  pro- 
duce them  have  proven  unprofitable  and  been  abandoned.  At  one 
time  Orange  County  produced  something  like  twenty  carloads  an- 
nually, but  later  abandoned  the  crop  as  unprofitable.  During  1919 
and  1920  peanut  growing  was  taken  up  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Miller  of  Fon- 
tana,  San  Bernardino  County,  on  light,  sandy  soil  and  is  credited 
with  producing  1500  Ibs.  per  acre  on  a  large  acreage  in  1920.  The 
crop  was  handled  from  planting  to  threshing  with  modified  bean- 
growing  implements  and  machinery — the  whole  crop  being  sold  in 
Los  Angeles.  The  "Spanish"  peanut  was  planted  in  April  and  May 
and  harvested  in  September.  Furrow  irrigation  was  employed,)  first 
after  planting  and  three  more  at  intervals  of  about  three  weeks. 

For  small  scale  growing  these  hints  may  be  given :  peanuts 
require  sandy  sediment  to  give  the  best  results.  It  is  better  to  shell 
the  seed  and  plant  one  kernel  in  a  hill,  18  inches  apart  in  the  rows 
which  are  three  feet  apart.  Plant  the  seed  two  or  three  inches  deep, 
in  good  moist  earth  so  as  to  insure  germination.  Plant  as  soon  as 
frosts  are  over,  in  April  or  May,  as  they  need  about  six  months  to 
complete  their  growth.  There  is  very  little  land  that  will  produce 


452  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

crops  without  irrigation.     If  irrigation  is  necessary,  it  must  be  by 
the  furrow  method,  and  no  flooding  must  be  permitted. 

THE   PECAN 

The  pecan,  by  rapid  growth,  early  fruiting,  and  general  thrift, 
seems  to  be  the  member  of  the  hickory  family  best  fitted  for  Cali- 
fornia conditions.  A  tree  grown  from  a  nut  planted  by  J.  R.  Wolf- 
skill,  on  Putah  Creek,  in  1878,  was,  when  twenty-five  years  old, 
over  fifty  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  grow- 
ing luxuriantly  and  bearing  freely.  Still  older  trees,  also  very  satis- 
factory in  growth  and  bearing,  are  to  be  seen  at  Chico  and  Visalia. 
The  pecan,  though  grown  for  thirty  years  by  different  parties 
around  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  either  does  not  bear  or  keeps  the 
nuts  hanging  on  until  sometimes  they  sprout  on  the  tree.  The 
wider  extremes  in  temperature  or  in  humidity  in  the  interior  seem 
to  teach  the  trees  better  habits  of  growth  and  rest,  and  moist  low- 
lands in  the  great  valleys  seem  best  for  pecan  planting. 

Pecan  trees  grow  readily  from  the  nuts  if  these  are  fresh.  Plant- 
ers should  secure  nuts  of  selected  varieties  (for  there  is  a  great 
difference  in  size  and  quality)  direct  from  growers  in  the  Southern 
States,  and  plant  as  soon  as  received,  in  the  early  winter,  or  if  con- 
ditions are  not  favorable  for  planting,  the  nuts  should  be  stored  as 
described  in  Chapter  VIII.  Nuts  planted  in  good  nursery  ground 
in  rows  as  there  suggested,  and  covered  about  two  inches  or  a  little 
deeper  in  dry,  loose  soil,  and  then  mulched  to  retain  moisture,  will 
germinate  freely.  The  trees  should  be  transplanted  to  permanent 
place  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  and  then  usually  the  tap-root  can 
be  retained,  as  some  growers  deem  very  desirable ;  if  the  trees  are 
to  be  put  in  permanent  place  later  they  should  be  transplanted  in 
the  nursery  and  the  tap-root  cut  off.  The  nuts  can,  of  course,  be 
planted  at  once  in  permanent  place. 

THE  PISTACHIO 

The  pistachio  nut  (Pistachia  vera)  was  introduced  many  years 
ago,  but  commercial  results  are  only  just  beginning  to  be  attained. 
The  species  upon  its  own  root  makes  a  low  shrub  and  is  slow  of 
growth.  The  Pistachia  terebinthus,  from  which  is  derived  the  "chio 
turpentine,"  the  stock  the  true  pistachio  is  grafted  upon  in  Europe, 
is  growing  thriftily  at  several  points  in  the  State.  Several  amateurs 
and  nurserymen  have  given  enthusiastic  effort  to  the  establishment 
of  the  nut  in  this  State.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
oc  ™e  *JaS  als°  worke(!  largely  with  it  and  has  distributed  about 
f  the  trees  during  recent  years.  The  largest  plantations 
are  in  the  interior  valleys  and  the  product  is  now  being  attained 
in  that  region.  Tribble  Bros,  at  Elk  Grove  had  250  trees,  five-year- 
old  grafts  in  bearing  in  1918.  C.  J.  Forbes  has  150  trees  the  same 
age  and  there  are  about  five  acres  on  the  Mills  orchard  at  Hamilton 
Aty.  Ine  fruiting  of  the  pistachio  depends  upon  pollination,  and 
one  male  tree  is  necessary  to  six  or  seven  bearing  trees. 


PART    EIGHT:    FRUIT    PRESERVATION 


CHAPTER   XLI 

FRUIT    CANNING   AND    DRYING 

The  fruit-canning  enterprises  of  California  expanded  almost  be- 
yond anticipation  after  the  outbreak  of  the  world-war  in  1914.  The 
opportunities  for  development  and  the  relation  of  our  almost  unlim- 
ited capacity  for  the  production  of  fine  fruits  to  the  new  concep- 
tion of  the  dietetic  value  of  preserved  fruits  and  of  the  inadequacy 
of  production  in  other  parts  of  the  world  to  meet  the  demand  which 
this  conception  created,  aroused  wonderful  interest  in  the  capabili- 
ties of  California.  Increased  capital  from  outside  sources  was  at- 
tracted and  the  reorganization  for  administration  and  production 
of  our  greatest  proprietary  concerns  was  accomplished.  There  was 
also  development  of  co-operative  concerns,  largely  by  fruit  growers, 
which  are  rising  as  a  factor  in  production  in  several  districts.  So 
great  has  been  the  development  of  the  industry  that  the  facts  about 
establishments,  capital  invested  and  labor  employed,  etc.,  gathered 
by  the  U.  S.  Census  Bureau  in  1914,  fail  to  be  representative,  and 
measurements  must  be  awaited  until  the  facts  are  set  forth  in  the 
manufacturing  statistics  of  the  Census  of  1920.  It  is,  however,  suf- 
ficiently clear  that  California  leads  the  United  States  in  the  fruit- 
canning  industry  as  for  many  years  past  and  leads  now  by  a  wider 
margin  than  ever  before. 

Statistics  of  production  of  canned  goods  which  have  fortuntely 
been  carefully  compiled  by  private  enterprise*  for  a  number  of 
years,  do  indicate  both  the  rate  of  expansion  and  the  relative 
amounts  of  particular  kinds  of  fruits  which  the  industry  requires 

California  canned  product  fruit  for  the  years  indicated. 

1913  1919  1920 

Apples  80,250  134,245  9,041 

Apricots  898,005  4,395,204  2,312,020 

Blackberries  103,005  114,349  161,359 

Cherries  351,895  460,614  647,377 

Grapes  46,915                     .  104,446  114,886 

Loganberries  21,370  11,708  14,267 

Pears  874,200  1,962,700  1,184,288 

Peaches,  free  583,800  1,962,700  1,547,687 

Peaches,  cling  1,630,255  5,096,240  5,205,511 

Plums  175,290  280,261  164,740 

Raspberries  9,090  233 

Strawberries  34,470  22,123  5,525 

Other  fruits  2,290  42,584  15,562 


Totals  4,730,835  13,696,403  11,382,863 

The  figures  represent  "cases"  of  24  2^  Ib.  tins  or  their  equivalents. 
*Notably  by  Mr.  Howard  C.  Rowley,  editor  of  the  California  Fruit  News  of  San  Fran- 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

from  the  growers.  The  figures  show  almost  a  three-fold  increase  of 
the  pre-war  product,  reaching  its  peak  in  1919.  The  unsettled  con- 
dition of  affairs  including  adverse  exchange  and  transportation  costs 
made  slow  sales  in  1920  and  reduced  output  in  1921,  but  the  outlook 
is  unclouded  and  notable  increase  in  production  is  to  be  anticipated. 
Fruit  Varieties  Preferred  by  Canners. — It  is  manifestly  the  duty 
as  well  as  the  desire  of  growers  to  produce  an  ample  supply  of  fruits 
which  meet  canners'  requirements.  Among  these  requirements  are 
satisfactory  size,  clear  unblemished  beauty,  color  which  will  not 
interfere  with  the  clear  gold  of  the  sirup,  and  texture  which  will 
endure  processing  without  yielding  a  desirable  degree  of  firmness 
and  not  slough  off  cells  or  fibers  to  cloud  the  sirup.  To  such  basic 
characters  everything  desirable  in  flavors  should  be  added.  There 
are  some  variations  in  desirability  produced  by  difference  in  local 
growing  conditions  which  affect  desirability  of  any  particular  fruit 
variety  and  there  may  be  canners'  personal  equations  also  involved 
to  some  extent.  At  all  events  it  is  generally  wise  for  new  planters 
to  consult  local  cannery  superintendents  and  consider  the  advice 
which  they  may  give  in  connection  with  other  uses  which  may  be 
made  of  the  prospective  fruit.  The  following  sketch  of  varieties 
chiefly  used  by  canners  may  be  taken  as  suggestive,  and  not  ex- 
clusive of  other  varieties,  but  indicative  of  the  types  desired.  More 
specific  information  of  varieties  commended  by  canners  for  future 
planting  is  given  in  the  chapters  devoted  to  the  fruits  chiefly  de- 
sired by  them: 

Apples— Yellow  Newtown  Pippin;  firm,  white-fleshed  apple  re- 
quired. 

Apricots — Royal,  Blenheim,  Hemskirke,  Moorpark,  Tilton. 

Cherries — Royal  Anne,  Rockport;  soft  white  cherries  not  avail- 
able and  black  varieties  not  largely  used. 

Figs — Kadota,  Calimyrna. 

Grapes — Muscat. 

Peaches— (free)  Muir,  Lovell,  Foster,  Early  Crawford,  etc.; 
(cling)  Tuskena  Orange,  McKevitt,  Seller's,  Phillips  Levy 

Pears— Bartlett 

Plums— Yellow  Egg,  Bavay's  Green  Gage,  Golden  Drop,  Dam- 
son, Washington,  Jefferson. 

Blackberries— Mammoth,   Lawton. 

Loganberries — Phenomenal,  Logan. 

Str?wberries— Clarke,  Wilson  and  similar  firm  varieties.  Vari- 
eties chiefly  grown  for  fresh  use  too  soft  for  canning. 

Raspberries— Cuthbert,  Antwerp. 

The  literature  of  the  California  canning  industry  has  been  not- 
bly [  extended  during  the  last  few  years  and  very  satisfactory  special 
publications  are  now  available.* 


•y^^  detaled  account  »  ^en  in  "The  Can- 
York,  1916.  Of  small  scale  o^rnJc  ^  *r  fr'  P.ubllshed  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New 
published  many  pzmpM^and^lfl??'  ^  Cahf°rma  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley  has 
and  Farm  Food  Preservation  "  bv  Prnf  w  avco™Plete  tre/tlse  is  also  available;  viz.:  "Home 
H.hed  by  the  MacnSfan  Co  '  New  Y™rk  19U  ***'  °f  the  University  of  California,  pub- 


WHY  CALIFORNIA  DRIED  FRUITS   EXCEL 


CALIFORNIA   DRIED    FRUIT    INDUSTRY 


455 


A  special  census  of  the  fruit-preserving  manufactures  of  the 
United  States  in  1914  shows  not  only  that  California  stands  first  in. 
the  dried  fruit  industry,  but  that  the  product  was  in  that  year  valued 
at  $30,771,912,  and  was  88.4  per  cent  of  the  whole  national  product. 
An  adjacent  tabulation  gives  interesting  details  of  this  product  for  a 
number  of  years. 

As  suggested  in  Chapter  II  it  is  the  function  of  the  sunshine  and 
dry  air  of  California  not  only  to  bring  vigorous  growth  to  the  tree 
and  vine,  and  carry  the  fruit  of  both  to  fullness  of  size,  beauty  and 
quality,  but  to  continue  its  beneficent  action  until  the  fruit,  which 
is  not  required  by  the  trade  in  fresh  ripeness,  is  given  imperishable 
form,  in  which  its  beauty,  flavors,  aromas  and  nutritive  qualities 
remain  available  to  delight  and  nourish  mankind  until  the  following 
year's  sunshine  wins  from  the  earth  another  supply  of  fresh  ripe- 
ness. There  are  many  parts  of  the  earth  where  good  fruit  is  grown; 
there  are  few  where  conditions  producing  such  fruit  continue  to 
accomplish  its  preservation,  as  they  do  in  California. 

Product  of  California  Cured  Fruits  in  Tons — 1890  to  1920. 


Year 

Peaches 

Apricots 

Apples 

Pears 

Plums 

Nec- 

Grapes 

Figs 

Prunes 

Raisins 

tarine 

1 

1890 

3,200 

3,000 

400 

100 

250 

200 

100 

9.200 

4,000 

1895 

12,250 

5,325 

2,280 

2,700 

2,250 

675 

2,i25 

1,325 

32,250 

45,680 

1900 

17,170 

14,000 

3,150 

7,275 

1,950 

435 

240 

2,000 

87,000 

47,167 

1905 

17,500 

19,250 

3,250 

1,750 

930 

185 

193 

3,625 

37,500 

43.750 

1910 

25,000 

16,000 

3,100 

1,000 

375 

250 

350 

3,775 

45.000 

62,000 

1911 

14,000 

11,000 

3,500 

1,500 

250 

200 

119 

5,500 

95,000 

65.000 

1912 

18,000 

10,000 

2,000 

1,000 

200 

200 

100 

5,000 

102.000 

95,000 

1913 

20,000 

9,000 

2,000 

1,000 

600 

200 

120 

6,000 

45.000 

70,000 

1914 

34,700 

20,000 

4,000 

1,500 

750 

300 

5,000 

60.000 

98.000 

1915 

28,500 

16,000 

4,000 

1,000 

950 

200 

„ 

7,500 

67.000 

127,000 

1916 

29,000 

11,000 

4,500 

800 

600 

200 

8,200 

65.000 

136.000 

1917 

39,000 

16,000 

4,000 

1,100 

900 

200 

11,000 

112.000 

163.000 

1918 

19,500 

14,500 

5,750 

2,000 

500 

200 

7.300 

40.000 

167.000 

1919 

34,000 

15  500 

12  500 

5,750 

* 

* 

*  * 

12,000 

140.000 

197.500 

1920 

24'.000 

lo'.ooo 

51000 

2!500 

12,000 

95.000 

155.000 

WHY  THE  DRIED  FRUIT  PRODUCT  IS  GREAT 

In  connection  with  this  notable  factor  of  our  horticultural  pro- 
duction, certain  facts  should  be  clearly  understood  by  those  who 
desire  to  properly  appreciate  the  industrial  resources  of  the  State. 

First.  Cured  fruits  in  California  are  a  primary  and  not  a  sec- 
ondary or  by-product.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that  curing  fruit  does, 
to  a  limited  extent,  save  from  loss  fruit  which  shippers  and  canners 
are  not  at  the  time  paying  profitable  prices  for,  and  it  frees  growers 
from  helpless  dependence  upon  fresh  fruit  buyers.  But  this  does 
not  mean  that  curing  is  a  way  of  getting  something  from  refuse 
fruit,  not  suited  for  other  purposes.  It  should  be  taken  as  evidence 
that,  for  the  most  part,  grades  of  fruit  which  are  cured  are  the  same 

*The  product  of  dried  pitted  plums  and  nectarines  has  always  been  small  and  arbitrarily 
estimated.  Probably  it  was  as  usual  in  these  years.  Dried  grapes  practically  were  negligible 
for  several  years  until  prohibition  awakened  a  demand  for  home  fermentations  at  the  East. 
The  present  product  of  dried  grapes  is  considerable,  but  not  of  record.  It  would  be  much 
larger  were  it  not  for  prices  paid  for  fresh  grapes  for  overland  shipment — inducing  the  great 
increase  in  this  movement  shown  in  the  table  on  page  SO. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

which  are  also  available  for  shipping  and  canning  when  prices  are 
right. 

Second.  Because  our  cured  fruits  are  a  primary  and  not  a  by- 
product, free  investment  is  made  in  acres  of  well-made  trays;  in 
tramways  and  turntables  for  their  movement  from  the  shelter  of 
convenient  cutting  or  dipping  and  spreading  houses;  in  capacious 
apartments  and  mechanical  devices  for  giving  the  cut  fruit  its  bath 
in  sulphur  fumes  to  preserve  natural  colors  and  to  prevent  fermenta- 
tion and  insect  invasion;  in  the  carefully  prepared  drying  floors; 
in  well-fitted  packing  houses.  Such  investment  has  reached  many 
millions  of  dollars  in  the  aggregate,  and  the  standing  of  cured  fruits 
as  primary  products  is  the  justification  of  such  outlay. 

Third.  Forty  years  ago  California  dried  fruit  was  a  make- 
shift, and  a  disgracefully  poor  one.  As  enterprise  and  investment 
proceeded  it  was  soon  seen  that  style  and  quality  alone  could  re- 
quite them.  It  was  then  believed  that  handsome  cured  fruit  which 
should  only  be  relieved  of  its  excess  of  water  and  still  retain  color, 
flavor  and  winning  beauty,  could  only  be  produced  in  machine- 
evaporators  with  artificial  heat,  and  a  few  years  were  given  to 
invention,  purchase  and  rejection  of  all  such  devices  except  as 
occasional  refuges  when  the  California  climate  forgets  itself.  When 
the  demonstration  came  that  with  proper  pre-treatment  California 
sunshine  and  dry  air  would  produce  notably  fine  evaporated  fruits 
without  houses  and  furnaces,  cured  fruits  entered  upon  their  career 
as  primary  products,  and  planting  to  produce  them  began. 

Fourth.  The  fruit  must  be  well  grown,  and  fruit  for  curing 
should  have  the  size  and  quality  which  make  it  first  class  for  other 
purposes,  with  the  added  excellence  of  being  somewhat  more 
mature,  because  it  is  not  required  to  stand  hauling  and  shipment. 
It  should,  however,  be  carefully  handled  to  escape  bruising,  because 
discolorations  are  blemishes.  It  must  be  cleanly  cut  for  removal 
of  pit  or  core,  because  trimness,  neatness  and  shapliness  are  all 
essential  to  beauty.  It  must  be  carefully  and  evenly  spread  upon 
the  trays,  especially  if  it  be  a  cut  fruit,  so  that  no  interference  can 
prevent  each  piece  from  reaching  its  best  estate.  Sulphuring  must 
be  adequate,  and  yet  not  excessive,  for  sulphuring  is  a  protecting 
and  not  a  resurrecting  process;  it  is  not  to  improve  bad  fruit,  but 
to  keep  good  fruit  from  becoming  bad.  The  fruit  must  be  suf- 
ficiently dried  and  yet  not  over-dried,  and  during  the  process  must 
be  protected  from  dust  by  the  situation  and  character  of  the  ground 
used,  even  if  such  protection  costs  trouble  and  outlay. 

Trays  for  Drying.— The  greater  part  of  the  fruit,  including 
raisins,  is  placed  upon  trays  for  exposure  to  the  sun.  There  is  great 
variation  in  the  size  of  the  trays.  The  common  small  tray  is  made 
of  one-half  inch  sugar-pine  lumber  two  feet  wide  and  three  feet 


Cross-section  of  small  drying  tray. 


CALIFORNIA   SUNSHINE   EVAPORATION  457 

long,  the  boards  forming  it  being  held  together  by  nailing  to  a  cleat 
on  each  end,  one  by  one  and  a  quarter  inches,  and  a  lath  or  narrow 
piece  of  half-inch  stuff  is  nailed  over  the  ends  of  the  boards,  thus 
stiffening  the  tray  and  aiding  to  prevent  warping.  A  cross-section 
of  such  a  tray  is  shown  at  A. 

Since  large  drying  yards  have  been  supplied  with  tramways  and 
trucks  for  moving  the  fruit  instead  of  hand  carriage,  larger  trays, 
three  feet  by  six  or  three  feet  by  eight,  have  been  largely  em- 
ployed. These  large  trays  are  of  nailing  "pine  shakes"  which  are 
3  ft.  long,  and  6  in.  wide.  The  sides  and  ends  of  the  trays  are  made 
of  1x2  in.  pine  or  redwood.  The  bottom  is  strengthened  by  nailing 
to  the  under  side,  from  end  to  end,  three  thin  strips,  one  on  each 
side  and  one  in  the  middle.  The  laths  and  pieces  for  sides  and 
ends,  cut  ready  for  use,  may  be  obtained  from  lumber  dealers. 

Paper  trays  of  heavy  brown  paper  are  often  used  in  emergencies. 
They  are  cut  the  size  of  the  wooden  trays,  covered  with  cut  fruit — 
the  wooden  tray  being  slipped  out  after  carrying  to  the  drying 
ground.  They  are  not  a  good  substitute  for  wooden  trays,  however. 

Protecting  Fruit  from  Dew. — In  the  interior  there  is  seldom  any 
deposit  of  dew  in  the  drying  season,  but  occasionally  there  are  early 
rains  before  the  drying  season  is  over.  The  fruit  is  then  protected 
by  piling  the  trays  one  upon  another,  in  which  operation  the  thick 
cleats  serve  a  good  purpose.  In  small  scale  operations  in  dewy 
regions  the  trays  are  sometimes  piled  at  night,  or  cloth  or  paper  is 
stretched  over  the  fruit,  thus  reducing  the  discoloration  resulting 
from  deposits  of  moisture  upon  it. 

Drying  Floors. — For  the  most  part  the  trays  are  laid  directly  on 
the  ground,  but  sometimes  a  staging  of  posts  and  rails  is  built  to 
support  them,  about  twenty  inches  from  the  ground.  In  raisin- 
making  the  drying  trays  are  usually  distributed  through  the  vine- 
yard, to  have  as  little  carrying  as  possible.  In  drying  tree  fruits 
the  trays  are  spread  where  full  sunshine  can  be  obtained.  Drying 
spaces  should  be  selected  at  a  distance  from  traveled  roads,  to  pre- 
vent the  deposit  of  dust  on  the  fruit. 

Spaces  used  for  drying  are  often  idle  the  rest  of  the  year  or  are 
cultivated  for  grain-hay.  When  one  has  water  for  irrigation  it  is 
often  practicable  to  reduce  dust  and  secure  an  amount  of  desirable 
feed  or  hay  by  putting  the  piece  down  in  alfalfa.  Just  before  the 
space  is  needed  for  a  drying  yard,  the  alfalfa  is  mown  down  close 
and  raked  clean.  The  yard  is  then  ready  for  the  trays  and  fruit. 
When  the  drying  season  is  over  the  yard  is  cleared,  and  the  space 
then  is  as  clean  as  a  clay  floor,  from  being  used  so  much.  In  three 
weeks  the  top  of  the  ground  is  green  all  over,  and  before  the  rains 
come  there  is  another  cutting  of  alfalfa. 

Drying  floors  are,  however,  usually  kept  bare  and  as  hard  as 
may  be.  Drying  over  alfalfa  stubble  is  slower  than  over  dry,  baked 
ground.  It  is  common  to  scrape  the  ground  clean  with  a  weed-knife 
and  roll  or  rub  it  down  as  smooth  and  hard  as  possible. 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Grading.— It  is  of  great  advantage  in  drying  to  have  all  the  fruit 
on  a  tray  of  approximately  the  same  size,  and  grading  before  cut- 
ting is  advisable.  Machines  are  made  which  accomplish  this  very 
cheaply  and  quickly. 

Cutting-Sheds. — Shelter  of  some  kind  is  always  provided  for  the 
fruit-cutters.  Sometimes  it  is  only  a  temporary  bower  made  of 
poles  and  beams  upon  which  tree  branches  are  spread, as  a  thatch, 
sometimes  open-side  sheds  with  boarded  roof;  and  sometimes  a 
finished  fruit-house  is  built,  two  stories  high,  the  lower  story  open- 
ing with  large  doors  on  the  north  side,  with  a  large  loft  above, 
where  the  dried  fruit  can  be  sweated,  packed  and  stored  for  sale. 
The  climate  is  such  that  almost  any  shelter  which  suits  the  taste  of 
the  purse  of  the  producer  will  answer  the  purpose. 

Sulphuring. — The  regulations  promulgated  under  the  pure  food 
law  enacted  by  Congress  in  1906  established  an  arbitrary  limit  to 
the  percentage  of  sulphur  compounds  in  evaporated  fruits,  which 
was  shown  by  producers  to  be  destructive  to  their  industry,  and 
otherwise  unwarranted  and  unreasonable.  As  a  result  of  their 
protest  the  enforcement  of  such  regulations  was  indefinitely  post- 
poned, pending  the  results  of  scientific  investigation  which  began 
in  1898  and  never  ended,  and  the  use  of  sulphur  has  not  been  inter- 
fered with. 

Before  the  employment  of  the  sulphur  process,  California  cured 
fruits  were  suitable  only  to  the  lowest  culinary  uses.  They  were 
of  undesirable  color,  devoid  of  natural  flavor,  offensive  by  content 
of  insect  life.  They  had  no  value  which  would  induce  production 
and  discernible  future.  Placing  the  trays  of  freshly  cut  fruit  in 
boxes  or  small  "houses"  with  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  made 
it  possible  to  preserve  its  natural  color  and  flavor  during  the  evapo- 
ration of  its  surplus  moisture  in  the  clear  sunshine  and  dry  air  of 
the  California  summer.  It  also  prevented  souring,  which  with  some 
fruits  is  otherwise  not  preventable  in  such  open-air  drying,  and  it- 
protected  the  fruit  from  insect  attack  during  the  drying  process. 

The  action  of  sulphuring  is  not  alone  to  protect  the  fruit,  it 
facilitates  evaporation  so  that  about  one-half  less  time  is  required 
therefor.  Not  the  least  important  bearing  of  this  fact  is  the  feasi- 
bility of  curing  fruits  in  larger  pieces.  The  grand  half-peaches, 
half-apricots,  half-pears  of  California  are  the  direct  result  of  the 
sulphur  process.  Without  it  the  fruit  must  be  cut  into  small  sec- 
tions or  ribbons,  which  in  cooking  break  down  into  an  uninviting 
mass,  while,  with  the  sulphuring,  it  is  ordinary  practice  to  produce 
the  splendid  halves  with  their  natural  color  so  preserved  that  they 
have  semblance  to  the  product  of  the  canners  and  are  secured  at  a 
fraction  of  the  cost. 

There   are  various   enclosures   or   houses    for   the   application   of 

ulphur  fumes  to  the  freshly  cut   fruit.     Some  are  small   for  hand 

carnage  of  trays;   some  are  large   and  the  trays   are   wheeled   into 

them  upon  trucks.     The  most  common  is  a  bottomless  cabinet  about 


TREATMENT  OF  FRUITS  AFTER  DRYING 


459 


five  or  six  feet  high,  of  a  width  equal  to  the  length  of  the  tray  and 
a  depth  a  little  more  than  the  width  of  the  tray.  The  cabinet  has  a 
door  the  whole  width  of  one  side,  and  on  the  sides  within  cleats  are 
nailed  so  that  the  trays  of  fruit  slip  in  like  drawers  into  a  bureau. 
Some  push  in  the  trays  so  that  the  bottom  one  leaves  a  little  space 
at  the  back,  the  next  a  little  space  at  the  front,  and  so  on,  that  the 
fumes  may  be  forced  by  the  draft  to  pass  between  the  trays  back 
and  forward.  The  essentials  seem  to  be  open  holes  or  dampers 
in  the  bottom  and  top  of  the  cabinet  so  that  the  fumes  from  the 
sulphur  burning  at  the  bottom  may  be  thoroughly  distributed 
through  the  interior,  and  then  all  openings  are  tightly  closed.  To 
secure  a  tight  chamber  the  door  has  its  edge  felted  and  the  cabinet 
is  made  of  matched  lumber.  Some  sulphuring  houses  are  made  of 
reinforced  concrete.  Some  are  merely  frames  freshly  covered  with 
building  paper  each  season.  The  sulphur  is  usually  put  on  a  shovel 
or  iron  pot,  and  it  is  ignited  by  a  hot  coal,  or  a  hot  iron,  or  it  is 
thrown  on  paper  of  which  the  edges  are  set  on  fire,  or  a  little  alco- 
hol is  put  on  the  sulphur  and  lighted,  etc.  The  sulphur  is  usually 
burned  in  a  pit  in  the  ground  under  the  cabinet.  The  application 
of  sulphur  must  be  watchfully  and  carefully  made,  and  the  ex- 
posure of  the  fruit  should  only  be  long  enough  to  accomplish  the 
end  desired.  The  exposure  required  differs  with  different  fruits, 
and  with  the  same  fruits  in  different  conditions,  and  must  be  learned 
by  experience. 

There  is  much  variation  in  the  sizes  of  houses  built  to  take  in 
truck  loads  of  trays — some  large  enough  for  one  truck,  some  for 
two,  some  built  in  compartments  taking  truck-loads  side  by  side, 
some  long,  to  take  a  train  of  trucks  end  to  end;  in  one  case  54  feet 
long,  open  at  both  ends,  and  tram-tracks  running  through. 

Grading  and  Cleaning. — After  the  fruit  is  sufficiently  dried 
(and  it  is  impossible  to  describe  how  this  point  may  be  recognized 
except  by  the  experienced  touch),  it  is  gathered  from  the  trays  into 
large  boxes  and  taken  to  the  fruit  house.  Some  growers  put  it  into 
a  revolving  drum  of  punctured  sheet  iron,  which  rubs  the  pieces  to- 
gether and  separates  it  form  dust,  etc.,  which  falls  out  through  the 
apertures  as  the  drum  revolves.  Others  empty  the  fruit  upon  a 
large  wire-cloth  table  and  pick  it  over,  grading  according  to  size 
and  color,  and  at  the  same  time  the  dust  and  small  particles  of  for- 
eign matter  fall  through  the  wire-cloth.  The  fanning  mill  for  clean- 
ing grain  may  also  be  used  for  rapid  separation  of  dirt,  leaves,  etc., 
with  proper  arrangement  of  metal  screens. 

Sweating. — All  fruit,  if  stored  in  mass  after  drying,  becomes 
moist.  This  action  should  take  place  before  packing.  To  facilitate 
it,  the  fruit  is  put  in  piles  on  the  floor  of  the  fruit-house  and  turned 
occasionally  with  a  scoop  shovel ;  or,  if  allowed  to  sweat  in  boxes, 
the  fruit  is  occasionally  poured  from  one  box  to  another.  The 
sweating  equalizes  the  moisture  throughout  the  mass.  Some  large 
producers  have  sweat-rooms  with  tight  walls,  which  preserve  an 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

even  temperature.    No  fruit  should  be  packed  before  "going  through 
the  sweat."     If  this  is  not  done,  discoloration  and  injury  will  result. 

Dipping  Before  Packing. — All  fruits  except  prunes  can  be 
packed  in  good  condition  without  dipping,  providing  the  fruit  is  not 
over-dried.  Efforts  should  be  made  to  take  up  the  fruit  when  it  is 
just  sufficiently  cured  to  prevent  subsequent  fermentation.  If  taken 
from  the  trays  in  the  heat  of  the  day  and  covered  so  <  that  the  fruit 
moth  cannot  reach  it  there  is  little  danger  of  worms.  The  highest 
grades  of  fruit  are  made  in  this  way.  If,  however,  the  fruit  has 
been  over-dried  or  neglected,  it  can  be  dipped  in  boiling  water  to 
kill  eggs  of  vermin  and  to  make  the  fruit  a  little  more  pliable  for 
the  press.  The  dipping  should  be  done  quickly,  and  the  fruit  al- 
lowed to  drain  and  then  lie  in  a  dark  room,  carefully  covered,  for 
twenty-four  hours  before  packing. 

Packing. — To  open  well,  packages  of  dried  fruit  should  be 
"faced."  The  many  fine  arts  of  paper  lining,  etc.,  must  be  learned 
by  observation.  Flatten  some  fair  specimens  of  the  fruit  to  be 
packed  (and  reference  is  especially  made  to  such  fruits  as  apricots, 
peaches  and  nectarines)  by  running  them  through  a  clothes  wringer 
or  similar  pair  of  rollers  set  to  flatten  but  not  crush  the  fruit.  Do 
not  face  with  better  fruit  than  the  package  is  to  contain.  It  is  a 
fraud  which  will  not  in  the  end  be  profitable.  Lay  the  flattened 
fruit  (cup  side  down)  neatly  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  Fill  the 
box  until  it  reaches  the  amount  the  box  is  to  contain,  and  then 
apply  the  press  until  the  bottom  can  be  nailed  on.  Invert  the  box 
and  put  on  the  label  or  brand;  the  bottom  then  becomes  the  top. 

Many  different  kinds  of  boxes  are  used.  A  very  good  size  is 
made  of  seasoned  pine,  six  inches  deep  by  nine  inches  wide,  by 
fifteen  inches  long,  inside  measurement,  and  it  will  hold  twenty-five 
pounds  of  fruit. 

METHODS  WITH  DIFFERENT  FRUITS 

It  will  be  impossible  to  enter  minutely  into  the  operations  of 
drying  and  packing  on  a  commercial  scale,  or  even  to  notice  all  the 
small  and  ingenious  arts  by  which  the  work  is  facilitated.  Any  one 
who  contemplates  production  on  a  large  scale  should  personally 
visit  leading  regions  and  inform  himself  by  inquiry  and  observa- 
tion. Such  an  education  will  save  mistakes,  which  may  cost  many 
times  the  expense  of  getting  wise.  California  producers  are  usually 
quite  willing  to  show  visitors  the  methods  they  employ.  Though 
this  is  the  better  way  of  proceeding,  a  few  general  hints  will  be 
given  of  methods  with  different  fruits. 

Apples.— There  seems  little  use  of  drying  apples  unless  a  very 

it-colored,  handsome  product  can  be   turned   out.     This   can   be 

done  by  sulphuring  as  soon  as  cut,  and  sun-drying  in  a  dry  region, 

or  by  the  use  of  a  machine  evaporator  in  regions  of  greater  atmos- 


DRYING  APRICOTS  AND  FIGS  451 

pheric  humidity.  Recently  the  product  has  largely  increased  in  such 
large  producing  regions  as  the  Pajaro  Valley,  and  nearly  a  hundred 
drying  houses  are  being  operated. 

Apricots. — Apricots  for  drying  should  be  fully  ripe  but  not  soft 
enough  to  be  mushy.  By  the  use  of  sulphur  and  sun  heat,  an  amber- 
colored,  semi-translucent  fruit  is  obtained.  The  prevailing  method  of 
gathering  is  to  shake  down  the  fruit  upon  sheets,  but  the  best  pro- 
duct is  hand-picked.  Pit  the  fruit  by  a  clean  cut  completely  around 
in  the  suture;  do  not  cut  part  way  around  and  then  tear  apart — a 
clean-cut  edge  is  essential.  Put  on  the  trays  with  the  skin  down,  or 
with  the  cup  up,  as  it  is  sometimes  described;  sulphur  and  then  put 
in  the  sun. 

Fine  apricots  are  produced  in  the  interior  valley  by  stacking  the 
trays  as  they  come  from  the  sulphur  house  and  not  exposing  the 
fruit  at  all  to  direct  sunshine.  Some  start  in  the  sun  and  finish  in 
the  stack.  Sufficient  curing  is  not  determined  by  length  of  exposure 
but  by  the  condition  of  the  fruit.  One  grower  describes  it  as  "a 
feel  like  chamois  skin  and  refusal  to  slip  through  the  fingers  when 
pressing."  Another  grower  squeezes  a  double  handful  of  the  fruits 
and  if  they  fall  apart  on  opening  the  hands  he  considers  it  safe  to 
put  in  the  bins.  The  same  tests  are  suggestive  also  in  the  case  of 
other  cut  fruits. 

A  few  apricots  are  dried  whole,  but  the  demand  for  them  is  not 
yet  demonstrated. 

Berries  and  Cherries. — These  fruits  are  only  dried  in  the  sun 
in  small  quantities,  and  ordinary  farm-house  methods  are  employed. 

Figs. — The  fruit  is  generally  gathered  from  the  ground,  which 
is  cleaned  and  smoothed  before  the  crop  ripens.  In  drying  black 
figs  the  fruit  is  placed  on  trays  and  in  most  cases  exposed  to  the 
sun,  but  some  growers  maintain  the  advantage  of  drying  in  the 
shade. 

The  Adriatics  are  sulphured.  Smyrnas  usually  are  not.  Adriatics 
are  dried  in  direct  sunlight  from  one  to  three  days,  depending 
upon  the  heat  and  humidity,  while  Smyrnas  are  best  dried  by  stack- 
ing the  trays  so  as  tc  allow  free  circulation  of  air.  Over-dried  figs 
become  tough,  woody  and  inferior.  After  sorting  out  the  blem- 
ished fruit,  the  figs  are  dumped  from  the  trays  into  the  perforated 
containers,  washed  for  twenty  minutes  in  cold  water  containing  four 
ounces  of  salt  to  the  gallon  of  water  and  again  spread  out  for  a 
final  drying  of  half  a  day  in  the  sun.  They  are  then  placed  in  piles 
on  a  clean  floor  or  in  sweat-boxes,  and  allowed  to  go  through  a 
sweat  for  about  two  weeks,  being  turned  two  or  three  times  during 
that  period.  Sweating  equalizes  the  moisture  and  gives  a  better 
texture.  The  figs  can  then  be  stored  for  packing  or  sent  to  the 
packing  house. 

Pears. — California  dried  pears  have  been  largely  made  of  culls 
and  windfalls  unsuitable  for  canning  or  shipping,  but  there  is  devel- 
oping a  product  from  the  best  pears  which  is  of  high  excellence. 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

It  is  made  chiefly  of  fruit  picked  when  the  stem  parts  upon  raising 
with  the  hand.  The  tree  is  picked  over  three  times,  the  fruit  of 
each  picking  kept  by  itself  and  allowed  to  ripen  in  the  shade  before 
cutting  at  just  the  right  degree  of  mellowness.  The  fruit  is  halved, 
stem  pulled  out  and  the  calyx  cut  out  smoothly,  not  pared  nor  cored. 
It  is  sulphured  heavily  to  secure  an  amber-colored  translucent  prod- 
uct. Exposure  to  the  fumes  for  48  hours  is  frequent.  Then  the 
trays  are  placed  in  the  sun  for  one-half  to  one  day  and  curing  is 
finished  in  the  stack— allowing  the  curing  to  occupy  from  two  to 
four  weeks,  according  to  atmospheric  conditions.  The  fruit  when 
finished  to  a  leathery  texture  is  held  in  sweat-boxes  for  some  time. 
Dried  pears  should  never  be  put  in  sacks  or  in  bins  of  any  quantity ; 
if  they  are  they  will  invariably  run  together  and  make  a  mass  of 
poor  stuff. 

Peaches. — Peaches  are  sun-dried  in  much  the  same  way  as  apri- 
cots, already  described.  Hand-pick  the  fruit  when  it  is  fully  ripe, 
but  not  mushy ;  cut  cleanly  all  around  to  extract  the  pit  and  put  on 
trays  cup  side  up;  get  into  the  sulphur  box  as  soon  as  possible  after 
cutting — before  the  cut  surface  becomes  dry,  and  sulphur  until  juice 
gathers  in  the  pit-cavity.  It  is  often  from  four  to  five  hours  in  a 
well-built  sulphur  house.  Growers  in  Fresno  County  find  two  quarts 
of  sulphur  about  right  for  a  house  having  a  capacity  of  54  2x3-foot 
trays.  This  will  vary  with  the  amount  of  leakage  from  the  house, 
the  condition  of  the  fruit  in  regard  to  ripeness  and  size,  and  the 
temperature  and  humidity  of  the  air.  Figure  on  leaving  them  in 
the  sulphur  fumes  3  or  4  hours.  Increase  this  if,  at  the  end  of  that 
time,  the  pit  cavities  are  not  filled  with  syrup.  Reduce  it  if  they 
are  filled  with  syrup  in  much  less  time.  The  length  of  time  to 
leave  the  fruit  in  the  sun  depends  on  temperature,  humidity,  ripeness 
and  size  of  fruit.  Exposing  it  to  direct  rays  of  the  sun  for  too  long  a 
time  during  periods  of  high  temperature  is  sure  to  leave  the  fruit 
tough,  leathery  and  flavorless.  Best  results  are  secured  when  the 
fruit  is  exposed  to  the  sun  just  long  enough  to  get  the  drying  well 
under  way  and  then  stacked  to  finish  curing  in  the  shade.  Trays 
should  be  stacked  end-wise  toward  the  prevailing  wind  and  set 
alternately  several  inches  one  way  or  the  other  to  leave  an  opening 
at  each  end  for  circulation  of  air.  They  are  sufficiently  cured  when 
you  find  it  impossible  to  slip  the  skins  by  squeezing  the  peaches  be- 
tween the  fingers.  Peaches  are  dried  both  peeled  and  unpeeled,  but 
drying  without  peeling  is  chiefly  done.  Peeling  is  sometimes  done 
with  the  small  paring  machines  or  with  a  knife.  Peeling  with  lye 
has  been  largely  abandoned  because  of  discoloration  of  the  fruit 
after  packing,  although  it  can  be  successfully  done  by  frequently 
changing  the  lye  and  using  ample  quantities  of  fresh  water  for  rins- 
ing after  dipping.  The  process  of  spraying  lye  on  the  fruit  is  clut- 
tered up  by  patents  which  are  still  in  litigation.  Some  growers  peel 
by  slipping  off  the  skin  as  the  fruit  conies  from  the  sulphur-box— 
placing  the  half-fruits  one  by  one  on  another  tray,  without  spilling 
the  juice  in  the  cup. 


DRYING   PEACHES   AND   PRUNES 


463 


The  California  Peach  Growers'  Association  owns  the  patents  on 
a  process  for  what  they  call  "practically  peeled"  dried  peaches, 
which  they  are  largely  using  in  their  packing  houses.  The  peaches 
are  peeled  after  drying.  They  are  placed  upon  a  traveling  conveyor 
which  runs  them  first  through  a  ttnk  of  boiling  water  in  which 
soda  is  dissolved,  which  loosens  the  skins  and  incidentally  removes 
any  dirt  on  them.  Then  they  go  through  cold  water,  which  removes 
the  soda,  and  into  the  peeler  in  which  rotating  brushes  force  the 
peaches  along  wire  cylinders.  This  process  scrapes  off  the  skin. 
Varieties  differ  in  behavior.  Muirs  peel  best.  Lovell  skins  stick 
much  tighter,  but  a  great  deal  of  it  is  removed  and  under  all  circum- 
stances the  fuzz  is  all  taken  off,  which  is  a  great  thing.  After  peeling 
the  fruit  is  dried,  resulphured  and  packed. 

Clingstone  peaches  are  successfully  handled  with  curved  knives 
and  spoon-shaped  pitters  in  conjunction  with  ordinary  fruit  knives. 
Different  styles  are  carried  at  the  general  stores  in  the  fruit  dis- 
tricts, and  individuals  differ  widely  in  their  preferences. 

The  weight  of  dried  peaches  which  can  be  obtained  from  a  certain 
weight  of  fresh  fruit,  depends  upon  the  variety ;  some  varieties  yield 
at  least  a  third  more  than  others,  and  clings  yield  more  than  free- 
stones as  a  rule.  Dry-fleshed  peaches,  like  the  Muir,  yield  one  pound 
dry  from  four  or  five  pounds  fresh,  while  other  more  juicy  fruits 
may  require  six  or  seven  pounds. 

Nectarines. — Nectarines  are  handled  like  peaches;  the  produc- 
tion of  translucent  amber  fruit  in  the  sun  depends  upon  the  skillful 
use  of  sulphur.  Dried  nectarines  are  much  like  dried  apricots,  as 
the  skin  is  naturally  smooth. 

Plums  and  Prunes. — Our  pitted  plums,  which  are  an  acid  fruit, 
are  meeting  with  more  favor  than  formerly,  and  the  product  though 
small  is  increasing.  Pitting  is  done  by  hand  or  by  the  use  of  foot- 
power  "pitters."  More  rapid  and  capacious  machines  are  being 
brought  out  by  inventors. 

Prunes  are  our  greatest  cure  tree-fruit.  Several  varieties  of 
plums  which  dry  sweet  with  the  pit  in  are  used  in  making  prunes, 
as  already  stated  in  Chapter  XXIII,  but  the  prevailing  variety  is 
the  Prune  d'Agen,  or  French  prune. 

Prunes  are  gathered  from  the  ground,  which  has  been  previously 
smoothed  by  rolling  or  rubbing.  About  three  gatherings  are  made 
as  they  ripen  and  fall  progressively — shaking  the  trees  only  at  the 
last  gathering. 

Prunes  are  usually  graded  before  drying,  and  various  home- 
made contrivances  are  employed.  Some  use  inclined  planes  of 
adjustable  slats,  the  grader  being  thus  available  for  other  fruits  than 
prunes ;  the  large  fruit  rolls  along  into  receptacles  at  the  bottom, 
while  the  small  fruit  falls  through  into  other  receptacles.  Some 
have  a  long  riddle,  say  twelve  feet  long,  with  three  different  sizes  of 
wire  screen  on  it.  This  riddle  is  hung  upon  four  ropes  with  an 
incline ;  the  prunes  are  thrown  in  the  higher  end,  and  by  shaking  it 
they  roll  down  and  fall  through  the  holes  into  boxes  underneath. 
The  first  piece  of  screen  should  be  small,  to  let  only  stems  and  dirt 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

through,  and  no  prunes.  This  long  hanging  screen  is  also  used  to 
erade  prunes  after  drying.  There  are  several  excellent  manufactured 
fruit  graders  on  sale  in  this  State  which  have  largely  displaced 
home-made  contrivances. 

The  next  step  in  the  process  is  dipping  in  lye  to  thin  and  crack 
the  skin,  which  facilitates  the  escape  of  moisture  in  the  drying 
process.  In  the  large  caldron  lye  is  made  with  one  pound  of  con- 
centrated lye  to  each  thirty  gallons  of  water,  and  kept  boiling  hot. 
The  fruit  is  put  into  wire  baskets  or  galvanized  pails  with  perforated 
sides  and  bottoms,  and  dipped  in  the  boiling  lye  for  a  few  seconds, 
or  until  the  skin  has  a  wrinkled  appearance.  After  this  dipping, 
the  prunes  are  placed  on  trays. 

A  process  of  puncturing  the  skin  of  the  prunes  by  causing  them 
to  roll  over  needle  points  is  also  employed.  There  are  now  manu- 
factured very  capacious  appliances  for  continuous  dipping,  punctur- 
ing and  spreading  on  the  trays  so  that  the  fruit  is  handled  in  large 
quantities  at  a  minimum  cost.  In  no  branch  of  our  fruit  industry, 
perhaps,  has  there  been  greater  advance  in  labor-saving  devices  than 
in  prune  handling. 

The  following  explicit  hints  on  the  curing  of  prunes  are  based 
upon  wide  experience  and  observation  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley : 

Be  sure  to  allow  the  prunes  to  obtain  all  of  the  sugar  they  can  from  the 
trees  by  hanging  until  they  drop  of  their  own  accord.  Do  not  pick  up  until 
prunes  are  soft  to  the  touch. 

Do  not  keep  prunes  in  boxes  over  night.  They  go  through  a  sweat,  and 
do  not  make  a  first  quality  of  dried  fruit,  and  take  much  longer  to  dry.  It 
is  better  to  let  the  prunes  lie  on  the  ground  under  the  tree  for  several  days 
than  to  let  the  picked  prunes  lie  in  the  boxes  over  one  night. 

The  dipping  fluid  must  be  kept  at  the  boiling  point  and  no  prunes  put 
in  unless  it  is  boiling.  It  is  »ot  a  matter  of  how  strong  the  lye  is,  but 
how  hot  is  the  water.  On  the  trays  prunes  will  either  dry  or  ferment. 
Unless  the  dip  is  hot  enough  the  prune  will  not  immediately  commence  to 
dry,  but  will,  in  a  few  days,  become  a  chocolate  color  and  refuse  to  dry, 
sometimes  a  few  on  a  tray,  often  half  and  sometimes  nearly  all.  If  the 
water  is  at  the  boiling  point  all  through  the  dip,  two  pounds  of  lye  to  the 
100  gallons  of  water  may  be  sufficient.  If  the  water  is  not  boiling,  ten 
pounds  of  lye  to  the  100  gallons  of  water  may  be  required. 

Weather  conditions  govern  the  time  prunes  should  remain  on  the  trays. 
Grasp  a  handful  of  prunes  and  give  them  a  gentle  squeeze  and  open  the 
hand  quickly;  if  the  prunes  separate  they  are  ready  to  stack  the  trays  and 
the  fruit  should  be  placed  in  the  bin  before  it  rattles  on  the  trays. 

When  the  prunes  are  sufficiently  dry  put  them  where  it  will  not  rain 
on  them,  but  do  not  prevent  the  air  from  getting  to  them.  Let  the  wind 
have  free  access  until  the  rains  set  in,  then  close  the  doors  and  make  the 
house  as  snug  as  you  can.  In  making  bins,  be  sure  the  boards  are  dry 
and  the  bins  well  above  ground,  or  you  will  have  trouble. 

For  dipping  before  packing,  some  use  a  brine  dip — about  five  pounds  of 

salt  to  100  gallons  of  water.     The  salt  dip  leaves  the  skin  of  the  fruit  in  a 

bright,  clear  condition  and  brings  out  the  blue  bloom,  which  is  desirable. 

Practically  all  packers  now  dip  in  pure  hot  water  at  210  degrees  for  2  to  4 

utes  to  partially  dissolve  juice  enough   to  seal   the  pores   of  the  skin. 

Many  used  to  add  licorice,  glucose,  glycerine  or  prune  juice  to  make  the 

shiny,  but  there  is  no  need  for  this,  because  the  public  does  not  de- 

\M     uy  prune-     When  properly  dipped  in  hot  water  and  packed  at 

e  wJiile  hot  and  soft,  a  bloom  comes  back  on  them  as  they  cool  and 

harden. 


HOW   CALIFORNIA   RAISINS   ARE   MADE  455 

The  dipping  serves  three  purposes:  It  washes  dust  from  the  prunes,  kills 
whatever  insects  may  be  in  them,  though  it  may  not  kill  moth  eggs,  and 
softens  the  prunes  so  they  may  be  attractively  packed.  More  prunes  are 
spoiled  by  processing  in  water  not  hot  enough,  than  in  any  other  way. 

Raisins. — The  varieties  of  grapes  used  for  raisins  are  described 
in  Chapter  XXVIII.  The  production  of  raisins  has  reached  such  an 
extent,  and  employs  so  much  skill  and  capital,  that  the  processes 
employed  to  facilitate  the  curing  and  packing  are  so  various  that  a 
description  of  them  can  not  be  attempted.  Commercial  handling  has 
been  so  elaborated  and  systematized  during  recent  years  that  careful 
observation  of  actual  operations  in  vineyard  and  packing  house  is 
necessary  to  full  understanding.  A  few  hints  will,  however,  be 
sufficient  to  help  anyone  to  begin  raisin-making.  The  following  are 
by  Professor  Bioletti  of  the  University  of  California: 

To  make  good  Muscat  raisins,  very  sweet,  large  grapes  and  two  or  three 
weeks  of  hot,  dry  weather  are  necessary.  These  conditions  occur  in  the 
interior.  Nearer  the  coast  the  weather  is  usually  cool  and  rain  probable 
by  the  time  the  grapes  are  sufficiently  ripe. 

The  riper  the  grapes  the  better  the  quality  of  raisins  and  the  heavier  the 
yield.  They  should  have  at  least  25  per  cent  of  sugar.  The  drying  ratio 
varies  with  ripeness  from  5:1  to  3:1.  At  25  per  cent  Bal.  3.4  Ibs.  of  fresh 
grapes  yield  1  Ib.  of  raisins.  The  time  of  drying  varies  from  nine.  Hayj^to 
thirty,  according  to  the  weather.  The  most  favorable  maximum  daily  tem- 
perature for  quality  lies  between  80  deg.  and  90  deg.  F.  At  much  above 
100  deg.  the  drying  is  quicker  but  the  quality  inferior.  Showers  and  cool 
weather  may  prolong  the  drying  even  beyond  thirty  days. 

The  grapes  are  gathered  directly  on  to  2x3  ft.  trays  and  dried  between 
the  rows  of  vines.  The  vineyard  is  first  prepared  by  making  a  low  soil 
ridge  slanting  to  the  south  and  near  the  south  side  of  every  alternate  row. 
If  the  growth  of  vines  is  very  heavy  it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  away  the 
ends  of  the  spreading  canes. 

Each  tray  receives  22  Ibs.  of  grapes,  evenly  spread  and  free  from  trash 
and  leaves.  When  about  three-fourths  dry,  the  grapes  are  turned.  This  is 
in  about  nine  days  at  an  average  maximum  daily  temperature  of  90  deg.  F. 
Two  men  do  the  turning  by  placing  an  empty  tray  on  top  of  the  full  one 
and  revolving  both  from  north  to  south,  so  as  to  change  the  position  of 
the  grapes  as  well  as  turn  them.  After  about  three  or  four  days  at  this 
temperature,  the  raisin  trays  should  be  "stacked"  in  piles  of  ten  or  more; 
each  pile  being  covered  with  an  empty  tray.  It  is  advisable  to  do  as  much 
of  the  drying  in  the  stack  as  is  possible  without  running  the  risk  of 
molding. 

In  case  of  threatened  rain,  the  trays  are  also  stacked  and  then  spread 
out  again  when  the  danger  has  passed.  A  little  rain  will  not  hurt  the  rais- 
ins before  they  are  turned.  Much  rain,  or  wetting  after  turning,  will  injure 
their  appearance  as  layer  raisins,  but  they  can  usually  be  saved  by  prompt 
turning  on  to  new  dry  trays.  In  case  of  prolonged  wet  weather,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  sulphur  the  stacked  raisins.  This  is  done  by  covering  the 
stacks  with  a  sheet  or  a  balloon  sulphur  box  and  burning  a  few  ounces  of 
sulphur.  When  dry,  the  raisins  are  packed  tight  into  sweat-boxes  2x3  ft.x8 
in.  deep,  holding  about  twenty-five  trays.  For  home  use,  bins  or  boxes  of 
any  size  may  be  used.  Dessert  raisins  are  packed  in  layers  separated  by 
sheets  of  Manila  paper. 

The  foregoing  relates  to  the  preparation  of  the  standard  clusters, 
but  the  method  can  be  used  for  drying  other  grapes,  though  it  is 
preferable  to  "dip"  in  some  cases. 

Loose  Muscatels  are  prepared  by  being  put  through  the  stemmer 
and  grader.  The  stemmer  removes  the  berries  from  the  stems,  and 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

the  grader,  by  separating  according  to  size,  determines  the  grade. 
During  the  last  few  years  the  seeding  of  raisins  has  increased 
rapidly,  and  large  establishments  for  this  work,  with  every  ingenious 
machinery,  have  been  erected.  Seeded  raisins  constitute  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  product. 

Considerable  quantities  of  dipped  raisins  are  also  made  of  loose 
or  inferior  Muscatels.  A  lye  dip  of  about  one  pound  of  caustic  soda 
or  Wyandotte  alkali  to  twelve  gallons  of  water  is-  used,  and  the 
solution  is  kept  boiling  hot.  The  ripe  fruit  is  dipped  for  an  instant, 
then  plunged  in  fresh  water  for  a  thorough  rinsing,  and  then  placed 
on  the  trays,  and  put  in  tight  sulphur-houses  for  three  hours.  They 
are  then  spread  in  the  sun  for  one  day  and  curing  finished  in  the 
stack  if  the  weather  is  dry  and  hot;  but  if  cooler,  moister  weather 
prevails,  the  trays  must  be  spread  out.  The  product  is  a  handsome 
amber  color. 

Dipped  Seedless  Raisins. — After  much  experimentation  by  Cali- 
fornia growers  to  improve  the  process  of  making  dipped  raisins,  the 
following  method  largely  used  by  Mr.  G.  H.  Hecke  of  Woodland, 
Yolo  County,  in  handling  Thompson  and  Sultana  raisins  has  been 
widely  adopted : 

Dissolve  30  pounds  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  30  gallons  of  water,  by 
thorough  boiling;  add  60  gallons  of  water  to  this  solution  and  enough  good 
olive  oil  to  film  the  surface  of  the  dip — about  a  teacupful  will  generally  be 
right.  If  this  dip  does  not  sufficiently  cut  the  bloom  on  the  grape,  add  a 
pound  or  two  of  ordinary  lye  to  the  dip  until  it  is  strong  enough  to  remove 
it.  Keep  this  dipping  solution  at  about  90  degrees  F.  and  add  a  tablespoon- 
ful  of  the  olive  oil  from  time  to  time  to  replace  the  oil  removed  by  dipping. 

These  directions,  of  course,  are  general,  and  will  serve  only  as  a  basis 
for  operations.  Sugar  content  of  grapes,  cloudy  days  during  the  drying 
process,  different  brands  of  olive  oil,  all  are  factors  in  the  successful  adop- 
tion of  this  method,  and  hence,  individual  judgment  is  necessary  to  obtain 
the  best  results.  The  raisins  produced  under  this  process  should  be  of  light 
amber  color  and  will  dry  in  less  than  half  the  time  needed  for  the  undipped 
grapes. 

GRAPE  SYRUP 

The  manufacture  of  grape  syrup,  as  a  means  of  disposing  of 
wine  grapes,  has  recently  received  much  attention  and  detailed 
descriptive  publications  can  be  had  from  the  University  Experiment 
Station  at  Berkeley. 

MACHINE  EVAPORATION 

Although  California  summer  conditions  of  adequate  heat  and 
dry  air  favor  open-air  evaporation  to  such  an  extent  that  nearly  all 
our  product  of  cured  fruit  is  secured  in  that  way,  there  are  some 
parts  of  the  State  where  artificial  heat  would  be  a  safer  recourse  and 
there  are  occasionally  years  in  which  drying  fruits  collide  with 
early  rains  in  a  way  to  cause  losses  even  in  our  best  sun-curing 
regions. 

In  1919,  owing  to  great  losses  of  prunes  by  the  heavy  September 
rams  of  1918  in  the  coast  valleys  (which  have  never  been  equaled 


DEHYDRATION    IN    CALIFORNIA  457 

since  the  beginning  of  American  occupation)  and  owing  to  the 
anticipated  need  of  drying  grapes  because  of  prohibition  of  wine 
making,  there  arose  a  great  interest  in  machine  evaporation  in  Cali- 
fornia. This  has  been  ministered  to  by  inventors  and  by  investiga- 
tion of  available  appliances  by  the  University  Experiment  Station, 
of  which  publications  are  available — describing  the  types  of  evapor- 
ators and  their  operation.  The  subject  promises  to  develop  into 
freer  employment  of  artificial  heat  than  has  ruled  hitherto  in  Cali- 
fornia fruit  curing,  because  the  new  types  of  evaporators  have  more 
adequate  capacity  than  those  which  were  abandoned  forty  years 
before  and  because  oil  has  become  available  as  a  source  of  heat. 
There  is,  however,  no  likelihood  that  the  sun  in  the  heavens  will 
ever  be  displaced  as  the  chief  agency  in  California  fruit  preservation. 


PART  NINE:  FRUIT  PROTECTION 


CHAPTER  XLIL 

4 

CALIFORNIA  METHODS  WITH  INJURIOUS  INSECTS 

The  California  climate,  which  so  favors  tree  and  vine  by  a  long, 
mild,  growing  season,  also  enables  some  insects  to  multiply  much 
more  rapidly  than  they  do  in  wintry  climes;  some  having  several 
distinct  broods,  others  carrying  on  the  work  of  reproduction  and 
destruction  of  plants  nearly  the  year  round. 

Undoubtedly  parasitic  and  predacious  insects  preying  upon  the 
injurious  species  found  in  the  fruit  plantations  are  of  assistance,  in 
greater  or  lesser  measure,  in  reducing  the  pests,  and  this  service  is 
being  promoted  by  the  introduction  of  beneficial  insects  from  other 
parts  of  the  world.  There  are  many  of  our  native  species  of  insects 
that  are  valuable  in  this  regard.  Other  factors,  also,  such  as 
untoward  weather-conditions  at  the  time  of  hatching,  bacterial  and 
fungous  diseases  of  insects,  etc.,  assist  the  horticulturist  in  his  war- 
fare against  injurious  insects,  and  yet  it  must  be  the  undertaking  of 
every  fruit  grower  to  know  as  many  pests  as  he  can  and  the  best 
way  to  fight  them. 

While  the  literature  upon  the  subject  of  insect  pests  in  California 
is  quite  extensive,  much  of  it  must  be  sought  in  libraries.  Neverthe- 
less there  are  a  number  of  publications  which  should  be  secured  by 
every  fruit  grower.  These  are  the  bulletins  and  reports  of  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  University  of  California,  at 
Berkeley* ;  of  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  at  Sacramento ; 
and  of  the  bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  at  Washington.  Furthermore  as  the  study  of  the 
pests  and  the  invention  of  means  for  their  destruction  are  contin- 
ually progressing  one  can  only  keep  himself  up  to  date  and  enable 
himself  to  profit  by  improvements,  by  diligent  reading  of  Califor- 
nia's periodicals  devoted  to  practical  horticulture. 

CLASSES  OF  INSECTS 

In  order  to  arrange  injurious  insects  in  classes  in  a  popular  way, 
the  grouping  here  will  be  based  upon  the  character  of  the  work  they 
do.  This  arrangement  has  been  followed  by  other  writers  and 
is  perhaps  better  than  attempting  to  group  the  insects  which  prey 
upon  any  single  tree  or  .plant,  because  injurious  insects  seldom 
restrict  themselves  to  a  single  food  plant.  Therefore  the  grouping 
will  be  as  follows : 

r  1.,*Cir.culir  227  "Plant  Disease  and  Pest  Control"  by  W.  T.  Home  and  E.  O.  Essig, 
California  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  June,  1921,  is  the  latest  and  best  treatise  on 
plant  protection. 


HOW   INSECTS    INJURE   FRUITS 

(1)  Insects  destroying  foliage ; 

(2)  Insects  upon  the  bark  or  upon  the  surface  of  leaf  and  fruit ; 

(3)  Insects  boring  into  the  twig,  stem  or  root ; 

(4)  Insects  boring  into  the  pulp  cf  fruits. 

INSECTS  DESTROYING  FOLIAGE 

Cut  Worms  and  Army  Worms.— These  are  the  larvae  of  Noctuid 
moths,  which  often  become  abundant  over  limited  areas  and  do 
much  damage  to  trees  and  plants.  Cut  worms  and  Army  worms  are 
terms  applied  to  the  same  insects  in  California.  In  ordinary  years 
they  are  not  present  in  sufficient  numbers  to  cause  much  concern, 
and  in  such  years  they  are  known  simply  as  cut  worms.  When  all 
conditions  are  favorable,  however,  certain  species  develop  in 
enormous  numbers  and  having  exhausted  the  food  supply  where 
they  breed,  they  begin  to  migrate  or  march,  commonly  in  a  definite 
direction,  as  an  army  in  search  of  new  food.  When  they  thus  appear 
in  such  large  numbers  and  take  on  the  migrating  habit  they  are 
called  army  worms. 

Some  of  the  caterpillars  have  the  habit  of  climbing  up  vines  and 
trees  and  eating  off  the  buds  in  the  early  spring.  These  are  called 
climbing  cut  worms.  Others  remain  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  feed  by  cutting  off  the  plants  at  this  point.  They  are 
more  commonly  found  in  the  grass  lands,  but  very  frequently  attack 
cultivated  crops,  particularly  on  land  that  was  in  grass  the  previous 
year. 

Of  the  methods  used  to  protect  trees  and  plants  from  cut  worms, 
poisoned  bait  is  probably  the  most  common.  This  consists  of  bran 
and  molasses  or  other  sweet  substance  poisoned  with  arsenic  and 
distributed  in  handfuls  about  the  plants.  The  proportions  are  as 
follows:  forty  pounds  of  bran,  two  gallons  of  cheap  molasses,  and 
five  pounds  of  arsenic.  Cheap  glycerine  may  be  used  to  prevent  the 
mixture  from  drying  .  This  will  be  eaten  by  the  worms  in  preference, 
usually,  to  the  plants  which  it  is  desired  to  protect.  It  may  be  placed 
in  spoonfuls  at  the  base  of  trees  or  vines  which  it  is  desired  to  pro- 
tect or  in  case  of  an  invasion  may  be  broadcasted  over  the  ground — 
which  reduces  the  danger  of  poisoning  poultry  and  domestic 
animals. 

Cut  worms  and  army  worms  may  also  be  captured  by  means  of 
traps.  Because  of  their  habit  of  feeding  at  night  and  remaining  con- 
cealed during  the  day,  pieces  of  boards  may  be  placed  on  the  ground 
around  the  growth  to  be  protected  and  these  may  be  turned  over 
during  the  day  and  the  worms  killed. 

In  case  of  outbreaks  of  army  worms  the  most  important  and 
successful  means  of  fighting  them  is  to  keep  them  out  of  the  orchard 
or  vineyard  entirely.  This  can  be  successfully  done  if  they  are  dis- 
covered in  time,  or  if  already  in  one  portion,  they  can  be  kept  from 
spreading  over  the  rest  of  the  property.  They  travel  in  immense 
numbers  in  a  definite  direction,  coming  generally  from  an  adjoining 
or  nearby  grain  field.  If  a  furrow  is  plowed  along  the  side  of  the 
place  to  be  protected  it  will  effectively  stop  their  progress.  This 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

furrow  should  be  plowed  as  deep  as  possible,  with  the  vertical  side 
next  to  the  field  to  be  protected.  It  can  be  further  trimmed  with  a 
spade  preferably  cutting  under  slightly,  making  a  smooth  surface, 
over  which  few,  if  any,  of  the  worms  will  make  their  way.  Above 
this  shoulder  a  fine  pulverized  earth  should  slope  as  abruptly  upward 
as  possible.  If  any  of  the  worms  succeed  in  climbing  up  over  the 
smooth  surface  made  by  the  spade  they  will  be  pretty  sure  to  fall 
back  as  they  reach  this  fine  loose  earth  in  an  attempt  to' ascend  over 
the  projecting  shoulder.  Pestholes  should  be  dug  on  the  straight 
edge  of  the  furrow  every  fifteen  or  twenty  feet.  The  worms  in  fail- 
ing to  scale  the  vertical  side  of  the  furrow  will  crawl  along  in  the 
bottom  and  fall  into  these  holes.  Here  they  may  be  killed  by  pour- 
ing in  a  little  crude  oil,  or  by  pouring  in  a  little  distillate  and  drop- 
ping in  a  match,  thus  burning  them,  or  the  holes  filled  in  and  others 
dug.  They  may  also  be  killed  in  the  furrow  by  sprinkling  them  with 
kerosene  or  by  pouring  a  strip  of  crude  oil  along  the  furrow. 

Canker  Worms. — These  are  destructive  leaf-feeding  caterpillars, 
commonly  known  also  as  inchworms,  loopers  or  measuring  worms, 
because  of  the  peculiar  looping  gait  by  which  they  move  about.  The 
male  moths  are  slender  bodied  and  have  broad,  thin  wings,  while  the 
females  are  wingless,  heavy-bodied  creatures. 

While  these  caterpillars  can  in  large  measure  be  controlled  by 
spraying  with  lead  arsenate,  it  is  by  far  the  best  to  use  the  trap 
method  of  control  and  avoid  having  them  upon  the  trees  at  all. 
The  trap  method  depends  for  its  success  upon  the  fact  that  the 
wingless  female  moth  upon  emerging  from  her  cocoon  in  the  ground 
immediately  crawls  up  the  trunk  of  the  nearby  tree  and  places  her 
eggs  upon  the  twigs.  By  trapping  the  females  on  their  way  up  into 
the  trees  no  eggs  can  be  placed  near  the  foliage  and  the  caterpillars 
hatching  from  them  can  do  no  damage.  The  traps  are  made  thus : 
Take  No.  16  or  No.  14  wire  cloth  in  strips  six  inches  wide,  draw  and 
tack  the  top  edge  close  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree  over  a  bandage  of 
cloth  which  is  put  on  first  to  make  the  joint  tight.  The  lower  edge 
should  flare  out  about  an  inch  from  the  tree  all  around.  This  trap 
will  need  rather  frequent  cleaning  while  the  moths  are  active.  They 
may  also  be  prevented  from  climbing  by  bands  of  "tree  tanglefoot" 
or  loose  cotton. 

Tent  Caterpillars.— Several  species  of  hairy  caterpillars  called 
"tent  caterpillars,"  or  "web  worms,"  from  their  spinning  covers  of 
cobweb-like  material,  under  which  they  take  shelter  in  large  col- 
onies;  but  one,  at  least,  of  the  group  does  not  spin  a  web,  though  it 
lives  in  clusters  on  the  tree.  The  worms  can  be  killed  by  cutting  off 
and  burning  the  twig  holding  the  cluster  or  by  burning  the  colonies 
in  place  with  a  torch  on  the  end  of  a  pole,  or  by  spraying  the  foliage 
with  lead  arsenate.  The  pest  can  be  reduced  while  pruning  by  care- 
fully collecting  and  burning  the  egg  clusters,  which  encircle  the 
twig. 

Red-Humped  Caterpillar.— Striped  caterpillars,  not  hairy,  but 
having  two  rows  of  black  spines  along  the  back,  also  living  in  clus- 


LEAF-EATING  INSECTS 


471 


ters ;  of  reddish  color  with  yellow  and  white  lines ;  a  short  distance 
back  of  the  red  head  of  the  caterpillar  is  a  red  hump  on  which  are 
four  black  spines ;  black  spines  are  also  scattered  over  the  body,  but 
smaller  than  those  on  the  back.  Spray  with  lead  arsenate  or  Paris 
green,  or  cut  off  and  burn  colonies. 

Caterpillar  of  Tussock  Moth.— A  conspicuous  caterpillar  with 
four  short,  brush-like  tufts  on  its  back,  and  two  long,  black  plumes 
at  the  front,  and  one  at  the  rear  of  the  body.  This  leaf-eater  is  found 
on  apple,  pear,  plum  and  sometimes  on  other  fruit  trees,  also  on  the 
walnut  and  oak.  The  caterpillars  are  peculiarly  resistant  to  arsenical 
sprays  and  can  not  be  successfully  controlled  by  these.  The  larva 
spins  a  cocoon  sometimes  in  the  fold  of  a  leaf,  more  commonly  in 
crotches  or  rough  places  on  the  bark,  or  even  on  adjacent  buildings 
or  fences,  and  the  female,  after  emerging  from  the  cocoon,  deposits 
her  eggs  upon  the  outside  of  it.  The  insect  is  fortunately  very  freely 
parasitized  in  the  egg  form  and  prevented  from  wide  injury.  It  can 
be  controlled  by  destroying  the  egg  masses  during  pruning,  as  they 
are  white  and  very  conspicuous.  The  worms  may  be  jarred  from  the 
trees  and  prevented  from  climbing  up  again  as  described  for  canker 
worms. 

Pear  and  Cherry  Slug. — A  small,  slimy,  dark-colored  worm,  with 
the  fore  part  of  the  body  notably  larger  than  the  rear  part,  eating 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  but  not  usually  making  holes  through 
them.  The  insect  can  be  checked  by  throwing  fine  road  dust  or  air- 
slacked  lime  over  the  tree,  which  cakes  upon  the  slime  of  the  worm 
and  destroys  it.  On  a  large  scale  an  arsenate  of  lead  spray  may  be 
used  or  dust  spraying  with  hydrated  lime  or  nicodust  is  effective. 

Saw-Fly  Worm. — There  are  several  larvae  of  saw-flies  which 
do  much  injury  to  pear  trees,  currants,  etc.,  by  eating  the  whole  leaf 
substance  except  the  larger  ribs.  The  worms  are  small,  not  slimy 
like  the  pear  slug,  the  one  infesting  the  pear  being  about  half  an 
inch  when  fully  grown.  Its  general  appearance  and  work  are  shown 
by  the  engravings.  The  most  available  remedy  is  an  arsenate  of 
lead  spray  just  as  the  petals  are  opening. 

Large  Caterpillars  on  Grape-vines. — The  grape-vine  is  often 
seriously  injured  by  the  attacks  of  very  large  leaf-eating  worms  two 
inches  and  upwards  in  length,  sometimes  with  a  large  horn,  or  spine, 
sometimes  without.  They  are  larvae  of  several  species  of  Sphinx 
moths  or  hawk-moths.  The  worms  when  new  hatched  can  be  killed 
by  an  arsenical  spray  or  by  hand-picking.  The  number  of  worms 
can  be  reduced  by  killing  the  large  moths  which  are  abundant  at 
nightfall  on  beds  of  verbenas,  or  other  garden  flowers.  These  worms 
are  related  to  the  other  large  caterpillars  which  feed  on  tobacco, 
tomatoes,  etc.  They  can  be  killed  by  spraying  or  dusting  with 
lead  arsenate  and  nicotine. 

Leaf  Eating  Beetles. — There  are  many  beetles,  large  and  small, 
which  infest  grape  leaves.  They  can  all  be  reduced  by  the  use  of 
arsenate  of  lead,  or  those  which  drop  to  the  ground  when  disturbed 
may  be  collected  in  large  numbers  on  sheets  spread  below. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

The  most  notable  of  these  because  of  its  evil  work  in  the  central 
part  of  the  State,  and  because  the  grub  destroys  the  roots  of  the  vine 
causing  it  to  be  called  the  "grape  root  worm,  and  the  beetle  riddles 
the  leaves  and  young  fruit.  It  is  Adoxus  vitis  and  a  special  study  of 
it  has  been  made  by  Professor  H.  J.  Quayle  of  the  University  Ex- 
periment Station,  the  results  of  which  are  published  in  Bulletin  195 
of  the  station.  The  beetle  is  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length  and 
is  black  or  brown.  It  can  be  killed  by  spraying  or  dusting  the  fol- 
iage with  lead  arsenate. 

INSECTS  UPON  BARK  OR  SURFACE  OF  LEAVES 
OF  FRUIT 

Leaf  Lice. — Leaves  of  fruit  trees,  especially  the  apple  and  plum, 
are  sometimes  almost  covered  with  lice  or  aphides  of  different  colors, 
from  light  green  to  black,  some  individuals  having  wings  and  some 
wingless.  Available  remedies  for  all  these  leaf  lice  are  the  kerosene 
emulsions  and  other  mixtures  which  will  be  given  later  as  summer 
washes  for  scale  insects,  with  a  spray  nozzle  which  sends  spray 
upwards,  so  as  to  reach  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves.  Very  often 
these  pests  are  apparently  cleared  out  by  lady-birds  and  other  insects 
which  devour  them. 

Thrips. — Very  minute  insects  infesting  buds,  leaves  and  blos- 
soms of  pears,  prunes,  cherries,  peaches  and  many  other  trees  and 
plants.  The  attack  on  leaves  and  buds  causes  them  to  wither  and  fall 
off.  Indeed  complete  defoliation  may  follow  their  attack.  When 
thrips  infest  fruit  blossoms  the  essential  parts  are  eaten  off  by  the 
insects  and  the  attacked  blossom  sets  no  fruit.  Much  damage  is  done 
by  the  insect  and  thorough  investigation  has  been  pursued  by  several 
investigators  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  and  by  the  California  Experiment  Station.  Early 
results  indicate  that  the  insect  is  capable  of  control  by  spring  spraying 
with  several  insecticides,  preparation  and  application  of  which  is 
given  in  detail  in  California  Experiment  Station  Circular  223  (No- 
vember, 1920),  and  should  be  carefully  studied. 

The  first  application  should  properly  be  made  when  the  thrips  are 
coming  from  the  ground  in  maximum  numbers  and  before  the  cluster 
buds  are  too  far  advanced.  This  period  in  the  San  Jose  district  is 
early  in  March,  but  it  of  course  differs  for  the  several  varieties  of 
fruits.  An  effort  should  be  made  to  kill  all  adults  in  an  orchard  be- 
fore March  15,  when  practically  all  thrips  are  out  of  the  ground  and 
when  egg-laying  on  the  stems  of  leaves  or  bloom  begins. 

Spraying  can  be  done  with  safety  to  opening  buds,  but  should  not 
be  sprayed  on  trees  in  full  bloom,  and  its  use  can  be  resumed  imme- 
diately after  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  and  later  on  the  foliage  for 
adults  and  larvae. 

The  necessity  for  spraying  will  depend  upon  the  number  in  a 
blossom.  As  the  blossoms  are  barely  opening  the  thrips  should  be 
shaken  out  of  a  few  blossoms  on  white  paper.  If  only  two  or  three 


INSECTS  DESTROYING  FOLIAGE  473 

are  in  a  blossom,  it  is  probable  that  spraying  may  be  omitted.  If 
they  are  more  numerous,  it  is  quite  certain  that  spraying  will  be 
required. 

Vine  Hoppers.— Very  minute,  yellowish,  jumping  insects  infest- 
ing grape-vines  very  early  in  the  season,  and  multiplying  rapidly.  The 
vine  hopper  (often  called  incorrectly  the  vine  thrips)  is  the  most 
widely  distributed  and  most  uniformly  present  of  all  the  grape  insects 
occurring  in  the  State.  It  occurs  in  injurious  numbers,  however, 
chiefly  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys.  It  is  also  present 
in  the  coast  counties,  but  rarely  in  sufficient  numbers  to  do  much  in- 
jury. Another  large  species  (Tettigonia  atropunctata)  occurs  in  these 
localities  and  sometimes  does  considerable  injury  in  the  early  part 
of  the  season.  The  principal  injury  caused  by  this  insect  is  due  to 
the  extraction  of  the  plant  juices.  These  are  sucked  out  by  means 
of  a  sharp  beak  or  proboscis,  which  is  inserted  into  the  plant  tissues. 

Control  of  the  insect  consists  in  keeping  the  vineyard  clean  of 
weeds,  which  are  the  winter  refuge  of  the  pest — thus  reducing  the 
number  ready  for  egg-laying  on  the  vine-foliage.  The  next  oppor- 
tunity for  effective  work  lies  in  killing  the  young  insects,  as  they 
appear  from  eggs  placed  in  the  leaf-tissue  by  the  over-wintering 
adults,  before  they  get  their  wings.  These  young  hoppers  may  be 
killed  by  means  of  a  spray  applied  to  the  under  side  of  the  leaves, 
and  this  will  be  during  May  or  the  first  part  of  June,  depending 
upon  the  season  and  locality.  The  exact  time  may  be  determined  by 
watching  their  development.  When  some  of  them  have  reached  al- 
most full  size  it  is  time  to  start  the  spraying.  The  spray  to  use  is 
soap-nicotine  or  nicodust,  applied  from  below  so  as  to  strike  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves,  for  the  spray  will  kill  only  such  hoppers 
as  are  hit. 

False  Chinch-Bugs. — Small,  grayish-brown  insects  (about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long  when  fully  grown),  which  injure  the  vine 
leaves.  They  drop  to  the  ground  when  the  vine  is  disturbed,  and  may 
be  caught  or  may  be  sprayed  as  for  vine  hoppers. 

Grasshoppers. — These  pests  often  invade  orchard  and  vineyard, 
and  sometimes  kill  the  plants  outright  by  completely  defoliating  them. 
This  plague  has  been  successfully  met  by  the  use  of  the  arsenic  and 
bran  remedy,  prepared  as  already  described  for  cut-worms.  A  table- 
spoonful  is  thrown  by  the  side  of  each  vine  or  tree.  If  placed  on 
shingles  about  the  vineyard,  much  of  the  poison  not  eaten  may  be 
afterward  gathered  up  and  saved.* 

Red  Spider  and  Other  Mites. — Very  minute  insects,  usually  dis- 
cernible only  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifier,  sometimes  destroy  the 
leaves,  causing  them  to  lose  their  color  and  health  by  their  inroads 
upon  the  leaf  surface.  The  red  spider  and  yellow  mite  are  conspicu- 

*For  the  protection  of  nurseries,  orchards,  and  vineyards  it  is  often  necessary  to 
resort  to  various  devices  for  excluding  the  grasshopper,  or  for  destroying  them  upon 
adjoining  fields.  Publications  describing  such  devices  are  Bulletins  142,  170  and  192, 
University  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley. 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

ous  examples;  they  infest  nearly  all  orchard  trees,  especially  the  al- 
mond, prune,  and  plum.  The  eggs  of  the  red  spider  are  ruby-red 
globules,  as  seen  with  the  magnifier,  and  are  deposited  in  vast  num- 
bers upon  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and  leave  a  red  color  upon  the  finger 
if  it  is  rubbed  over  them.  The  eggs  may  be  killed  with  winter 
strength  of  lime  sulphur,  but  treatment  is  most  effective  when  ap- 
plied in  the  spring  and  summer  after  the  mites  are  hatched  out.  The 
popular  remedy  is  a  thorough  dusting  with  sulphur.  On  a  large  scale 
the  sulphur  is  applied  in  a  cloud  by  means  of  a  modification  of  the 
broad-cast  barley  sower  or  with  the  sulphur  machines  specially  made 
for  this  purpose.  On  a  small  scale  it  may  be  applied  with  a  bellows 
as  for  grape-vines,  or  shaken  from  a  cheese-cloth  bag  at  the  end  of  a 
pole.  Sulphur  sprays  have  been  found  most  effective  in  controlling 
the  red  spider.  The  ingredients  of  the  sulphur  sprays  will  be  given 
later. 

Phylloxera. — This  pest  of  the  grape-vine  is  closely  allied  to  the 
aphides,  and  lives  both  upon  the  root  and  leaf,  though  in  this  State 
the  root  type  prevails  and  the  leaf  form  is  seldom  seen.  No  remedy 
has  yet  been  found  effectual,  but  escape  is  had  by  using  roots  resisting 
the  insects,  as  described  in  Chapter  XXVI.  The  insects  are  recog- 
nized, by  the  aid  of  a  magnifier,  as  minute  yellow  lice,  chiefly  on  the 
rootlets.  Full  account  of  the  insect  is  given  in  Bulletin  192,  Univer- 
sity of  California  Experiment  Station. 

The  Woolly  Aphis. — A  louse  of  dark  red  color,  occurring  in 
groups,  covered  with  a  woolly  substance  which  exudes  from  the 
bodies  of  the  insects.  The  woolly  aphis  is  an  almost  universal  pest  of 
the  apple,  though  as  shown  by  experience,  some  varieties  are  prac- 
tically exempt  from  it.  As  the  pest  lives  both  upon  root  and  top,  its 
annihilation  is  impossible,  but  it  may  be  reduced  so  that  the  fruitful- 
ness  and  vigor  of  the  tree  are  not  impaired. 

The  woolly  aphis  on  the  roots  may  be  prevented  from  collecting 
in  too  large  quantities  on  the  root  crown  by  the  use  of  about  five 
gallons  of  fresh  wood  ashes,  placed  about  the  base  of  the  tree  at  the 
beginning  of  the  rainy  season,  or  by  using  about  three  pounds  of 
tobacco  refuse  in  the  same  way.  The  rain  leaches  the  lye  from  the 
ashes  or  the  juice  from  the  tobacco,  both  of  which  are  destructive  to 
the  aphis.  The  soil  around  the  tree  may  also  be  soaked  with  soap 
and  nicotine  spray.  By  keeping  the  insect  thus  reduced  at  the  root 
crown,  its  presence  on  the  tree  itself  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
More  than  this  cannot  be  expected,  because  it  is  impossible  to  ex- 
tirpate the  insect,  and  it  is  present  in  nearly  all  the  apple  orchards  and 
old  fruit  gardens  in  the  State. 

Woolly  aphis  on  the  branches  and  twigs  can  be  reduced  by  spray- 
ing with  oil  emulsion  washes.  Lady-birds  often  clear  away  the  woolly 
aphis,  after  reproduction  has  fallen  below  the  normal,  from  the  tree 
above  ground.  Some  attention  is  being  given  to  trial  of  resistant  roots 
and  it  is  likely  that  such  roots  will  be  generally  used  here  as  in 
Australia.  How  such  trees  are  grown  is  described  on  page  201. 


ALL  KINDS  OF  SCALE  INSECTS  475 

Scale  Insects. — This  is  a  large  group  of  pests  which  occasion 
greater  loss  and  trouble  to  our  fruit  growers  than  all  other  pests 
combined.  There  are  many  species,  and  no  orchard  tree  is  exempt 
from  the  attacks  of  one  or  more  of  ti'em,  though  some  trees  are  ap- 
parently more  popular  with  the  pests  than  others.  The  fruit  grower 
should  study  their  life  history  and  classification  as  laid  down  in  the 
works  on  entomology.  It  will  only  be  possible  in  this  connection  to 
call  the  roll  of  the  common  scales  and  to  give  some  of  the  remedies 
which  are  now  being  most  successfully  employed  against  them. 

San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus). — This  was  formerly  one 
of  the  worst  and  most  widespread  of  the  species  of  scales  preying 
on  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  California,  but  at  present,  owing  to  the 
energetic  war  that  fruit  growers  have  had  to  wage  against  it,  has 
become  of  minor  importance,  and,  in  fact,  has  practically  disappeared 
from  some  regions  where  it  was  formerly  most  injurious.  The  work 
of  this  species  is  generally  readily  distinguished  from  other  species 
of  scale  by  the  red  blotches  which  are  formed  wherever  it  stings  any 
part  of  the  tree — either  branch,  leaf  or  fruit.  These  red  blotches  are 
more  pronounced  in  some  varieties  than  in  others.  When  the  scales 
are  present  in  large  numbers,  it  causes  a  complete  discoloration  of  the 
bark  clear  to  the  sap-wood.  This  scale  has  its  preference  among  the 
deciduous  fruits.  The  apricot  and  certain  varieties  of  cherries  and 
plums  are  but  little  affected. 

The  Greedy  Scale  (Aspidiotus  rapax). — This  species  affects 
many  kinds  of  trees,  deciduous  as  well  as  evergreens.  Scale,  about 
one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  length;  form,  ovoid;  color,  drab;  female, 
bright  yellow.  This  insect  is  found  in  many  places  along  the  coast.  It 
is  distinguishable  easily  from  the  Aspidiotus  perniciosus  by  its  whit- 
ish yellow  color,  contrasting  with  the  dark  color  of  the  latter.  Gen- 
erally this  scale  has  only  one  brood  in  the  season,  and,  as  compared 
with  the  San  Jose  scale,  it  is  of  little  danger,  owing  to  its  slow-breed- 
ing propensities. 

Oyster  Shell  Scale  of  Apple  (Lepidosaphes  ulmi). — This  scale 
affects  the  apple  chiefly,  although  sometimes  the  pear  also.  Owing  to 
the  thickness  of  the  armor,  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  scales 
to  exterminate.  It  is  easily  recognized  by  its  long  curved  form. 

Rose  and  Berry  Scale  (Aulacaspis  rosae). — This  scale  has  such 
striking  forms  that  it  can  be  readily  recognized.  The  round  white 
scale  is  that  of  the  female,  the  elongated  one  with  ridges  is  the  male. 
The  rose  scale  infests,  besides  roses,  various  fruit  bushes,  especially 
blackberries  and  raspberries.  Remedy :  For  raspberries  and  black- 
berries the  cutting  down  of  the  canes  to  the  ground  should  be  adopted, 
and  the  stumps  sprayed  or  washed  with  kerosene  emulsion,  recom- 
mended under  the  head  of  general  remedies  for  scale  insects. 

Oleander  Scale  (Aspidiotus  hederac). — This  scale  is  small,  flat, 
yellowish-white.  It  affects  a  great  many  trees,  especially  evergreens. 
Lemon  trees  become  badly  affected,  and  the  fruit  is  sometimes  com- 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

pletely  covered.  The  olive  is  also  subject,  and  the  fruit  of  the  olive 
when  infested  does  not  mature  well,  and  wherever  a  scale  is  found,  a 
green  blotch  makes  its  appearance. 

Red  Scale  of  Orange  and  Lemon. — (Chrysomphales  aurantii). — 
This  scale  affects  citrus  trees  in  both  the  coast  and  interior  regions. 
The  scale  fully  grown  is  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  or  a  little  more  in 
diameter,  center  yellow,  margin  light  brown.  The  appearance  of 
trees  infested  with  this  pest  is  very  striking,  very  much  resembling 
those  diseased  from  other  causes,  such  as  bad  drainage,  the  leaf  pre- 
senting a  mottled  appearance,  a  light  blotch  around  the  scale  contrast- 
ing with  the  natural  green  of  the  leaf.  The  branches  are  but  little 
troubled,  but  the  fruit,  like  the  leaf,  becomes  completely  covered  with 
the  insects.  An  orange  tree  infested  with  this  scale  gradually  becomes 
sickly  and  languishes. 

Other  Citrus  Tree  Scales. — Two  scales  more  recently  brought 
into  this  State  from  Florida  are  the  "purple  scale,"  Lepidosaphes 
beskii,  and  the  "long  scale,"  Lepidosaphes  gloverii.  The  red  and  pur- 
ple scales  of  citrus  trees  are  only  treated  successfully  by  fumigation 
with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  This  treatment  is  an  elaborate  one,  requir- 
ing special  appliances  which  are  fully  illustrated  and  described  in 
publications  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley. 

The  Black  Scale  (Saissetia  oleae). — This  scale  is  almost  a  uni- 
versal pest,  especially  in  regions  adjacent  to  the  coast,  though  it  has 
recently  demonstrated  its  ability  to  endure  interior  valley  conditions. 
It  affects  citrus  fruit  trees  and  some  deciduous  trees  as  well,  and  a 
fungus  growing  on  its  exudation  causes  the  black  smut,  which  renders 
tree  and  fruit  unsightly ;  but  this  smut  accompanies  other  scale  insects 
as  well  as  this  one.  It  is  especially  troublesome  on  the  olive,  and  will 
quickly  spread  to  ornamental  plants  and  vines  in  the  garden.  It  is  a 
very  difficult  scale  to  subdue.  On  citrus  trees  the  fumigation  method 
is  the  only  practical  recourse.  On  deciduous  fruits  it  requires  both 
winter  and  summer  spraying  to  hold  it  in  check.  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  immense  numbers  are  killed  by  parasites,  and  perhaps  by  fungi  as 
well,  it  is  still  a  grevious  pest,  and  should  be  fought  unceasingly. 

Soft  Orange  Scale  (Coccus  Hesperidum). — This  scale  is  a  pest 
of  citrus  trees  the  world  over.  The  scale  is  ovoid,  a  little  wider  at 
one  end  than  the  other;  length,  from  one-twelfth  to  one-seventh  of  an 
inch;  color,  dark  brown  on  convex  part,  and  a  lighter  brown  sur- 
rounding margin ;  it  has  two  indentations  on  each  side,  and  one  on 
posterior  end.  This  scale  prefers  to  collect  on  the  under  sides  of  the 
leaves  along  the  midrib,  the  upper  sides  being  covered  with  smut.  It 
fortunately  is  usually  held  in  check  by  natural  agencies. 

Brown  Apricot  Scale. — The  apricot  tree,  though  defying  the 
most  ruinous  scales  of  some  other  trees,  is  beset  by  certain  scales. 
The  black  scale  is  one  and  the  brown  apricot  scale  another.  The 
brown  apricot  scale  (Eulecanium  Armeniacum)  is  boat-shaped;  when 
reaching  maturity,  wrinkled;  the  color  is  a  shiny  brown,  darker  in 


MANY   KINDS    OF   BORERS 


477 


the  center,  lighter  at  the  edges.  A  full-sized  scale  has  a  length  of  a 
quarter  of  an  inch,  and  a  width  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  This  scale 
attacks  nearly  all  kinds  of  deciduous  fruits,  but  especially  the  prune 
and  apricot.  It  is  a  very  hardy  scale,  and  the  remarks  about  the  black 
scale  apply  to  it  also. 

Other  Lecaniums. — There  are  several  other  scales  on  fruit  trees ; 
The  filbert  scale  (hemisphericum),  which  is  common  in  greenhouses 
and  occurs  to  limited  extent  on  citrus  trees;  the  frosted  scale  (pruino- 
sum),  very  large  oval  and  convex,  covered  with  dense,  whitish  bloom, 
occurs  on  deciduous  fruit  trees. 

Cottony  Cushion  Scale  or  Fluted  Scale  (leery a  purchasi). — This 
promised  at  one  time  to  be  the  most  grievous  of  all  scales  in  its  rapid 
increase  and  wide  range  of  food  plants,  but  it  was  speedily  reduced 
by  an  Australian  ladybird,  Novius  (Vedalia)  cardinalis,  introduced 
by  Albert  Koebele,  with  such  success  that  specimens  were  for  a 
number  of  years  rarely  seen,  but  have  recently  become  abundant  in 
some  localities. 

Mealy  Bugs. — Closely  allied  to  the  scales  are  the  mealy  bugs 
(species  of  dactylopius),  soft  and  of  a  pale  pink  color,  generally  cov- 
ered with  a  whitish  mealy  powder,  hence  the  name.  The  common 
species  is  found  in  nearly  every  greenhouse  in  the  world,  and  in 
California  climate  lives  in  the  open  air  on  many  kinds  of  plants,  and 
has  at  various  times  proved  quite  troublesome.  Unless  checked  by 
natural  enemies,  the  mealy  bugs  multiply  very  rapidly,  and  mass 
themselves  in  the  corners  of  the  leaves.  The  plants  turn  black  from 
the  fungus  growth  growing  on  the  honeydew,  and  the  bush  pre- 
sents the  same  appearance  as  a  scale-infested  plant.  With  the  aid 
of  a  magnifier  the  appearance  of  the  mealy  bugs,  as  different  from 
scales  can  be  readily  recognized.  Recently  they  have  become  very 
injurious  on  grape-vines  and  various  fruit  trees. 

Remedies  for  Scale  Insects. — Though  most  of  the  scale  insects 
are  attacked  by  parasitic  and  predaceous  insects,  as  already  stated, 
these  natural  agencies  have  generally  not  proved  rapid  enough  to 
cope  with  the  increase  of  the  scales,  and  insecticides  have  to  be  em- 
ployed to  save  the  fruit  and  trees.  There  is  a  vast  number  of  these 
washes,  many  of  which  will  do  good  work  if  thoroughly  applied, 
which  is  usually  the  secret  of  success.  A  few  which  have  proved 
of  special  value  will  be  given  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 


INSECTS  BORING  IN  TWIG,  STEM,  OR  ROOT 

Peach  Twig-Borer  or  Peach  Worm. — This  larva  is  probably  the 
most  serious  insect  pest  that  the  California  peach  grower  has  had  to 
contend  with.  The  creature  hibernates  as  a  young  larva  in  burrows 
in  the  crotches  of  the  tree.  As  soon  as  the  tree  begins  to  grow  in 
the  spring  the  larva  becomes  active,  eats  its  way  out  of  its  winter 
home  and  bores  into  the  new  growing  twigs  causing  them  to  wither 
and  die.  Later  generations  of  the  worm  attack  the  fruit  and  from 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

the  two  forms  of  attack  much  loss  may  accrue  to  the  orchardist. 
Destruction  of  the  larvae  in  their  winter  burrows  overcomes  all  dam- 
age from  these  pests.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  spraying  with 
the  lime-sulphur  compound  in  the  late  winter  or  very  early  spring 
when  the  buds  are  expanding. 

The  Common  Borer. — An  insect  which  has  done  yast  injury  in 
this  State  is  the  "flat-headed  apple  borer"  (chrysobothris  femorata). 
It  affects  chiefly  apples,  peaches  and  plums,  etc.,  which  have  been 
injured  by  sunburn.  It  is  a  pale-colored  grub  with  a  brown  head, 
the  forepart  of  the  body  being  greatly  flattened.  The  matured 
beetle  is  greenish  black  or  bronze  colored,  copper  colored  on  the 
under  side.  If  any  tree  receives  any  damage  to  the  bark,  either  by 
sunburn  or  other  causes,  the  borer  is  sure  to  find  it,  and  it  works 
itself  into  the  tree,  its  castings  being  the  only  guide  to  its  presence. 
The  best  remedy  is  prevention  by  protection  from  sunburn,  as  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  XL 

In  the  summer  and  fall  look  for  discolored  places  on  the  bark 
where  the  whitewash  may  not  have  reached,  cut  in  and  kill  the  grub 
with  a  knife,  or,  if  you  find  a  hole,  push  a  wire  to  the  end  of  it.  This 
examination  must  include  the  bark  below  the  loose  ground  surface, 
for  younger  trees  are  sometimes  girdled  at  that  point.  Whenever  a 
borer  is  removed,  the  debris  and  dead  wood  should  be  entirely 
cleaned  out  and  the  smooth  surface  left,  taking  care  to  preserve  the 
bark  as  much  as  possibly.  Then  the  wound  should  be  smeared  over 
with  grafting  wax,  and  a  rag  tied  about  it.  In  this  manner  young 
trees  have  been  saved,  but  if  seriously  attacked,  it  is  better  to  put  in 
a  sound  tree  and  protect  it. 

Sun-Scald  Borer. — Another  borer  which  delights  in  sunburned 
trees  is  a  minute  beetle,  making  a  burrow  hardly  larger  than  a  pin- 
hole.  It  is  known  as  the  sun-scald  beetle  (Xyloborus  xylographus). 
The  remedy,  as  in  the  former  case,  is  to  prevent  injury  to  the  bark, 
for  this  precedes  the  attack  of  the  beetle. 

The  Olive  Twig-Borer. — A  reddish  brown  beetle  boring  into 
twigs  of  olive  and  other  orchard  trees,  and  grape  canes,  at  the  axils 
of  the  leaves.  It  is  Polycaon  confertus,  and  it  breeds  in  decaying  logs 
and  stumps  and  old  grape-vines,  apparently  visiting  the  fruit  trees 
merely  to  gratify  its  appetite.  Its  work  is  not  fatal  to  the  tree,  but 
unless  proper  pruning  and  attention  be  afterwards  given,  it  may  spoil 
the  shape  of  the  young  tree.  Remove  the  affected  branches  below 
the  burrows  of  the  beetle,  or  if  it  would  be  difficult  to  replace  a 
branch,  see  that  the  beetle  is  destroyed  and  the  entrance  to  the  hole 
stopped  up — this  to  prevent  decay  and  a  weak  branch  following. 
Spraying  with  ill-smelling  solutions  may  prevent  their  attack,  but 
the  insect  has  not  been  sufficiently  abundant  to  invite  serious  effort 
thus  far. 

Peach  Crown-Borer. — A  grub  boring  into  peach  trees  just  below 
the  ground  surface,  its  presence  being  shown  by  copious  gumming. 
Cut  out  the  grubs  thoroughly  in  the  fall  and  winter.  After  digging 
out  all  that  can  be  found  a  band  six  inches  wide  of  "asphaltum  D" 


INSECTS  EATING  FRUIT  PULP 


479 


should  be  placed  in  the  spring  on  the  rough  bark  around  the  base 
of  bearing  trees,  a  little  above  and  below  the  ground  line.  This 
will  keep  in  the  perfect  insects  which  come  from  the  cocoons  which 
are  at  the  openings  of  the  burrows  and  it  will  keep  out  the  newly 
hatching  larvae  from  eggs  which  will  be  then  laid  on  the  tree  near 
the  ground  by  the  insects  which  are  not  shut  in  by  the  asphaltum. 
The  material  is  applied  warm  with  a  brush.  It  is  easier  to  apply 
two  or  more  coatings  than  to  try  to  put  on  more  at  one  time  than 
will  adhere  firmly.  The  first  coating  will  harden  very  quickly,  and 
the  second  can  be  applied  without  loss  of  time.  Two  coatings  are 
generally  sufficient  unless  the  bark  is  very  rough.  A  thick  uniform 
covering  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  best  results. 

In  the  case  of  young  trees  with  smooth  bark,  asphaltum  may 
induce  sunburn  and  crude  oil  whitewash  is  preferred.  Fifty  pounds 
of  stone  lime  (in  a  barrel),  slaked  with  from  10  to  15  gallons  of 
warm  water.  While  the  lime  is  boiling,  slowly  pour  in  six  gallons 
of  heavy  crude  oil.  Stir  and  add  water  to  make  a  heavy  paste  and 
paint  that  on.  This  must  be  used  the  same  day  it  is  mixed  and  not 
used  if  kept  over. 

Strawberry  Root-Borer. — The  larva  of  another  clear-winged 
moth  (Aegeria  impropria),  boring  into  the  root  of  the  strawberry 
plants,  found  in  various  portions  of  the  State,  and  doing  considerable 
damage,  forcing  the  growers  to  resort  to  replanting  much  earlier 
than  otherwise  would  be  necessary.  Flooding  the  vines  has  a  great 
tendency  to  kill  out  the  worms,  and  if  the  water  was  retained,  say 
four  or  five  days  during  the  winter,  all  over  the  plants,  doubtless  all 
the  larvae  would  be  killed. 

Currant  and  Gooseberry  Borer. — A  white  worm  eating  out  the 
central  pith  of  currant  and  gooseberry  plants — the  larva  of  another 
clear-winged  moth  (Aegeria  tipuliformis).  Spraying  with  whale-oil 
soap  after  the  crop  is  gathered,  pruning  out  and  burning  in  the  fall 
of  all  old  wood  which  can  be  spared,  will  reduce  the  evil. 

The  Raspberry  Cane  Borer. — This  intruder  is  one  of  the  family 
Tenthredinideae,  or  saw  flies.  The  very  small  maggot  or  larva  will 
be  found  by  peeling  the  bark  carefully.  This  larva  can  not  crawl, 
therefore  if  the  tips  be  cut  and  the  worm  is  taken  out  he  will  die.  A 
better  way  is  to  cut  all  tips,  as  fast  as  they  show  signs  of  wilting,  and 
burn  them.  Thorough  work  in  topping  is  absolutely  necessary,  so 
as  to  be  sure  that  none  of  the  worms  remain  to  produce  flies.  Top- 
ping causes  the  canes  to  throw  out  laterals,  thus  producing  more 
fruit.  The  canes  are  not  affected  after  July. 

Another  cane-borer,  occurring  in  the  foothills,  has  been  identified 
by  E.  O.  Essig,  as  the  larva  of  a  horn-tail.  Its  treatment  is  like  that 
just  described. 

INSECTS  DEVOURING  THE  PULP  OF  FRUITS 

The  Apple  Worm. — The  codlin  moth  (Carpocapsa  pomonella)  is 
one  of  the  great  pests  of  the  State.  It  preys  chiefly  upon  the  apple 
and  pear,  but  the  quince  and  other  large  fruits  are  sometimes  in- 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

vaded  by  it.  The  first  moths  appear  at  some  time  after  the  blossom- 
ing  of  the  apple,  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  young  fruit  or  on 
adjacent  leaves.  The  young  worm  hatches  in  from  seven  to  ten 
days  generally  seeks  the  eye  or  calyx,  and  eats  its  way  into  the 
fruit'  and  in  twenty  days  its  full  growth  is  attained,  and  it  goes  out 
through  the  side  of  the  apple,  and,  by  means  of  its  spmnaret, 
reaches  the  ground  or  some  large  branch.  If  landed  oft  the  ground, 
it  usually  seeks  the  trunk,  which  it  ascends  and  soon  finds  a  hiding 
place  under  the  loose  bark,  where  it  spins  its  cocoon,  and  in  eight 
or  ten  days  comes  forth  a  moth,  ready  to  lay  eggs  anew.  The  egg 
is  laid  all  over  the  fruit  and  especially  at  a  point  where  two  fruits 
touch.  Usually  we  have  in  this  State  two  broods,  at  least,  but  some- 
times three,  and,  naturally,  if  unchecked,  the  increase  from  the  first 
to  the  last  is  enormous.  The  worms  escaping  from  the  fruit  in  the 
fall  hibernate  as  larvae  under  the  loose  bark  of  the  tree,  or  in  store- 
houses, or  in  any  available  dry  place. 

This  insect  is  effectually  controlled  by  spraying  with  lead  arse- 
nate.  The  times  for  spraying  and  number  of  applications  differ  in 
the  several  apple  regions  of  the  State  and  county  horticultural  com- 
missioners or  farm  advisors  should  be  consulted. 

The  Walnut  Worm. — This  is  the  codlin  moth  which  also  attacks 
apples  and  pears  and  is  fought  in  the  same  way.  It  is  also  being 
fought  with  a  dust  spray  of  lead  arsenate. 

The  Peach  Worm. — As  already  stated,  the  larva  of  the  peach 
moth,  which  early  in  the  spring  bores  into  the  twigs,  is  sometimes 
found  later  in  the  season  in  the  flesh  of  the  peach.  Hence  the  im- 
portance of  saving  the  fruit  by  proper  treatment  of  the  hibernating 
worms,  which  are  killed  as  they  emerge  with  lime-sulphur. 

The  Diabrotica. — A  light  green  beetle  with  twelve  spots  on  his 
back  (Diabrotica  soror)  is  sometimes  very  injurious  to  early  fruit, 
by  eating  into  it  when  ripe.  The  insect  also  eats  leaves  and  blos- 
soms. As  it  attacks  the  fruit  just  as  it  is  ready  to  pick,  it  is  im- 
possible to  apply  any  disagreeable  or  poisonous  spray.  Sometimes 
the  insects  are  driven  away  by  dense  smoke  from  fires  in  and  around 
the  orchard. 

The  Dried  Fruit  Worm. — Dried  fruit  is  often  seriously  injured 
after  packing,  by  a  small  worm,  larva  of  a  moth.  The  eggs  are 
deposited  on  the  fruit  either  while  drying  or  while  in  the  packing- 
house, or  through  the  cloth  of  the  sacks,  or  seams  of  the  package. 
The  eggs  may  be  killed  on  the  fruit  before  packing,  by  dipping  in 
boiling  water,  and  after  that  preventing  the  access  of  the  moth.  In- 
fested fruit  can  also  be  treated  by  bisulphide  vapor. 

ANTS  AND  YELLOW  JACKETS 

These  insects  are  often  of  serious  trouble  during  fruit  drying. 
Ants  are  most  effectually  disposed  of  by  slightly  opening  their  holes 
in  the  ground  by  thrusting  down  a  crowbar  and  pouring  in  a  couple 
of  ounces  of  carbon  bisulphide  and  closing  again  with  earth.  Yellow 


KILLING  ANTS   AND   YELLOW  JACKETS 

jackets  also  nest  in  the  ground  in  old  squirrel  or  gopher  holes,  and 
they  too  can  be  suffocated  with  carbon  bisulphide  or  by  pouring  in 
gasoline  or  kerosene  and  firing  it.  Hornets  which  nest  in  trees  are 
troublesome,  but  are  much  less  numerous  than  the  cave-dwelling 
species. 

Poisoning  yellow  jackets  to  carry  destruction  to  the  young  brood 
is  practicable.  Dr.  J.  H.  Miller,  of  San  Leandro,  saved  his  fruit 
in  this  way: 

I  bought  half  a  dozen  beef  livers,  five  pounds  of  arsenious  acid  and 
several  pounds  of  baling  wire.  Cutting  the  liver  into  pieces  as  large  as 
a  man's  fist,  I  put  them  into  a  hot  solution  of  arsenious  acid,  and,  bend- 
ing the  wire  into  a  hook  at  each  end,  I  suspended  the  pieces  from  the 
lower  limbs  of  trees  all  around  my  drying-ground.  The  fruit  was  soon 
deserted,  and  the  insects  busily  worked  at  the  fragrant  liver,  carrying 
pieces  to  their  nests,  causing  the  death  of  those  that  had  been  destroying 
the  fruit  and  the  next  generation  also,  and  so  completely  that  ther<*  may 
not  be  enough  of  the  pests  in  that  neighborhood  the  following  year  to 
require  a  repetition  of  the  treatment.  There  is  no  risk  in  so  using  the 
poison,  for  the  yellow  jackets  will  not  return  to  the  fruit,  and  bees  will 
not  go  near  the  meat. 

When  there  are  serious  infestations  of  ants  in  the  orchard,  they 
can  be  overcome  by  hanging  a  dilute  sweetened  poison  in  flat  two- 
ounce  spice  cans  on  the  tree  trunks  close  to  the  regular  trails,  fol- 
lowed up  and  down  by  the  ants.  The  poison  is  prepared  on  a  for- 
mula given  below.  A  few  strands  of  excelsior  are  inserted  in  the 
poison  syrup.  The  ants  get  loaded  up  with  the  syrup,  which  does 
not  kill  them  immediately.  They  carry  some  of  it  to  the  egg-laying 
queens  and  they  all  die.  The  cost  is  five  to  eight  cents  per  tree.  The 
poisoning  is  best  done  late  in  March,  early  in  April,  or  during  Sep- 
tember and  October.  Extermination  has  been  accomplished  in  a 
number  of  cases. 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology  recommends  the  following 
formula  for  ant  syrup  "on  account  of  its  stability  at  high  tempera- 
tures, freedom  from  crystalization,  and  continued  attractiveness": 

Granulated  sugar    9    pounds 

Water    9     pints 

Tartaric  acid   (crystallized)    '    grams 

Benzoate   of   soda    8.4  grams 

Boil  slowly  for  30  minutes,     Allow  to  cool. 

Dissolve  sodium  arsenite   (C.  P.) 15     grams 

In   hot   water Yz     P^t 

Cool.     Add  poison  solution  to  syrup  and  stir  well. 

Add  to  the  poisoned  syrup: 
Honey    VA,  pounds 

Mix    thoroughly. 

DISINFECTING  NURSERY  STOCK 

Cuttings,  scions,  young  trees  and  vines,  etc.,  can  be  freed  from 
insects  by  inclosing  in  a  tight  box  or  cask  and  placing  a  saucerful 
of  carbon  bisulphide  on  the  top  of  them,  covering  it  with  canvas  or 
any  tight-fitting  cover.  The  bisulphide  vapor  will  destroy  all  insect 
life  in  forty  minutes. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

Disinfecting  such  materials  on  a  larger  scale  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas  may  be  done  in  this  way : 

Use  square  canvas  sheets,  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  made  of 
the  best  ducking,  double  stitched  and  then  painted  with  boiled  linseed 
oil  to  make  it  gas-proof.  To  fumigate  evergreen  stock  use  one  ounce 
of  cyanide  of  potassium  (in  lumpte,  not  pulverized),  one  fluid  ounce  of 
commercial  sulphuric  acid,  and  two  fluid  ounces  of  water,  to  one  hundred 
cubic  feet  of  enclosed  space.  For  deciduous  and  hardy  trees,  when  dor- 
mant use  one-fourth  more  of  each  of  the  above.  When  the  canvas  has 
been 'placed  over  the  stock  to  be  fumigated,  prepare  the  charge.  Take  a 
three  or  four-gallon  glazed  earthenware  jar,  into  which  pour  the  necessary 
quantity  of  water,  then  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  place  it  well  under  the  can- 
vas the  edges  of  which  are  secured  with  soil  or  in  some  way  so  as  to 
prevent  the  gas  escaping,  with  the  exception  of  the  edge  immediately 
in  front  of  the  jar.  The  proper  amount  of  cyanide  of  potassium  is  then 
dropped  into  the  jar  from  a  long  scoop,  and  the  tent  is  immediately 
closed  and  remains  so  for  one  hour. 

Formula  21  is  used  for  dipping  nursery  stock. 

INSECTICIDES 

Recipes  and  hints  for  use  of  insecticides  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

1.  Lime  Sulphur: 

Quicklime,  33  pounds;  sulphur,  66  pounds;  water,  200  gallons. 

Sift  sulphur  through  box  with  screen  bottom  into  boiling  tank  with 
50  gallons  of  water.  Add  the  lime  and  boil  45  minutes  to  one  hour. 
Stir  frequently.  Strain  through  cheese  cloth  or  burlap  and  dilute  to  make 
200  gallons.  If  extra  lime  is  desired  strain  in  milk  of  lime  when  spray 
is  ready  for  use. 

2.  Commercial   Lime  Sulphur: 

If  of  32  deg.  Baume  dilute  1  to  9.     If  36  deg.  dilute  1  to  11. 

Either  of  the  above  for  San  Jose  and  other  armored  scales  to  be  ap- 
plied during  dormant  season,  preferably  in  early  winter  or  early  spring. 
For  Peach  Moth,  as  the  buds  are  expanding  in  the  spring. 

3.  Distillate  28  deg.  to  34  deg.  Baume: 

Distillate,   10  to  20  gallons;   water,  200  gallons. 

For  use  only  with  power  sprayer  with  good  agitator,  which  is  neces- 
sary to  make  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the  oil  and  water. 

For  the  Brown  Apricot,  Black,  and  other  unarmored  scales,  and  for 
Woolly  Aphis,  to  be  applied  during  dormant  season,  preferably  in  early 
winter. 

4.  Distillate   Potash: 

Distillate,  10  gallons;  lye  or  caustic  soda,  5  pounds;  water,  200  gallons. 
Preparation  and  uses  same  as  under  3.      Has  the  advantage  of  freeing 
trees    from    moss. 

5.  Distillate  Emulsion: 

Stock  emulsion:  Hot  water,  12  gallons;  fish  oil   (see  10)   or  whale-oil 

soap.  30  pounds;  distillate  30  deg.  to  34  deg.,  20  gallons. 
f     Add  soap  to  hot  water  in  spray  tank  with  agitator  going.     After  soap 
issolved  add  oil  slowly,  keeping  mixture  agitated.     Pump  out  through 
nozzle  at  175  pounds  pressure  in  storage  tank. 

For  use   take:     Stock   emulsion,    11    gallons;    blackleaf,   40,    1    pint; 
water,  200  gallons. 


APPROVED  INSECTICIDES 


483 


Place  oil  emulsion  in  spray  tank,  start  agitator  and  add  the  water. 
When  diluted  add  the  Blackleaf. 

For   thrips,   Black   Peach   Aphis,   and   other  plant   lice. 

6.  Kerosene   Emulsion: 

Dissolve  Y-2.  pound  soap  in  1  gallon  water;  add  1  gallon  kerosene. 
Mix  thoroughly  with  spray  pump  by  turning  nozzle  back  into  mixture. 

a.  For  plant  lice  and  other  sucking  insects  during  growing  season,  di- 
lute with  15  to  25  gallons  water. 

b.  For   scale    insects,    Woolly   Aphis   and   other   sucking   insects    during 
dormant  season,   dilute  with   5   to   10  gallons  water. 

On  a  small  scale  dissolve  1  inch  cube  soap  in  1  pint  hot  water;  add  1 
pint  kerosene.  Churn  with  egg  beater. 

For  growing  plants,  dilute  to  2  or  3  gallons  water.  For  dormant 
plants,  1  gallon. 

7.  Miscible    Oils: 

Commercial  preparations  of  oil  so  treated  as  to  mix  directly  with 
water.  Follow  directions  on  container.  Uses  same  as  3,  4,  5,  6,  8,  9, 
and  10. 

8.  Straight   Kerosene   or  Water  White   Oil: 

Water  white  oil  (42  deg.  Baume)  or  kerosene,  20  gallons,  water  200 
gallons. 

In  use  for  scale  insects  of  citrus  trees.  Application  by  power  outfit. 

9.  Soap  Solution: 

Soap,    1   pound;   water   5   to    15   gallons. 

Whale-oil  or  fish-oil  soap  preferable,  but  for  small  amounts  any  yellow 
laundry  soap  will  answer. 

For  plant  lice  and  other  sucking  insects   during  summer. 

10.  Homemade   Soap: 

Water,  6  gallons;   lye   (98%),  2  pounds;  fish  oil,   ll/2  gallons. 

Add  lye  to  water  in  boiler.  When  dissolved  and  water  boiling,  pour  in 
the  fish  oil,  stirring  in  mean  time,  and  boil  slowly  for  two  hours.  This 
will  give  about  40  pounds  soap. 

For  use,  dilute  with  5  to  15  gallons  water  for  each  pound.  For  same 
pests  as  No.  9. 

11.  Tobacco    or   Nicotine: 

a.  Blackleaf  40  (40%  nicotine),  1  pint;  water,  200  gallons. 

b.  Tobacco    stems,    1    pound;    water,    4   gallons. 

Steep  stems  in  1   gallon  warm  water  and  dilute  to  4  gallons. 

For  plant  lice  and  other  sucking  insects  during  growing  season.  For 
Woolly  Aphis  and  Peach  Aphis  underground.  A  liberal  solution,  or  the 
dry  tobacco  dust  in  early  winter,  about  the  base  of  the  tree,  the  surface 
soil  first  being  removed. 

12.  Tobacco  Soap: 

Blackleaf  40,  1  pound  (1-10  gal.);  liquid  soap,  1  gallon— or 
Hard  soap,  12  pounds;  water,  200  gallons. 
Uses  same  as  11.     Penetrating  and  wetting  power  better. 

13.  Lime  Sulphur  Tobacco: 

Commercial  lime  sulphur  36   deg.,  2.1   gallons;   blackleaf  40,    14   fluid 

ounces;   water,   200  gallons. 
For    Orange    Thrips. 

14.  Carbolic  Lime: 

Quicklime,    150    pounds;    crude    carbolic    acid,    2    gallons;    water    200 

gallons. 
For  a  disinfecting  whitewash. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 

15.  Sulphur: 

a.  Dry.     Thoroughly   dust   over   foliage,   preferably   when   moist   with 
dew*.      Hydrated  lime  about  equal  parts  with  sulphur  will  increase 

adhesiveness. 

b.  Spray.     Commercial   sulphur  paste,   30  pounds;   water   200   gallons. 

c.  Spray    Commercial  lime  sulphur,  4  to  5  gallons;  water  200  gallons. 
For  Red  Spiders  and  Silver  Mite. 

16.  Lead   Arsenate: 

The  basic  type  of  lead  arsenate  contains  less  arsenic  per  pound  than 
the  acid  type,  and  is  a  weaker  and  slower-acting  poison.  It  is  »iot  de- 
composed, however,  by  chemicals  of  an  alkaline  nature,  such  as  are  us- 
ually applied  with  it  as  a  combination  spray,  nor  by  the  damp  weather  of 
the  coast  regions.  It  is  considered  the  only  safe  arsenical  to  use  on  stone 
fruits,  beans  or  other  susceptible  plants. 

The  lead  arsenates  are  usually  sold  as  a  paste  containing  about  50  per 
cent  of  water,  or  as  a  dry  powder.  The  paste  should  be  thinned  with 
water  and  worked  into  a  smooth  cream  before  adding  to  the  spray  tank. 
The  powder  may  be  added  directly  to  the  tank  and  mixed  by  means  of 
the  agitator. 

For    codlin    moth    and    defoliating    insects,    use: 
Acid  lead  arsenate  paste,  4  to  8  pounds;  water,   100  gallons — or 
Basic  lead  arsenate  paste,  5  to  10  pounds;  water,  100  gallons. 

Dry  or  powdered  lead  arsenate  contains  twice  as  much  arsenic  as  the 
paste,  therefore  use  only  one-half  as  much  as  in  the  above  formulas. 

17.  Paris  Green: 

Paris  green,  1  1-3  to  2  pounds;  water,  200  gallons. 

For  Codlin  Moth  and  most  defoliating  insects. 

Not  to  be  used  along  coast  or  moist  situations  where  injury  is  likely 
to  result  to  foliage. 

On  a  small  scale  use  Paris  green,  1  teaspoonful  (%  oz.);  lime,  3  tea- 
spoonfuls;  water,  2  gallons. 

18.  Zinc  Arsenate: 

Zinc  arsenite,  2  to  6  pounds;  water,  200  gallons. 

A  powerful  poison  for  resistant  insects,  as  the  Tussock  Moth,  or  for 
early  spraying  for  Canker  Worm  and  Codlin  Moth  in  the  dry  interior 
climates. 

19.  Poison    Bran-Mash: 

Bran,  25  pounds;  white  arsenic,  1  pound;  molasses   (cheap  blackstrap 

preferred),  2  quarts. 

Mix  the  arsenic  and  the  bran  dry,  and  add  the  molasses,  which  has 
been  diluted  with  enough  water  to  mix  thoroughly  to  make  a  dry  mash 
which  will  broadcast  easily. 

19a.  Citrus  Bran-Mash: 

White  arsenic,  1  pound;  molasses  (cheap  blackstrap  preferred),  2 
quarts;  lemons  (or  oranges),  6  fruits;  water  (about),  4  gallons; 
bran,  25  pounds. 

Stir  thoroughly  the  arsenic,  molasses  and  water.  Grind  the  lemons, 
including  the  rinds,  in  a  meat  grinder,  or  chop  fine,  and  add  to  this 
liquid.  Then  slowly  pour  this  over  the  bran  and  stir  thoroughly  until 
an  even  mixture  is  secured. 

For  Cut  Worms  and  Grasshoppers,  distribute  a  small  handful  about 
the  base  of  the  vine  or  tree,  or  scatter  about  plants  in  the  garden.  May 
be  distributed  broadcast  for  Grasshoppers  and  Army  Worms. 

20.  Carbon  Bisulphide: 

For  treatment  of  stored  products   and  underground   insects. 
Usual  dosage,  1  pint  to   1,000  cubic  feet  space. 

Place  liquid  in  saucers  or  shallow  vessels  above  material  to  be  treated. 
Inflammable;  avoid  lights. 

For  underground  insects,  a  tablespoonful  in  holes  3  or  4  feet  apart. 


DISINFECTING  NURSERY   TREES 


485 


21.    Resin  Dipping  Solution: 

Resin,   20   pounds;    caustic   soda   or   lye,   8   pounds;    fish    oil,   3   pints; 

water,  100  gallons. 

Boil  resin  and  caustic  soda  in  50  galkns  of  water  for  1  hour.  Dilute 
to  100  gallons. 

In  use  for  dipping  citrus  nursery  stock  for  scale  insects  and  Red  Spiders. 
Kerosene  emulsion  and  lime  sulphur  solution  also  used  for  dipping  de- 
ciduous nursery  stock. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas. — For  details  of  fumigation  processes  for 
scale  insects  on  citrus  trees,  apply  for  publications  to  the  University 
Experiment  Station  and  to  Horticultural  Commissioners  in  citrus 
fruit  growing  counties.  The  materials  are  so  poisonous,  the  appli- 
ances so  elaborate  and  the  operation,  to  secure  efficient  insect  kill- 
ing without  injury  to  the  tree,  is  so  exact  and  systematic  that  careful 
and  experienced  fumigators  are  essential. 


CHAPTER  XLIII. 

DISEASES  OF  TREES  AND  VINES, 

A  few  suggestions  concerning  pathological  conditions  which 
arise  in  trees  and  vines  and  prescription  of  treatment  and  remedies 
may  be  helpful  :  First,  diseases  demonstrated  to  be  caused  by  fungi 
and  bacteria  ;  second,  abnormal  conditions,  of  which  the  causes  are 
not  yet  clear.* 

Powdery  Mildews.  —  Fungi  which  bring  upon  the  leaf  surface  the 
appearance  of  a  whitish  powder  and  afterwards  cause  the  leaf  to  curl 
and  dry  without  producing  marked  swelling,  perforation  or  dis- 
coloration, can  be  checked  by  the  use  of  sulphur.  The  chief  of  these 
is  the  mildew  of  the  grape,  the  mildew  of  the  apple,  appearing 
chiefly  on  the  young  growth,  etc.  For  vine  mildew  freely  apply 
finely  ground  or  sublimed  sulphur  on  the  young  foliage  at  the  first 
sign  of  the  trouble.  Apple  mildew  is  treated  by  removing  all  dis- 
torted twigs  at  pruning. 

Leaf-Spotting,  Puncturing  or  Deforming  Fungi.  —  These  classes 
are  usually  distinguishable  by  the  results  they  produce.  The  mildew 
of  the  peach  produces  dense,  whitish  patches  on  the  leaves  and  grow- 
ing fruit;  the  curl-leaf  fungus  of  the  peach  produces  swellings  and 
contortions  of  the  leaf  ;  the  scab  of  the  apple  and  pear  produces  first 
a  smoky  appearance  on  the  leaf  and  afterwards  causes  black  scabby 
patches  on  the  fruit  and  on  the  young  twigs  ;  the  slot-hole  fungus 
of  the  apricot,  plum,  cherry,  and  almond  cuts  roundish  holes  in  the 
leaves  as  though  a  shotgun  had  been  discharged  through  the  foliage, 
and  then,  in  the  case  of  the  apricot,  produces  roundish,  dark  red 
pustules  on  the  fruit  ;  the  brown  rot  which  attacks  both  twigs  and 
fruit  of  apricots,  prune,  blackberry,  etc.,  produces  eruptions  on 
plums  and  peaches  ;  the  rust  fungi  of  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves, 
first  of  a  yellowish  or  orange  color,  changing  to  dark  brown  or  black, 
and  causing  the  leaf  to  fall.  These  fungi  are  only  slightly,  if  at  all, 
checked  by  the  dry  sulphur  treatment,  and  are  best  subdued  by  the 
use  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  as  follows  : 

Bluestone,   16  pounds;   quicklime,  20  pounds;   water,  200  gallons. 
Dissolve  the  bluestone  and  slake  the  lime  in  separate  vats.     Thoroughly 
e  dissolved  bluestone  with  one-half  the  water,  and  the  slaked  lime 
with  the  other  half.     Run  the  two  mixtures   together  in   a  single  stream 
ito   the  spray  tank  through  a  fine  screen.     For   convenience   the   mixing 
vats  may  be  placed  on  an  elevated  platform,  and  the  two  parts  mixed  as 
r  are  flowing  into  the  spray  tank.     The  milk  of  lime  should  be  con- 
tinuously stirred   during  the   mixing. 

This  is  safe  to  use  on  foliage.    In  the  case  of  the  peach  blight, 
ch  is  an  invasion  of  the  young  bark  by  the  shot-hole  fungus,  an 


!^  Publi<ftion  on  Plant  diseases,  reviewing  comprehensively  existing 
^^    treatment    »    Circular    227    of    the    University 


BLIGHTS  AND  DISEASES 


487 


autumn  spraying  is  imperative  to  protect  the  dormant  twigs.  In 
spraying  for  apple  and  pear  scab,  the  addition  of  five  pounds  of 
lead  arsenate  to  each  one  hundred  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture 
makes  the  application  answer  also  for  the  codlin  moth,  as  described 
in  the  preceding  chapter. 

The  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  mixture,  as  already  prescribed  for 
scale  insects  in  the  preceding  chapter,  is  an  active  fungicide  for 
winter  use.  It  is  a  satisfactory  curl-leaf  preventive  when  used  just 
before  the  buds  open. 

Toadstool  Destruction.— Trees  are  often  destroyed  through  in- 
vasion by  toadstool  fungi  from  the  decaying  roots  or  wood  with 
which  their  roots  come  in  contact.  Prof.  W.  T.  Home,  who  has 
made  a  special  study  of  the  trouble  for  several  years,  provides  the 
following  summary : 

The  Armillaria  root-rot  or  "oak  fungus"  is  caused  by  a  native  fungus  which 
lives  in  roots  of  woody  plants.  Trees  and  bushes  are  killed  in  spots,  which 
enlarge  year  after  year.  Affected  trees  fail  gradually  from  the  diseased  side 
or  die  suddenly  in  summer.  Under  the  affected  bark  of  roots  there  is  a  yel- 
lowish white  fan-shaped  mycelium  which  progresses  into  live  bark.  Black 
shining  root-like  strings  (rhizomorphs)  grow  out  from  old  rotting  roots. 
The  wood  decays  with  a  uniform  white  rot.  Large  tan-brown  toadstools 
(edible  when  cooked)  arise  from  old  infections  in  October  to  February. 
Surgery  as  in  Crown  Gall  ("root  knot")  or  Pear  Blight  can  sometimes  be 
practised  on  roots  and  crowns  of  trees  not  too  far  gone.  Black  walnut, 
French  pear,  and  fig  roots  are  practically  immune.  Annual  fibrous  rooted 
plants  are  rarely  injured.  Affected  areas  in  orchard  may  be  isolated  by  open- 
ing a  trench  3  to  4  feet  deep  around  them.  This  may  be  filled  immediately 
if  reopened  every  two  years  to  keep  the  roots  cut  off.  Nursery  should  not 
be  planted  in  infected  soil. 

Moss,  Lichens,  etc.,  on  the  Bark. — All  trees  should  be  assisted 
to  maintain  clean,  healthy  bark.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  the  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  mixture  already  prescribed  for  scale 
insects.  It  can  also  be  done  by  winter  spraying  with  caustic  soda 
or  potash,  one  pound  to  ten  gallons  of  water.  Hard  hitting  with 
power  sprayer  is  necessary. 

Blights  and  Decays. — There  are  several  blights  which  are  trace- 
able to  bacteria,  parasitic  growths  which  are  not  discernible  as 
are  the  fungi,  and  not  usually  amenable  to  spray  treatment,  be- 
cause they  exist  wholly  within  the  tissues  of  the  plant  and  are  not 
reached  by  applications.  The  blights  of  the  pear,  the  black  heart 
of  the  apricot,  the  olive  tuberculosis,  etc.,  are  instances.  Cutting 
back  to  healthy  wood  (with  tools  dipped  after  each  cut  in  corro- 
sive sublimate,  one  part  to  one  thousand  parts  of  water),  and  burn- 
ing all  removed  parts,  is  the  best  treatment  which  can  at  present 
be  prescribed. 

The  walnut  blight  is  caused  by  a  bacterium,  and  has  so  far  re- 
sisted treatment.  The  disease  appears  on  the  nuts,  generally  worst 
at  the  blossom  end  and  usually  first  seen  there  early  in  the  season ; 
later  the  spots  run  together  and  encompass  considerable  areas  of 
the  surface,  and  the  nut  is  transformed  into  a  hateful  black  mass 
and  is  utterly  destroyed.  The  disease  also  affects  the  leaves  and 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 

young  wood,  but  does  not  attack  the  old  wood  and  the  roots  as  the 
pear  blight  does.  It  is  therefore  less1  serious,  though  it  sometimes 
considerably  reduces  the  crop.  The  recourse  seems  to  be  toward 
resistant  varieties,  as  stated  in  the  chapter  on  the  walnut. 

DISEASES  NOT  TRACEABLE  TO  PARASITIC  *  GROWTHS 

Sour  Sap. — There  is  a  fermentation  of  the  sap,  quite  noticeable 
by  its  odor,  which  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  tree,  from  the 
root  to  the  topmost  twigs;  sometimes  in  one  part  and  not  in  an- 
other. Sour  sap  in  the  root  is  generally  due  to  standing  water 
in  the  soil,  and  the  remedy  is  drainage.  Trees  thus  affected  make 
an  effort  to  grow  and  then  the  young  growth  shrivels.  Severe 
cutting  back  of  the  top  to  reduce  the  evaporation  until. the  roots 
can  restore  their  feeding  fibers  is  the  only  treatment  of  the  tree, 
and  its  success  depends  upon  the  extent  of  the  root  injury.  Sour 
sap  may  also  be  caused  in  the  branches  by  the  occurrence  of  frost 
after  the  sap  flow  has  actually  started.  Cutting  back  the  diseased 
parts,  as  soon  as  discovered,  to  sound  wood,  is  the  proper  treat- 
ment. Serious  injury  to  nursery  trees  which  is  sometimes  called 
"sour  sap"  is  described  on  page  99. 

Die-Back. — Dying  back  of  twigs  or  branches  may  occur  without 
parasitic  invasion  through  root  weakness  or  partial  failure.  It  may 
be  due  to  standing  water  or  to  lack  of  soil  moisture,  either  of  which 
will  destroy  the  root-hairs  and  bring  the  tree  into  distress.  The 
treatment  is  cutting  back  to  sound  wood  and  correcting  the  soil 
conditions,  either  by  irrigation  or  drainage,  as  one  or  the  other  may 
be  needed. 

Gummosis. — Gumming  is  not  always  to  be  considered  in  itself 
a  disease,  but  rather  an  indication  of  conditions  unfavorable  to  the 
thrifty  growth  of  the  tree.  It  has  been  usually  found  by  investi- 
gation that  trees  in  perfect  condition  of  health,  with  the  moisture 
just  enough  and  not  excessive,  are  not  troubled  with  gumming; 
but  there  are  cases  in  which  this  statement  does  not  wholly  apply. 
Prof.  H.  S.  Fawcett  has  demonstrated  that  in  some  cases  it  is  com- 
municable because  of  a  fungus  cause.  Full  accounts  of  this  may 
be  had  in  University  publications. 

When  there  is  an  outbreak  of  gum  where  it  can  be  treated  it  is 
desirable  to  cleanly  remove  all  the  unhealthy  bark — cutting  clean 
to  sound  bark  and  covering  the  wound  with  Bordeaux  paste  pre- 
pared as  follows : 

One  pound  of  bluestone  dissolved  in  1  gallon  of  water  in  a  wooden 
or  earthen  vessel  by  hanging  it  in  the  top  in  a  sack.  Two  pounds  of 
unslaked  lime,  slaked  in  about  one-half  gallon  of  water.  Stir  together 
when  cool,  making  a  light  blue  mixture  about  the  consistency  of  white- 
wash. Apply  with  a  brush.  This  may  also  be  applied  to  healthy  bark- 
as  a  preventive  against  new  infections. 

Root  Knots. — These  are  excrescences  upon  the  roots  or  at  the 
root  crown  of  various  trees  and  of  grape-vines.  Some  of  the  knots 
have  been  studied  and  the  cause  demonstrated  to  be  a  fungus  and 


REMOVING   ROOT   KNOTS 

the  disease  infectious.  If  the  knot  has  not  increased  in  size  suf- 
ficiently to  seriously  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  tree  it  can 
be  smoothly  removed,  the  wound  treated  with  the  Bordeaux  paste, 
and  the  knot  usually  will  not  reappear. 

A  record  of  experience  in  removing  root  knots  is  the  following 
by  E.  O.  Amundsen,  formerly  Farm  Adviser  of  Placer  county,  but 
now  (1921)  Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Transvaal  University, 
South  Africa.  This  is  his  California  experience: 

I  have  cut  out  great  areas  of  root-knots  from  large  cherry  and  plum 
trees  during  the  growing  and  dormant  seasons  and  covered  with  either 
Bordeaux  paste  or  asphaltum.  As  the  Bordeaux  later  flakes  off  and  the 
asphaltum  does  not,  I  prefer  the  latter,  but  whitewash  over  it  to  prevent 
excessive  heat  absorption.  The  asphaltum  is  an  excellent  disinfectant, 
sticks  closely,  and  is  cheap.  Lately  I  have  used,  instead  of  asphaltum, 
prepared  asphaltum  paints  or  cement  paint.  These  are  in  liquid  form  and 
easier  to  apply  than  asphaltum.  They  dry  readily  and  form  a  protective 
coat  over  the  wound.  In  no  case  have  we  had  any  bad  results  from  cut- 
ting out  crown-gall  at  any  season.  Sometimes  we  do  not  get  all  of  the 
gall  the  first  time.  We  watch  it  and  cut  again  if  any  gall  shows  up  on 
the  edges  of  the  wound. 

A  systematic  treatment  of  root-knots  on  almond  trees  near 
Chico  began  in  1918  with  chiseling  off  knots,  disinfecting  with  cor- 
rosive sublimate  solution  and  covering  with  asphaltum.  Eighty-five 
per  cent  of  the  trees  on  thirty  acres  had  to  be  operated  on.  Two 
years  later  only  five  per  cent  showed  regrowth  of  knots,  the  wounds 
were  re-barking  and  the  trees  were  improved  in  appearance.  It  de- 
pends upon  the  condition  of  the  tree  whether  it  is  worth  while  to 
remove  the  knots  or  not.  If  the  tree  has  the  start  of  the  knot,  it  will 
be  helped  by  removal ;  if  the  knot  has  the  start  of  the  tree  so  that  it 
is  unthrifty,  there  is  small  chance  of  reinvigorating  it.  This  is  ap- 
parently true,  both  with  young  and  old  trees.  Old  trees  are  some- 
times badly  knotted  and  still  productive  and  profitable. 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

SUPPRESSION  OF  INJURIOUS  ANIMALS  AND  BIRDS 

The  beasts  of  the  field  and  the  fowls  of  the  air  are  sometimes 
such  grevious  trespassers  upon  the  fruit  plantation  that  protection 
has  to  be  sought  against  them.  The  animals  which  figure  in  this 
evil  work  are  mainly  species  of  rodentia,  some  of  them  burrowers ; 
as,  for  example,  the  ground-squirrel  and  gopher;  others,  surface 
dwellers,  like  the  hare  or  jackass  rabbit.  Occasionally  there  is  in- 
jury done  by  deer  in  the  orchard  and  vineyard,  and  coons  in  the 
melon  patch,  but  these  larger  animals  may  usually  be  left  to  the 
hunters  and  dogs. 

RABBITS 

Though  there  are  three  species  prevalent,  none  are  burrowers. 
This  fact  has  led  to  united  efforts  at  their  suppression  by  driving 
them  with  mounted  horsemen,  from  a  wide  stretch  of  country  into 
a  narrow,  fenced  enclosure,  where  they  are  killed  with  clubs.  Dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  tens  of  thousands  have  been  killed  in  this 
way,  and  comparatively  few  are  now  found  in  the  localities  where 
the  method  has  been  adopted.  Still,  however,  there  are  plenty  at 
large  to  vex  the  planter,  and  he  must  protect  himself  against  them. 

Rabbit  Fences. — The  surest  protection  against  rabbits  is  a  fence 
which  prevents  their  entrance,  and  many  miles  of  such  fence  have 
been  built  in  this  State.  Several  styles  prevail.  The  ordinary 
board  fence,  with  the  boards  running  horizontally,  is  made  rabbit- 
proof  by  placing  the  lower  boards  close  together,  with  openings  of 
but  about  two  inches  between  them.  A  barbed  wire,  with  barbs 
about  two  and  one-half  inches  apart,  can  be  used  to  advantage  by 
running  it  along  at  or  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  to 
prevent  scratching  under. 

The  cost  of  board  fences  has  led  to  the  use  of  barbed  wire  and 
woven  wire  fencing,  the  styles  of  which  can  be  seen  in  all  fruit- 
growing sections. 

Smears  Distasteful  to  Rabbits. — Where  the  expense  of  a  fence 
can  not  be  assumed,  measurable  protection  can  be  had  by  sprinkling 
the  leaves  or  smearing  the  stems  of  plants  with  substances  distaste- 
ful to  the  animals,  which  are  quite  dainty  in  this  respect.  Com- 
mercial aloes,  one  pound  to  four  gallons  of  water,  both  sprinkled 
on  leaves  and  painted  on  the  bark,  gives  a  bitter  taste,  which  repels 
rabbits.  A  tea  made  of  steeping  quassia  chips  is  said  to  produce  the 
same  effect.  Rancid  grease,  bacon  rind,  liquid  manure,  putrescent 
flesh  or  blood,  have  all  been  used  as  a  daub  for  tree  trunks,  and  have 
been  approved.  This  prescription  has  been  approved: 

Kill  a  rabbit,  take  an  ax  and  mutilate  the  entrails  and  foreparts  in  a 
mess.  Put  this  into  a  can  with  a  gallon  or  more  of  water.  Let  it  stand 


POISONING  ANIMALS  AND  BIRDS  ^gi 

overvo'uTn^f  ^^T^LJ^l  W  **   -me   disinfectant 


The  following  is  also  commended  as  a  repellant  rather  less  of- 
fensive to  administer : 

One  pint  of  cod  liver  oil,  one  ounce  of  black  leaf  "40"  two  bars  of 
laundry  soap,  25  gallons  of  water.  Heat  water  to  boiling  point  and  add 
above  ingredients;  then  mix  in  enough  flour  to  make  a  thin  soup  This 
may  be  applied  to  young  trees  with  a  brush. 

Rabbit  Poison.— Pieces  of  watermelon  rind,  cantaloupe,  or  other 
vegetable  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  may  be  poisoned  with  strych- 
nine, and  then  scattered  along  trails  used  by  the  rabbits.  They 
will  not  touch  the  bark  as  long  as  they  can  find  this  bait,  and  one 
meal  is  effective,  for  the  rabbit  never  goes  far  away  from  it 

Another  preparation  is  half  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  strych- 
nine, two  teaspoonfuls  of  fine  salt,  and  four  of  granulated  sugar. 
Put  all  in  a  tin  box  and  shake  well.  Pour  in  small  heaps  on  a  board. 
It  hardens  into  a  solid  mass.  They  lick  it  for  the  salt,  and  the 
sugar  disguises  the  poison,  which  kills  great  numbers. 

Mr.  C.  F.  Collins,  formerly  horticultural  commissioner  of  Tulare 
county,  says  that  the  following  is  effective.  Thoroughly  mix  4 
parts  of  Paris  green  and  6  parts  flowers  of  sulphur  dust  upon  the 
vines  in  the  same  manner  as  if  sulphuring  the  vines  for  mildew. 
This  will,  he  says,  kill  and  repel  rabbits  and  control  mildew. 

The  following  formula  is  suggested  by  D.  A.  Gilchrist,  U.  S. 
biological  survey,  as  an  effective  tree  wash  for  protection  against 
rabbits : 

"Dissolve  one  ounce  strychnine  sulphate  in  three  quarts  of  boiling 
water  and  add  one-half  pint  of  laundry  starch,  previously  dissolved  in  one 
pint  of  cold  water.  Boil  this  mixture  until  it  becomes  a  clear  paste.  Add 
one  ounce  of  glycerine  and  stir  thoroughly.  When  sufficiently  cool, 
apply  to  trunks  of  trees  with  a  paint  brush.  Rabbits  that  gnaw  the  bark 
will  be  killed  before  the  tree  is  injured." 

SQUIRRELS  AND  GOPHERS 

There  is  in  operation  a  forced  system  of  destroying  ground 
squirrels  under  a  special  law  being  administered  by  the  county 
'horticultural  commissioners,  and  all  details  can  be  had  from  such 
officers  or  from  the  State  Directors  of  Agriculture  at  Sacramento. 
Full  details  of  the  life  histories  of  ground  squirrels  and  gophers  can 
be  had  by  applying  to  the  University  Experiment  Station  at  Berk- 
eley for  Circular  181  and  Bulletins  281  and  302.  These  publications 
describe  methods  of  killing  by  fumigation,  trapping  and  poisoning 
which  will  enable  any  energetic  fruit  growers  to  overcome  these 
pests. 

DESTRUCTIVE  BIRDS 

Fruit  growers  generally  appreciate  the  value  of  insectiverous 
birds,  but  there  are  feathered  pests  which  do  such  ruinous  work 
in  disbudding  the  trees  in  springtime  and  in  destroying  the  ripe 


492 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


fruit  that  protective  measures  have  to  be  adopted  against  them. 
The  so-called  "California  linnet,"  which  is  not  a  linnet,  but  a 
finch  (Carpodacus  frontalis),  a  persistent  destroyer  of  buds,  and  the 
English  sparrow,  infamous  the  world  over,  are  probably  the  most 
grevious  pests,  though  there  are  other  destructive  birds,  including 
the  beautiful  California  quail,  which  is  protected  by, law,  and  yet 
must  be  destroyed  in  some  parts  of  the  State  or  the  grape  crop  must 
be  abandoned. 

For  the  killing  of  the  smaller  birds,  cutting  oranges  or  other 
fruits  available  at  the  time  in  halves,  spreading  strychnine  over  the 
cut  surface  and  impaling  the  half  oranges  on  twigs  high  up  in  the 
apricot  trees,  has  destroyed  hundreds  of  linnets.  Some  advocate 
the  use  of  the  shotgun,  No.  30  caliber,  with  a  small  charge  of  good 
powder  and  No.  10  shot.  As  many  as  five  hundred  linnets  have  been 
killed  in  two  days.  The  advantage  of  this  plan  is  that  one  kills  lin- 
nets and  not  other  birds,  while  poison  kills  both  friends  and  foes. 

The  California  law  allows  you  to  poison  English  sparrows  and 
"California  linnets,"  but  if  you  kill  other  birds  in  the  process  you 
will  be  liable  to  prosecution — if  an  officer  of  the  bird-protectors' 
union  gets  onto  it.  The  latest  bird  poison  is  this:  Strychnine 
(powdered),  y%  oz. ;  Karo  molasses,  J4  pint;  soda,  y2  teaspoonful  ; 
bran,  5  pounds.  Mix  the  Karo  and  strychnine  in  a  gallon  tin  can, 
add  the  soda  and  stir.  To  this  mixture  add  about  a  half-pint  of 
water  and  pour  over  the  5  pounds  of  bran.  Stir  the  entire  mixture 
thoroughly.  If  necessary  to  make  a  dry  dough  add  a  little  more 
water.  Place  the  poisoned  bran  in  small  boxes,  etc.,  and  fasten  into 
the  trees  or  on  posts. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

PROTECTION  FROM  WIND  AND  FROSTS 

Though  the  climate  of  California  renders  unnecessary  the  pro- 
tection against  rigorous  weather  which  fruit  growers  in  some  other 
parts  of  the  world  have  to  provide,  there  is  often  advantage  in  se- 
curing shelter  from  winds  and  protection  from  late  frosts. 

The  general  subject  of  forest  planting  in  California,  and  the 
elf ect  of  preservation  and  extension  of  our  forest  area  upon  our  fruit 
industries,  has  received  the  attention  of  our  best-informed  growers. 
The  planting  of  shelter  belts  at  intervals  across  our  broad  valleys  at 
right  angles  to  the  courses  of  prevailing  or  most  violent  winds,  has 
also  been  urged  with  great  force.  These  greater  enterprises  and 
projects  are  beyond  the  scope  of  this  treatise.  It  is  rather  concern- 
ing the  planting  of  trees  to  shelter  individual  possessions  that  a  few 
suggestions  will  be  offered. 

It  has  been  already  remarked  that  on  the  immediate  coast  the 
successful  growth  of  fruit  will  sometimes  be  wholly  dependent  upon 
proper  shelter  from  prevailing  winds,  and  in  regions  farther  from 
the  ocean  the  topography  may  induce  strong  currents  of  air  which 
will  illy  affect  trees  and  vines.  In  all  such  places  the  fruit  grower 
should  plant  wind-breaks,  and  will  find  himself  well  repaid  for  the 
ground  they  occupy,  by  the  successful  production  of  the  protected 
area. 

In  the  interior  valleys  there  is  also  need  for  shelter  from  oc- 
casional high  winds  which  may  visit  the  orchards  either  in  summer 
or  winter,  and  prove  destructive  both  to  trees  and  fruit.  In  some 
cases  long  lines  of  the  sheltering  trees  have  been  cut  down  because 
they  affected  the  fruiting  of  orchard  trees  planted  too  near  them,  and 
afterwards  the  losses  through  lack  of  protection  were  far  greater 
than  would  have  been  incurred  by  retaining  them. 

What  Kind  of  Trees  to  Plant. — This  is  a  question  concerning 
which  there  is  much  to  be  learned.  Data  is  accumulating  in  the 
growth  of  trees  planted  to  test  their  suitability,  and  the  future 
planter  will  have  more  certain  ground  to  proceed  upon  than  is  now 
available.  Mention  will  be  made,  however,  of  a  few  trees,  which 
are  now  most  widely  grown. 

The  most  widely  planted  shelter  tree  is  the  Eucalyptus  globulus, 
or  Australian  blue  gum.  It  is  a  rapid  grower  and  voracious  feeder, 
and  wonderful  for  root  extension,  for  which  it  has  been  roundly 
abused.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  we  have  a  better  tree  for 
high  growth,  and  consequent  large  area  over  which  its  shelter  will  be 
felt.  It  is  deficient  in  undergrowth,  and  if  a  close  screen  is  desired, 
the  planting  of  eucalyptus  and  Monterey  cypress  (Cupressus  macro- 
carpa)  is  a  common  practice.  The  latter  also  attains  a  good  height, 


494  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

but  its  broad,  thick  base  fills  the  gaps  between  the  bare  stems  of  the 
gum  trees.  Another  tree  which  has  often  been  planted  with  the  blue 
gum,  to  supply  a  thick,  low  growth,  is  the  pepper  tree  (Schinus 
molle).  It  is  also  grown  in  rows  by  itself.  It  makes  a  dense  head, 
grows  rapidly,  and  flourishes  without  much  care.  Trees  planted 
eighteen  feet  apart  will  soon  come  together  and  make ,  a  dense  wall 
of  very  beautiful,  bright,  light-green  foliage.  The  pepper  is  not 
only  a  good  windbreak,  but  also  an  excellent  dust-catcher.  Unlike 
most  trees  which  are  used  for  this  purpose,  it  does  not  become  laden 
with  dust.  The  leaves  are  smooth  and  glossy,  and  therefore  repel 
the  dust  particles,  which,  stopped  in  their  flight  by  the  dense  foliage 
of  the  tree,  instead  of  clinging  to  it  drop  to  the  ground.  The  growth 
of  the  pepper  tree  near  the  coast  is  much  slower  than  that  of  the 
Monterey  cypress.  The  eucalyptus  and  the  cypress  for  the  coast,  and 
the  eucalyptus  and  pepper  for  the  interior  valleys,  make,  probably, 
as  perfect  a  wall  of  foliage  all  the  year  round  as  can  be  had.  The  blue 
gum  is,  however,  somewhat  subject  to  frost  killing,  especially  when 
young,  and  in  very  frosty  places  is  objected  to  on  that  account.  A 
number  of  other  species  of  eucalyptus  are  now  being  planted,  and  are 
being  found  more  hardy  than  the  blue  gum.  The  rostrata,  rudis, 
tereticornis,  polyanthema,  amygdalina,  viminalis  and  others  are  of  this 
character. 

The  Monterey  pine  (Pinus  insignis)  is  a  rapid,  high-growing  tree, 
and,  though  a  native  of  the  coast,  has  proved  itself  well  adapted  to 
the  interior  valleys  of  the  central  portion  of  the  State.  Its  foliage  is 
dense  for  a  pine,  and  its  shelter,  therefore,  the  more  complete.  A 
native  white  cedar  (Libocedrus  decurrens)  has  also  been  employed  as 
a  shelter  tree  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  and  is  commended  as  a 
rapid  grower  in  the  interior  as  on  the  coast.  Its  ability  to  stand 
drouth,  heat  and  frost  is  said  to  exceed  that  of  any  of  the  conifers 
of  the  seacoast.  It  stands  well  in  the  most  exposed  situations,  as  its 
roots  run  very  deep  into  the  earth  and  it  is  claimed  that  it  does  not 
sap  the  fertility  from  the  soil  around  its  base,  as  with  the  blue  gum. 
It  is  also  said  to  be  less  subject  to  frost  injury  than  the  Monterey 
cypress  and  pine. 

All  the  foregoing  are  evergreen  trees,  and  therefore  afford  pro- 
tection summer  and  winter  alike.  Of  deciduous  trees  there  are  many 
which  may  be  well  employed.  The  California  black  walnut  makes  a 
very  satisfactory  growth  both  in  the  interior  and  upon  the  coast,  and 
is  largely  used  for  roadside  planting.  The  California  broad-leaved 
maple  (Acer  macrophylla)  is  very  beautiful,  rapid  in  growth,  and 
dense  in  foliage,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  box  elder  (Acer  ne- 
grundo),  but  probably  both  trees  are  especially  suited  to  the  coast 
regions.  Of  the  poplars,  the  Carolina  (Populus  monilifera)  is 
best,  because  of  its  breadth,  density  of  foliage,  and  comparative  free- 
dom from  suckering.  The  locust  (Robinia  pseudacacia)  is  used  to 
some  extent,  but  its  suckering  is  very  objectionable. 

Quite  a  number  of  the  larger-growing  deciduous  fruit  trees  are 
used  to  some  extent  along  the  exterior  lines  of  orchards  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  inclosure.  The  fig,  the  walnut,  the  chestnut,  seedling 
almonds,  and  apricots  are  especially  commended  for  such  use. 


PROTECTION  FROM  FROSTS 


Seed—  Much  that  has  been  said  »>  Chapter 
will  be  suggestive  to  one  who  desires  to  grow  his  own  shelter 
trees  from  seed.  Trees  from  small  seeds  are  best  grown  in  boxes 
and  in  many  cases,  as  with  eucalyptus  and  cypress  especially,  do 
best  when  put  in  permanent  place  when  quite  small.  Whether  put 
at  once  m  permanent  place,  or  in  nursery,  the  land  should  be  deeply 
worked  and  the  young  plant  well  planted  and  cared  for. 

Cultivation  of  Shelter  Tr,ees.—  If  one  desires  rapid  growth  of 
shelter  trees,  they  should  be  cultivated  the  first  few  years  as 
thoroughly  as  an  orchard.  Much  disappointment  results  from  al- 
lowing roadside  trees  to  shift  for  themselves  in  a  hard,  dry  soil. 
With  such  treatment  the  root  extension  is  naturally  most  rapid  into 
cultivated  orchard  ground,  which  is  undesirable.  Cultivate  and  en- 
rich the  roadside,  and  the  tree  will  grow  chiefly  on  the  waste  land. 
At  the  same  time  the  roadside  will  be  prevented  from  producing 
vast  quantities  of  weed  seed,  to  be  blown  over  the  fence,  and  the 
place  will  have  a  name  for  neatness,  which  is  too  rare  even  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

PROTECTION  FROM  FROSTS 

Much  attention  has  been  given  during  recent  years  to  the  pro- 
tection of  citrus  fruits  as  they  approach  maturity,  and  of  deciduous 
fruits  as  they  are  starting  on  their  growth,  from  occasional  fall  of 
the  mercury  a  few  degrees  below  the  freezing  point.  It  has  been 
shown  by  ample  experience  that  fruits  may  escape  injury  by  a 
temperature  of  28  degrees  if  the  ground  surface  is  wet  and  the  ex- 
posure be  but  of  short  duration.  Fruit  has,  therefore,  been  saved  by 
irrigation,  while  that  over  dry  ground  has  been  nipped  by  the  same 
temperature.  About  the  same  result  has  been  secured  by  checking 
radiation  of  heat  by  covering  the  orchard  or  vineyard  with  a  cloud 
of  smoke.  Both  these  protective  measures  fail  when  the  tempera- 
ture falls  a  few  degrees  below  28  degrees  or  when  such  freezing 
temperature  is  continued  for  several  hours. 

During  recent  years  much  progress  has  been  made  in  preventing 
frost  by  numerous  small  fires  distributed  among  the  trees  to  be  pro- 
tected and  many  devices  to  secure  such  distributed  heat  easily  and 
economically  are  being  enterprisingly  promoted  by  inventors  and 
manufacturers.  The  extreme  low  temperatures  of  January,  1913, 
gave  full  opportunities  for  testing  orchard  heating  appliances  and 
very  striking  success  was  had  with  them.  Comparative  tests  and 
observations  have  been  made  by  the  experts  of  the  University  Ex- 
periment Station,  but  conclusions  are  not  available  at  this  date. 
They  must  be  looked  for  in  Experiment  Station  bulletins,  in  the  pub- 
lications of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau*  and  in  horticultural  journals. 
The  subject  is  clearly  seen  to  be  too  complex  to  admit  of  a  brief 
generalization  except  to  say  that,  when  orchard  heating  is  thorough- 
ly and  economically  done,  it  is  a  most  profitable  investment  and 
should  be  studied  by  all  growers. 

*The  latest  review  of  the  subject  is  to  be  found  in  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No  1096.  on 
"Frost  and  the  Prevention  of  Damages  by  It."  It  can  be  had  free  by  writing  to  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


496 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 


SUSCEPTIBILITY  OF  DECIDUOUS  FRUITS 


The  most  systematic  observations  of  danger  points  in  deciduous 
fruits  have  been  made  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Whitten  and  Professor  W.  L. 
Howard  in  the  course  of  their  work  at  the  Missouri  Experiment 
Station.  Both  these  experts  are  now  connected  with  the  California 
Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley  and  the  local  bearing*  of  their  re- 
searches may  be  had  from  them  by  any  one  interested  in  the  subject. 
Their  work  in  Missouri  involved  artificially  freezing  thousands  of 
peach  buds,  from  which  these  conclusions  were  drawn : 

"Fully  dormant  peach  buds  can  stand  8  or  9°  below  zero,  F.  When  they 
are  appreciably  swollen,  zero  is  the  danger  point.  When  the  buds  are  show- 
ing pink,  they  can  stand  15°  above  zero.  When  the  buds  are  almost  open, 
25°  is  the  danger  point.  When  they  are  newly  opened,  about  26°  would  be 
the  point  of  danger.  When  the  petals  are  beginning  to  fall,  28°  above  zero 
is  dangerous.  When  the  petals  are  off  they  can  stand  30°  above  zero.  When 
the  'shucks'  (calyx  lobes)  are  beginning  to  fall  off,  32°  is  the  danger  point." 
Presumably  these  limits  would  apply  also  to  the  apricot  and  almond. 

Apple  buds,  when  the  petals  begin  to  show,  can  stand  from  10  to  12  de- 
grees of  freezing.  When  the  petals  are  well  emerged,  but  have  not  opened, 
they  can  stand  from  4  to  6  degrees  of  freezing,  but  when  open,  but  not  yet 
fertilized,  there  would  be  great  danger  at  two  or  three  degrees  below  the 
freezing  point.  When  the  flowers  have  been  fertilized,  the  petals  dropped, 
and  the  young  fruit  increasing  in  size,  the  slender  stems  which  support  the 
apples  are  unable  to  resist  a  temperature  lower  than  the  freezing  point.  The 
apples  seem  to  be  more  hardy  than  their  stems,  but  if  the  latter  are  injured  of 
course  the  fruit  also  suffers.  Similar  behavior  may  be  expected  from  the  pear, 
cherry  and  plum. 

Orchard  Frost  Studies. — In  connection  with  the  foregoing  it  is 
interesting  to  note  conclusions  which  Prof.  Fabian  Garcia  draws 
from  several  years'  observation  of  frost  effects  in  the  orchard  of  the 
New  Mexico  Experiment  Station  and  of  which  full  details  are  given 
in  Bulletin  89  of  that  station : 

The  data  recorded  at  the  Station  show  that  the  fruit-buds,  particularly 
those  of  the  peach,  at  their  different  stages  of  development  are  somewhat 
more  resistant  to  cold  than  has  been  reported  by  observers  from  other 
parts  of  the  United  States.  The  data  further  show  that  the  degree  of  re- 
sistabihty  to  frost  varies  with  different  stages  of  growth. 

The  peach  is  least  resistant  when  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  when  the 
calices  are  falling  off.  Contrary  to  the  findings  of  other  observers,  the 
bloom  is  not  the  most  tender  stage  of  growth.  In  other  words,  the  data 
indicate  that  the  newly  set  peach  is  more  delicate  than  the  newly  opened 
blossom. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  a  temperature  of  26  degrees,  lasting  only  a 
short  time,  did  little  or  no  injury  to  the  opening  bud,  newly  opened 
blossom  or  newly  set  fruit  of  the  peach,  native  plum,  pear  and  apple; 
while  one-half  a  degree  below  this  or  25^2  degrees,  although  lasting  only 
a  few  minutes,  killed  a  large  percentage  of  the  opening  buds,  newly  set 
blossoms  and  young  fruits  of  the  peach,  in  a  number  of  cases.  In  other 
words,  26  degrees  was  the  danger  point,  and  any  temperature  below  this 
is  liable  to  do  more  or  less  injury;  depending  on  how  low  it  gets  and 
how  long  it  remains  at  that  temperature.  In  some  cases,  however,  a 
temperature  of  24  degrees  lasting  only  a  short  time  left  about  25%  of 
the  blooms  and  9%  of  the  newly  set  fruits  uninjured. 

Three  important  factors  that  influence  the  amount  of  damage  done  by 

spring  frosts   are:   the   degree   of  killing  temperature,   the   time   of   day  at 

h  it  occurs,  and  the  length  of  time  the  temperature  remains  below  the 

danger  point.    The  longer  the  time  the  killing  temperature  remains  and  the 


DELAYING  BLOOM  OF  FRUIT  TREES  497 

Tected    "  tO  SUndse'  the  greater  the  amount  of  damage  that  should  be 

As  a  rule,  the  killing  temperature  recorded  in  these  experiments  oc- 
nm  the  mommg,  from  one  to  two  hours  before  sunrise.  Whenever 
the  killing  temperature  occurred  this  late  in  the  morning,  and  remained 
below  the  danger  point  until  sunrise,  the  injury  was  great.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  minimum  occurred  at  midnight,  or  a  little  later,  and  then 
gradually  rose  to  the  freezing  point,  so  that  the  frozen  buds,  blooms  and 
truits  had  time  to  thaw  out  slowly  before  sunrise,  the  injury  was  in- 
significant. This  was  the  case  April  5,  1910,  when  at  2:15  A.  M  the  tem- 
perature was  24M  degrees.  By  5:30  it  had  risen  to  31  degrees,  and  the 
injury  done  to  the  Alexander  peaches — which  were  in  full  bloom— was 
estimated  at  2l/2%. 

As  the  young  fruit  develops  it  seems  to  get  more  tender,  until  it  grows 
beyond  a  certain  size,  when  it  seems  to  get  hardier  again;  so  that  the 
later  frosts  which  come  after  the  young  fruits  have  made  quite  a  growth 
are  liable  to  do  more  injury  than  the  same  degree  of  cold  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  season,  when  the  fruits  are  less  developed.  At  this  -stage  of 
growth,  2fr/2  to  27  degrees  would  probably  be  dangerous  to  peaches.  The 
very  late  frost  of  25  degrees  on  May  4,  1912,  killed  practically  all  the 
peaches  in  the  experimental  orchard,  while  24££  degrees  on  April  17,  1910, 
left  about  30%  of  the  Elbertas. 

On  the  whole,  apples  and  pears  seem  to  be  more  resistant  than 
peaches  and  plums,  This  was  strongly  indicated  in  1912,  when  practically 
all  the  peach  crop  was  destroyed  on  May  4,  by  a  temperature  of  25  de- 
grees; while  there  was  a  very  heavy  crop  of  pears  and  apples  harvested 
the  following  fall. 

European  and  native  plums  seem  to  be  slightly  hardier  than  Japanese 
plums  and  apricots,  which  are  the  least  resistant  of  all  the  fruits  included  in 
the  test. 

DELAYING  BLOOM  BY  WHITEWASH 

Another  suggestion  comes  from  Missouri.  It  is  concerning  de- 
laying activity  in  deciduous  trees  by  spraying  with  whitewash  to 
reflect  heat — the  absorption  of  which  by  dark  bark  causes  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  tree  to  begin.  Prof.  J.  C.  Whitten  of  the  University 
Experiment  Station  says : 

Purple  coloring  matter  on  untreated  peach  trees  often  absorbs  heat 
enough  on  a  sunny  cold  day  in  winter  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
trees  25  degrees  or  more  above  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere.  Whit- 
ened trees  remain  at  atmospheric  temperature  or  usually  a  degree  or  so 
below. 

For  ten  consecutive  years  we  whitewashed  diagonal  rows  of  peach  trees 
across  the  Experiment  Station  orchard  just  before  midwinter.  In  this  section 
we  had  five  general  peach  crops  during  that  ten  years  on  untreated  trees; 
on  whitewashed  trees  of  the  same  varieties  we  had  eight  crops.  The  five 
crops  on  untreated  trees  were  not  all  full  crops;  the  eight  crops  on 
treated  trees  were  all  but  two  full  crops.  More  than  double  the  amount 
of  fruit  was  secured  in  ten  years  on  the  whitewashed  trees.  The  treated 
trees  were  anywhere  from  a  few  days  up  to  ten  days  later  in  blooming. 
In  years  when  normal  weather  prevailed  until  sudden  warm  spells  brought 
the  trees  into  bloom  hurriedly,  there  was  only  a  little  difference  in  time 
of  blooming,  and  under  normal  conditions  there  was  a  week  or  more 
difference  in  their  blooming.  This  is  less  important,  however,  than  the 
fact  that  the  whitewashed  trees  began  their  first  starting  into  slight  growth 
on  sunny  days  in  late  winter  fully  six  weeks  later  than  the  naked  trees. 

The  writer  is  not  aware  that  whitewashing  to  delay  bloom  has 
directly  entered  into  California  practice,  but  it  may  have  had  in- 


498  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

directly  much  influence  in  that  direction.  The  free  use  of  lime-sul- 
phur and  Bordeaux  mixture  for  other  purposes  may  have  inci- 
dentally delayed  bloom  while  protecting  the  tree  from  too  early  sap 
flow  which  following  frost  turned  to  ill-account  by  causing  die-back, 
sour  sap  and  for  which  whitewashing  is  being  confidently  prescribed 
as  a  preventive. 


PART  TEN :    MISCELLANEOUS 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 

UTILIZING  FRUIT  WASTES 

Some  progress  has  recently  been  attained  in  the  securing  of 
horticultural  by-products  from  various  kinds  of  fruit  wastes.  There 
has  been  a  considerable  product  of  cream  of  tartar  from  the  pomace 
and  lees  of  the  wineries  in  Central  California.  In  Southern  Cali- 
fornia citric  acid  factories  have  to  some  extent  used  lemons  rejected 
in  packing,  and  some  other  by-products  of  citrus  fruits  are  being 
secured  in  considerable  quantities.  Vinegar  from  wine  and  cider 
are,  of  course,  made  here  as  everywhere  in  fruit  countries. 

There  is  also  a  good  demand  for  fruit  pits.  During  the  last  few 
years  they  have  sold  profitably. 

Comparative  value  of  fruits,  and  hay,  grains,  meals,  etc. 


100  Pounds  Fruit  Equivalent  to  Pounds  of 


FRESH    FRUITS,  ~ 

I 

Apples      34 

Oranges     33 

Pears      40 

Plums       50 

Prunes     46 

Apricots       40 

Nectarines      43 

Figs      SO 

Grapes     • 

Watermelons      22 

Nutmeg    Melons    19 

DRIED    FRUITS. 

|  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Raisfns  *  . .  .* .' .' .' .' .' .' .' ' •'  216   128   153   97   100   108   103   111   103   82 

As  the  demand  was  partly  due  to  war  needs  it  may  not  always 
continue  so  productive,  but  the  Prune  and  Apricot  Growers'  As- 
sociation, in  their  contracts  for  1919,  were  guaranteed  $31.50  a  ton 
for  apricot  pits,  cash  on  delivery,  and  whatever  further  profit  may 
develop  from  their  operations.  The  kernels  are  valuable  for  the  es- 
sential oil  that  is  extracted  from  them,  which  is  used  in  various 
chemical  and  commercial  preparations.  The  meal  resulting  from 


500 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


crushing  and  expressing  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  macaroons  and 
other  confections.  The  shells  are  burned  to  a  charcoal,  which  is 
used  in  the  gas  masks.  Peach  pits  are  burnt  for  the  same  purpose, 
and  the  Peach  Growers'  Association  gathered  quantities  of  them. 

The  disposition  of  waste  fruit  by  growers  will,  however,  lie 
chiefly  in  the  line  of  feeding  animals  unless  denatured  alcohol  enter- 
prises which  are  now  being  exploited  should  consume  it  at  profitable 
prices. 

Waste  Fruits  for  Stock  Feeding. — Refuse  fresh  fruit  of  all  kinds, 
and  especially  refuse  dried  fruits,  have  nutritive  value  which  is  now 
being  systematically  secured.  A  statement  of  the  value  of  cost  of 
handling.  Refuse  fresh  fruits  of  all  kinds,  and  especially  refuse 
dried  fruits  have  nutritive  value  which  should  not  be  lost.  A  state- 
ment of  the  value  of  various  fruits  as  compared  with  various  cattle 
foods  has  been  prepared  by  Prof.  M.  C.  Jaffa,  of  the  University  Ex- 
periment Station,  in  the  adjacent  table. 

A  good  average  of  the  pitted  fresh  fruits  is  represented  by  prunes. 
Using  the  equivalents  in  the  table  above  for  computation,  it  appears 
that  if  wheat  bran  costs  $15  per  ton,  fresh  prunes  would  be  worth  as 
a  substitute  $3  per  ton ;  likewise,  if  cottonseed  meal  is  selling  for  $21 
per  ton,  the  prune  value  would  be  about  $2.75.  At  the  market  price 
of  oat  hay,  the  figures  for  fresh  prunes  should  be  nearly  $3  per  ton. 

A  practical  demonstration  of  feeding  fresh  cull  peaches  to  hogs 
was  made  by  a  Sutter  County  grower.  About  110  head  of  hogs, 
young  and  old,  were  kept  for  fattening  on  peaches.  A  sack  of  bar- 
ley was  fed  twice  a  week  and  a  few  small  potatoes  bought  at  25 
cents  per  sack.  About  25  boxes  of  peaches  twice  a  day  was  the 
hogs'  capacity.  The  grower's  judgment  was  that  the  hogs  fed  on 
fresh  peaches  made  such  satisfactory  gains  that  he  hauled  twenty 
tons  a  mile  and  a  half  from  another  orchard  to  feed  them. 

It  is  also  claimed  that  hogs  will  leave  milk  and  cocoanut  meal  to 
eat  cull  oranges,  but  whether  for  food  or  tonic  does  not  appear. 

The  dried  fruits  naturally  rank  far  above  the  fresh  material  as 
stock  feed.  Of  the  dried  fruits  represented  in  the  table,  raisins  lead 
in  food  value ;  containing  one  and  one-fourth  to  one  and  one-half 
times  the  nutritive  ingredients  of  alfalfa  and  oat  hays,  respectively ; 
100  pounds  of  the  fruit  being  practically  equal  to  the  same  quantity 
of  grain,  but  to  only  eighty-two  and  fifty-nine  pounds  respectively 
of  rice  bran  and  cottonseed  meal. 

Dried  apricots  rank  slightly  lower  than  raisins,  because  they  con- 
tain more  water.  Apricots  are,  however,  of  equal  value  as  a  feeding 
stuff,  with  wheat  bran  and  almond  hulls  about  half  as  much  as 
alfalfa  hay,  bran  or  middlings. 

Concerning  the  feeding  of  raisins  to  hogs,  the  following  state- 
ments are  made :  "With  raisins  selling  at  2*/2  cents  per  pound  they 
are  much  cheaper  food  for  hogs  than  corn  or  barley.  Raisins  give 
the  hog  a  hard,  sweet  meat  and  are  much  sought  after  by  the  butch- 
ers. Care  must,  however,  be  exercised  in  feeding  raisins  to  hogs, 
as  they  are  full  of  sugar,  and  consequently  too  rich  when  fed  alone. 
They  heat  the  animal  up  so  that  the  hogs  lose  flesh  and  will  kill 
the  little  pigs  of  a  farrowing  sow.  For  fall  and  winter  feeding, 


FRUIT   WASTES   FOR   STOCK-FEEDING  5Q1 

pumpkins,  citrons  and  alfalfa  are  the  best  feed  to  give  the  hogs  in 
conjunction  with  the  raisins,  but  in  the  spring  a  change  is  found 
very  beneficial. 

Many  people  feeding  raisins  to  hogs  are  not  having  the  success 
they  should  because  they  overfeed  their  porkers.  A  pound  of 
raisins  a  day  is  ample  to  start  in  with.  After  the  system  of  the  hog 
has  become  accustomed  to  the  raisins  the  amount  can  be  increased 
so  that  the  last  three  weeks  each  hog  should  get  about  four  pounds 
of  raisins  a  day.  The  last  ten  days,  when  the  finishing  touches  are 
being  put  on,  the  hogs  should  be  allowed  all  they  can  get." 

Cull  and  second-crop  raisins  beat  barley,  pound  for  pound,  as 
a  feed  for  work  mules,  according  to  O.  Peterson  of  the  W.  M.  Gifnn 
vineyard  near  Dinuba,  who  fed  sixteen  mules  nothing  but  a  gallon 
a  feed  twice  per  day  of  raisins  with  alfalfa  hay.  The  mules  had 
received  practically  nothing  else  for  years,  says  Mr.  Peterson,  and 
were  reported  "hog  fat,"  showing  that  their  appetites  do  not  fail  on 
the  fruit.  Stems  and  all  are  fed,  and  a  few  moldy  raisins  in  the  lot 
do  not  seem  to  signify. 

A  San  Joaquin  County  grower  reported  feeding  dried  cull  To- 
kays. For  five  years  he  has  dried  all  the  culls  he  needed  from  the 
early  pickings.  Horses,  cows  and  calves  eat  them,  stems  and  all,  and 
he  considers  these  dried  grapes  at  least  equal  in  feed  value  to  barley. 

Wine  grapes  rich  in  sugar  have  been  cheaply  dried  on  the  ground 
and  used  to  advantage  for  hog  feed.  One  grower  says  that  having 
more  than  the  hogs  required,  grapes  were  fed  to  the  horses :  "The 
horses  soon  got  a  taste  for  them  and  seemed  to  thrive  well  on  the 
new  diet  and  in  a  short  time  became  fat  and  sleek,  while  they  were 
being  worked  as  hard  as  ever,  and  we  continued  to  feed  them  dried 
grapes  and  have  kept  it  up  for  a  whole  year.  The  effect  seems  to 
have  made  the  old  horses  five  years  younger,  both  in  looks  and  in 
ability  to  work.  The  hogs  fattened  up  so  quickly  that  we  thought 
the  pork  would  be  soft  and  sloppy,  but  to  our  surprise,  we  never  had 
better  bacon  and  ham  than  was  produced  from  these  grape-fed  pork- 
ers. It  was  not  only  solid,  but  sweet  and  tender." 

Prune-fed  and  Taisin-fed  pork  is  indeed  an  accomplished  fact  in 
California.  As  to  the  acceptability  of  the  fruit  diet  to  the  hog,  what 
could  be  more  pertinent  and  more  fitting  appendix  to  this  treatise 
than  this  little  tale?  It  is  stated  that  Mr.  Balaam,  of  Farmersville, 
used  to  have  a  pet  pig  that  ran  under  the  fig  trees  near  the  house. 
When  the  fruit  began  to  drop,  he  ate  figs  and  rested  in  the  shade 
until  he  finally  grew  too  fat  to  move  about  to  gather  the  sweet 
morsels.  By  this  time  his  owner  became  so  much  interested  in  the 
case  as  to  carry  him  his  figs  regularly  three  times  daily.  Gradually 
he  grew  so  fat  that  his  eyes  closed  entirely,  but  still  he  ate  figs  in 
contentment  and  delight. 


PLATE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Plate          I.    California  homes  submerged  in  a  sea  of  prune 

blossoms Frontispiece 

Opposite  Page 
II.    Ground  view  of  good  job  of  fruit-thinning 32 

III.  Deep  plowing  in  young  orchard 33 

IV.  Cement  ditches  and  irrigation  by  check  system 96 

V.    A  good  start  toward  an  apple  orchard 97 

VI.  Typical  aspect  of  a  bearing  apricot  orchard 128 

VII.  Young  cherry  orchard  in  good  form 129 

VIII.  Bearing  peach  orchard  in  an  irrigated  district 224 

IX.  Profuse  bearing  of  vine  by  long  pruning 225 

X.  Prize  Emperor  Vineyard  in  Tulare  County 256 

XI.  The  Sevillano  olive  as  grown  in  Tehama  County 257 

XII.  View  in  bearing  orange  orchard 384 

XIII.  The  Mammoth   Blackberry 385 

XIV.  The  Loganberry  416 

XV.  California  sunshine  evaporator  with  accessory  buildings 417 


INDEX 


Page 

Acorns,  edible 40 

Alfalfa  in  orchard 133 

Alkaline  soils 34 

water  for  irrigation 192 

Alligator  Pear 324 

Almond,  The 433 

growing  from  seed 68 

hulling  and  bleaching 436 

pollination 437 

propagation 433 

pruning 435 

situations  and  soils 434 

wild 40 

varieties 199, 437 

Animals,  injurious 490 

Apple  in  California 198 

aphis,  resistant 201 

aphis,  woolly 474 

drying 460 

exposures  for 201 

gathering 206 

irrigation 295 

localities  for 198 

mildew 486 

mission 42 

native  crab 36 

planting  distance 203 

picking  and  packing 207 

pollination 209 

propagation 202 

pruning 203 

scab  or  smut 202 

second  crop 200 

seedlings,  growing 61 

shipping 208 

soils  for 201 

storehouse  for 206 

summer  and  fall 208 

thinning 205 

varieties,  most  popular 196 

when  to  pick 206 

winter 208, 214 

worm 479 

varieties 209 

Apricot 213 

climatic  requirements 214 

diseases  of 222 

distances  for 217 

drying 461 

exposures  for 214 

growing  seedlings 65 

irrigation 221 

localities  for 214 

mission 42 

old  trees 214 

on  almond  root 216 

planting 217 

.  218 


shot-hole  fungus 220 


Page 
Apricot — continued 

stocks  and  soils  for 215 

thinning 220 

varieties ' .'  223 

Army  worms 469 

Atmospheric  humidity '.  21 

Avocado 324 

Banana,  The 393 

Barberry,  native 39 

Bear  berry 39 

Bergamot 393 

Berries  and  currants 409 

Berries,  various  wild 38 

Birds,  poisoning 492 

Blackberry,  The 410 

cultivation 411 

hybrids 425 

distances  for 411 

irrigating 413 

longevity  of 413 

propagation 410 

pruning 412, 416 

wild 38 

varieties 414 

Blasting  for  planting 94 

Bordeaux  Mixture 486 

Borers 478 

Brush,  cutting  to  kill 59 

Budding,  common  method 71 

June 72 

over  old  trees 80 

spring 73 

Bud,  cutting  to  a 123 

Buds,  dormant 79 

Buffalo  berry 39 

Cactus  fruits 40 

Canker  worms 470 

Canned  fruit  product 453 

Canning  industry 453 

Caterpillars 470 

Chain  for  laying  out 93 

Chamisal  and  chaparral 57 

Charcoal  making 58 

Cherimoyer 399 

Cherry 226 

delayed  fruiting  of 228 

distances  for 230 

exposures  for 229 

gum  disease 234 

graftingthe 233 

localities  for 229 

moisture  requirements 233 

old  trees 226 

pests  and  diseases 233 

pollination 229 

pruning  the 231 

seedlings,  growing 64 


504 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW    THEM 


Page 
Cherry — continued 

slug 471 

soils  for  the 227 

stocks  for  the 230 

wild 37 

varieties 199,232 

Chestnut,  The 450 

seedlings 68 

wild 40 

Choco  or  Chayota 400 

Citron,  The 397 

Clearing  land  for  fruit 55 

brushy 56,59 

gradual 55 

stump  puller 56,  58 

with  powder 56 

time  to  cut  to  kill 59 

Climate,  divisions  of  California 11 

of  California,  characteristics  of . . .  .9, 18 

of  California,  why  mild 10, 18 

foothill 15 

mountain 16 

coast 13 

valley 14 

value  of 23 

Cloudiness,  east  and  west 21 

Coast  pests  and  diseases 14 

Codlin  moth 479 

Corner,  to  find  true 88 

Cover  crops 133 

Cranberries 415 

wild 39 

Crops  between  trees  or  vines 133 

Cultivation 129 

adequate 132, 141 

hillside 136 

methods  of 134 

purposes  of 130 

shallow,  results  of 131 

summer 136, 140 

to  retain  moisture 130 

without  plowing 139 

Currants 419 

culture  of 420 

regions  for 419 

varieties  grown 421 

wild 38 

Custard  apple 399 

Cuttings,  fruit  trees  from 67 

Cutworms 469 

Dates 327 

at  the  missions 327 

bearing  age  of 330 

bearing  in  Solano  County 327 

blooming  of 330 

first  fruit 327 

from  seed 329 

from  suckers 329 

propagation  of 330 

requirements  of 328 

transplanting 329 

Dewberry 415 

Diabroticas 480 


Die-back 488 

Diseases  of  trees  and  vines 486 

Dormant  buds 79 

Drainage  desirable 60,  191 

Dried  fruits  (see  Fruits) 455 

covering 474 

cutting  sheds 458 

dipping ^ 460 

drying  floors 458 

grading  and  cleaning .457,  460 

packing 460 

product  of 455 

sulphuring 459 

sweating 460 

trays  for 457 

worm 474 

Elderberries 37 

Evaporated  fruits 466 

Evaporator,  sunshine 466 

Feijoa  Sellowiana 401 

Fertilization,  science  of 142 

analyses  not  guide  to 146 

essential  elements 145 

plant  food,  "available" 147 

specific  effects 149 

substances  for 152 

use  of 154 

value  of  organic 157 

Fertilizers  in  California 141 

caution  in  use  of 156 

for  trees  and  vines 143 

lime  and  gypsum 155 

methods  of  applying 158 

value  of  green ,  157 

when  necessary 150 

sources  of  nitrogen 152 

sources  of  phosphoric  acid 152 

sources  of  potash 152 

waste  products  for 158 

Fig...                                                  .  333 


,ring  age 331 

budding 336 

caprification 339 

drying 461 

foes  of. 340 

from  cuttings 335 

from  seeds 337 

grafting 336 

mission 42 

planting  and  pruning 341 

regions  for 334 

size  of  old  trees 333 

soils  for 334 

varieties 341 

Filbert  growing 451 

wild 40 

Frosts,  protection  from 493 

Fruit,  cultivation 130 

Fruit  gardens,  early 47 

Fruit  industries,  influence  of 52 

Fruit  industries,  outlook  of 53 

Fruit  interest,  extent  of 51 


INDEX 


505 


Fruit  products,  value  of 

Fruit  shipments,  eastern 51 

Fruit,  soil  ingredients  of ]    '  14, 

Fruit  thinning '  127 

Fruit  tree  acreage 5 

Fruit  trees,  dwarf .'v*47  2fl 

Fruits,  California  leadership  in. ...     '   4< 

Fruits,  drying .  '  451 

drying  floors 45! 

graders.  . .'         ]  450 

grafted,  first  in  California 46 

locations  for j< 

value  as  stock  food 499 

Fruits,  commercial  varieties 19£ 

Fruits,  locations  for 12 

Fruits,  mission 42 

Fruits,  native '  ]  3( 

Fruits,  Russian 45 

Fruits  used  by  canners . 


40 
421 


Goat  nut,  or  jajoba 

Gooseberry,  The ^x 

culture  of 422 

requirements  of ]  42] 

varieties 422 

wild [     3£ 

Gophers,  killing 49C 

Graft,  time  to 82 

Grafting ."'.'.'.'     72 

bark 84 

bridge 82 

cleft 76 

old  trees ....',     83 

root 76 

side 76 

time  for 83 

top 81 

whip 76 

wax  for 75 

waxed  bands 76 

Grafts,  planting  out 76 

Granadilla 402 

Grape,  area  of 51, 288 

budding 296 

conditions  of  ripening 19 

dibbles  for  planting 302 

diseases  of 315 

distance 301 

Eastern 320 

from  cuttings 292 

from  layers 292 

from  seed 292 

frost  injuries 314 

grafting 297 

industry 288 

length  of  season 290 

mildew 486 

mission 42,  44 

number  per  acre 301 

planting  devices 302 

planting  in  rows 301 

products 289 

pruning 305 


Grape-^-continued 

pruning,  long 

pruning,  short 

resistant 

rooting  in  nursery 

shipping 

soils  for 

stakes,  twine,  etc 

suckering 

sulphuring 

summer  pruning 

syrup 

topping 

trellising 

varieties 

wild 

Grape  fruit  or  pomelo. . . 
Grasshoppers,  killing.  .  . 
Growing  season,  long .  .  . 

Guava,  The 

Gummosis 

Gypsum,  uses  of .  . 


311 

306 

300 

296 

291 

290 

305 

317 

476 

....310,313 

463 

309 

312 

317 

37 

387 

468 

23 

400 

486 

145 

Hardpan,  breaking  up 85, 94 

Heat,  deficient  on  coast 13 

importance  of 18 

summer,  records  of 19 

Heeling  in  young  trees 99 

Hexagonal  planting 91, 92 

Hillside,  rows  on 90 

use  of  triangle  on 93 

Holes  for  trees 94, 95 

Huckleberries,  wild 39 

Humidity,  atmospheric 21 

deficient 24 

east  and  west 22 

excessive 24 

[nsects,  injurious 468 

[nsects,  remedies 482 

[irrigation 157 

alkali  water 192 

ditches 185 

drainage  and 194 

evils  of  excessive 161 

flooding 170 

for  citrus  fruits 164 

for  deciduous  fruits 164 

flume  building  for 184 

hillside 176,180 

how  much 157, 159 

implements  for 172 

in  early  days 48 

in  basins 175 

in  checks 170 

in  furrows 173, 177, 182 

leveling  for 187 

locating  contour  lines 187 

measurement  of  water 190 

methods  of 170 

nursery 69 

objections  answered 161 

overhead 185 

relation  to  cultivation 166 


506 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:      HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 


Page 


Irrigation—  continued 

relation  to  rainfall  ...............  J| 

relation  to  soil  ..................  165 

relation  to  tillage  ................  166 

reservoirs,  small  .................  188 

running  ditches  for  ..............  185 

subirrigation  ....................  1 

suggestions  for  ..................  192 

summer  .....................  170,179 

taken  from  ditches  ..............  186 

wells  and  pumps  for  .............  190 

wheels  for  ......................  189 

when  desirable  ...............  160,  164 

winter  .........................  168 

Jajoba  ...........................  401 

Jujube  of  commerce  ...............  403 

Jujube,  native  ....................  40 

June  buds  ........................  79 

Kai  apple  ........................  408 

Laying  out  land  for  fruit  ...........  86 

Leaf  lice  .........................  474 

Lemon,  The  ......................  390 

curing  .........................  395 

picking  ........................  396 

planting  and  pruning  ............  389 

propagation  .....  .............  70,  392 

situations  and  soils  for  ...........  391 

varieties  .......................  396 

Lemon  berry  .....................  40 

Lice,  leaf  .........................  474 

Lime,  The  ........................  397 

Loganberry  .......................  425 

Loquat,  The  ......................  403 

Manure  ..........................  157 

Manuring  at  planting  ..............  103 

Manzanita  berries  .................  39 

Marls  ............................  145 

Measuring  wire  ...................  88 

Melon  Shrub  .....................  406 

Melon  tree  .......................  407 

Mildew  ..........................  486 

Miner's  inch  ......................  190 

Mission  fruits  .....................  42 

Moisture  lost  by  weed  growth  ......  130 

retained  by  cultivation  ...........  128 

Morning  Glory,  killing  .............  138 

Moss,  removing  ...................  487 

Mulberry,  The  ....................  423 

Mulching,  after  planting  ...........  105 

Mulching  as  substitute  for  cultivation  142 

Nectarine  ........................  256 

compared  with  peach  ............  256 

dried  .......................  256,462 

future  of  .......................  257 

varieties  .......................  257 

Nitrogen  for  fruits  .................  152 

Nursery  ..........................  61 

budding  and  grafting  ............  70 

classes  of  nursery  stock  ..........  79 

growing  seedlings  ................  63 

imported  seedlings  ...............  67 

irrigation  .......................  69 

laying  out  and  planting  ..........  68 


Nursery — continued  Page 

pruning  in 78 

selection  of  site  for 62 

soil,  preparation  of 63 

soil,  proper  for 61 

trees,  ages  of 80,  81 

trees,  digging 98 

trees,  disinfecting 472 

trees,  selecting *. 97 

when  to  plant 100 

Nuts,  growing  in  California 433 

growing  from  seed 66 

wild 40 

Olives 344 

at  old  missions 43 

budding 348 

canning 357 

climate  for 344 

from  cuttings 345 

from  seed 345 

grafting 349 

localities  for 339 

oil  making 354 

planting 351 

preferred  varieties 352 

pruning 351 

pickling. . 357 

small  cuttings 347 

soils  for 345 

truncheons 347 

twig  borer 478 

wild 40 

varieties 199,  357 

Orange 359 

all  the  year  from  California 362 

budding  and  grafting 371 

California  regions  discussed 363 

conditions  for  citrus  fruits 365 

diseases 382 

distances  for 371 

from  cuttings 70, 367 

from  layers 367 

from  seed 367 

in  Central  California 364 

in  Southern  California 364 

mission 42 

nursery 369 

outlook 365 

planting  in  orchard 372 

product 53,  359 

propagation 368 

pruning 376 

ripening  first  at  the  north 364 

seedlings,  care  of 372 

situations  and  soils  f or 366 

superiority  of  semi-tropical 362 

transplanting 373 

world's  industry 359 

varieties 200,383 

Orchard  land,  preparation  of 85 

laying  out  in  squares 88 

alternating  squares 89 

equilateral  triangles 89 

measure  and  sight 87 

measuring  wire 87 


INDEX 


Orchard  land — continued 

quincunx  planting 90 

time  for  planting 100 

Oregon  grape 39 

Oso  berry 37 

Palm  nuts 40 

Peach 238 

age  at  planting ;.,;  243 

approved  lists  of 199 

blight 249 

curl-leaf 249 

diseases 249 

distance  in  planting 243 

dormant  buds 244 

drying 462 

early  bearing 238 

grafting .  : 248 

growing  season  of 23 

irrigation 248 

localities  for 240 

longevity  of 238 

mildew 248 

mission 42 

moth 478 

"peach  almond" 243 

pitting  clings 462 

propagation 242 

pruning 116,  239,  245 

renewal  by  cutting  back 239 

root  borer 478 

seedlings 65 

soils  for 241 

stocks  for 243 

thinning 125,  247 

varieties 199, 250 

Peanut  growing 451 

Pear 259 

Bartlett,  why  popular 260 

blight 262,  265 

characteristics  in  California 259 

diseases 259 

distances  for 257 

drying 461 

dwarf 263 

for  alkali  soil 255 

gathering  and  ripening 268 

irrigation 265 

largest  on  record 259 

localities  for 260 

mission 42 

on  quince  stock 262 

pollination 268 

propagation  of 262 

pruning 264 

seedlings,  growing 64 

slug 471 

soils  for •. 262 

storing  and  ripening 267 

thinning 265 

varieties 199, 269 

Pecan,  The 452 

Persimmon,  Japanese 404 

Persimmon,  Virginian 404 

Persimmon,  curing 405 

Phenomenal  berry 425 


507 

Phosphates 152 

Phylloxera 474 

PJAeapple , , , .  405 

Pine  nuts 40 

Pioneers,  planting  by 46 

Pistachio,  The 452 

Planting,  conditions  favoring 85 

bar  for  setting % 

cutting  back  after 105, 112 

depth  of 103 

digging  holes  for '.[     94 

laying  off  for 87,   89 

mulching 104 

operation  of 101 

preparing  land  for 85 

speed  in 103 

time  for 100 

triangular  tree-setter 96 

use  of  manure 103 

use  of  water 102 

Plow,  laying  off  with 88 

Plowing,  devices  for 132 

orchard  and  vineyard 133 

on  hillside 134 

to  break  hardpan 85 

Plums  and  prunes 272 

California  false 37 

confusion  in  names 278 

definition  of  a  prune 272 

drying 463 

from  the  root 274 

grafting 276 

in  Southern  California 273 

length  of  season 272 

localities  for 272 

mission 43 

myrobalan 274 

planting 275 

pollination 281 

propagation 273 

pruning  the 275 

seedlings 65 

stocks  and  soils 273 

thinning 281 

varieties 199,  281 

wild 36 

Plumcot,  The 278 

Pomegranate,  The 43,  406 

Pomelo 387 

varieties 200,387 

Popular  fruit  varieties 197 

Potash 143 

Powder  for  planting 94 

Prickly  pear 41, 407 

Prune  curing 46J 

Pruning 107 

bearing  trees 117 

California  style 110 

effects  of 123 

gathering  brush 126 

influenced  by  location 107 

low,  advantages  of 108, 109 

nursery 78 

prunings  as  fertilizer 1 

purposes  of 108 


508 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:     HOW   TO    GROW   THEM 


Pruning — continued  Page 

times  for 121 

tools 125 

to  renew  old  trees 123 

vase  form,  securing 115 

wounds,  covering 126 

Quince 286 

demand  for 286 

propagation 286 

pruning 286 

soils  for 287 

varieties 287 

Quincunx  planting 90 

Rabbits,  destroying 490 

poisons  for 491 

smears  for 490 

Rainfall,  records  of 12 

Rainfall  or  irrigation 163 

Raisin  making 465 

Raspberry,  The 423 

black-caps 425 

hybrids 426 

pruning 424 

varieties,  popular 425 

wild 38 

Red  spider 473 

Root  rot 488 

Root-knots 488 

Russian  introduction  of  fruits 45 

Salal.... 39 

Salmon  berry 38 

Sapota,  white 407 

Scale  insects 47$ 

Scions,  care  of 73 

selection  of 73 

Sea  Fig 40 

Seed,  growing  trees  from 65 

Seedlings,  imported 67 

Septuple,  laying  off 89 

Service  Berry 39 

Soils  for  fruits 25 

adobe 33 

alkali 34 

alluvial 31 

bed-rock  or  hard-pan 34 

blasting 94 

characteristics  of  California 26 

classification  of 28 

clay ]  33 

defective 33 

desert 30 

examination  of 35 

granitic 32 

loams 28,29,32 

mesa 30 

organic  matter 157 

plains 29 

red 32 

river  bottom 31 

sedimentary  or  silty . 31 

shallow  blasting 94 

Sour  sap '  452 

Spider,  red '.'.'.'.'.'.  473 

Squares,  laying  off  in '.  87 

bquirrels,  destroying 491 


Stock,  fruit  as  food  for 499 

Strawberry 426 

care  of 429 

continuous  bearing 430 

laying  out  for 427 

planting 429 

propagation 427 

situations  and  soils ....'; 426 

varieties,  popular 200, 431 

wild 38 

Strawberry  tree 406 

Summer  pruning 120 

Sunburn,  protection  from 105 

Sunlight,  value  of  direct 20 

Sunshine,  evaporating 452 

records  of 21 

Temperature,  lowest 18 

records  of 18 

Thinning  fruit 125 

Thrips 472 

Tomato,  tree 408 

Toyon 40 

Trees,  activity  and  rest  of 17 

heeling  in 99 

selecting 97 

Tree-setters 96 

Triangle  for  laying  out 92 

Tuna  fruit 41 

Tussock  moth 471 

Varieties,  chiefly  planted 194, 196 

Vine  hoppers 473 

Vine-puller 61 

Vineyard — see  Grape 

Walnut,  black 40 

Walnut,  English 439 

bacteriosis  or  blight 483 

bleaching 447 

blossoms  of 446 

budding 441 

culture  and  soils 440 

gathering  and  drying 446 

grafting. . 441 

growing  seedlings 68 

product 51,  439 

propagation  and  planting 441 

pruning 445 

soils 440 

varieties 200, 447 

wild 40 

Water,  measurements 190 

Wax,  grafting ^ . . . .  75 

Weed  killing  by  cultivation 141 

Weeds,  evaporation  by 132 

Weir  measurement 192 

What  fruits  to  plant 198 

Whitewash  against  sunburn 105 

Whitewash  to  delay  bloom 497 

Wild  fruits  of  California 36 

Windbreaks 493 

Winter-killing  unknown 18 

Wire,  measuring 87 

Woolly  aphis 474 

Wounds,  covering 126 

Yellow  jackets,  killing 480 


FEB    18  1934 


AUG 
SEP 

OCT  41! 


JAN  14  193) 


R1AR 


7  88 


YC  62C64 


192.1 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


